6. APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1:
Giant clam indentification drawings and map of worldwide distribution. From ‘Giant Clam Identification’ - IUCN, for CITES II listing; prepared for Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service for CITES II by R.D. Braley, 1987.

Scientific Synonyms: (*Note: none of the following have preference over the given species names)

1. Chama gigas Linnaeus 1758
   Tridacna mutica Lamarck 1819

2. Tridacna serrifera Lamarck 1819
   Tridacna obesa Sowerby 1899
   Persikima whitleyi Iredale 1937

3. Recognised generally under the name squamosa since described

4. Tridacna elongata Lamarck 1819
   Tridacna compressa Reeve 1862

5. Tridacna ferruginea Reeve 1862
   Tridacna cumingii Reeve 1862
   Chametrachea scapha ‘Meuschen’ Mörch 1853

6. Chama hippopus Linnaeus 1758
   Hippopus maculatus Lamarck 1801
   Hippopus brassica Bosc 1801

7. no synonym

Characteristics:

1 Tridacna gigas (Figs. A-D)
Adults: (largest species of giant clam) Shell length to 137 cm. Equilateral valves, umbos central. Valves very heavy (300 kg +) and thick in large specimens. Valve margins undulate and fan-shaped in outline with 4-5 generally sharply pointed extremities of rib interstices. Hinge line longer than half the shell length. Byssal orifice small to nearly closed. Mantle tissue yellow-brown with numerous small circular blue-green pigments surrounding hyaline organs or eyes.

Juveniles:
Valves moderately thin even in larger juveniles. Small clams rare in nature but now hatchery-reared. Small shells have projecting scales and shell colours of yellow and white. Cultured juveniles are relatively fast growing.

2 Tridacna derasa (Figs. E-G)
Adults:
Second largest species of giant clam. Shell length to 60 cm. Valves heavy and very thick at umbos. Valve margins undulate with 6-7 rounded extremities of rib interstices. Byssal orifice narrow and short and hinge line usually longer than half the shell length. Mantle tissue colourful with many patterns, often brown, turquoise blue and green.

Juveniles:
Uncommon in nature. Hatchery-reared juveniles have spiny sculpture which is later lost and shells are white. Slow-growing on the Great Barrier Reef but relatively fast-growing from Palau.

3 Tridacna squamosa (Figs. H-J)
Adults:
Shell length up to 41 cm. Valves moderately thick and heavy. Valve margins undulate with 4-6 pointed to bluntly rounded, crenulated extremities of rib interstices. Shell equilateral. Hinge line half of shell length. Broad leaf-like projecting scales on primary folds of ribs very distinquishing characteristic. Medium size to small byssal orifice (weak attachment to substratum by byssus). Mantle colour patterns quite variable but generally large irregular blotches of colour are present.

Juveniles:
Moderately uncommon in nature. Projecting scales also a distinquishing feature as in adults. Hatchery-reared juveniles are moderately fast growing.

4 Tridacna maxima (Figs. K-M)
Adults:
Shell length up to 35 cm. Valves heavy and thick. Valve margins undulate with about 5 generally sharply triangular extremities of rib interstices. Hinge line less than half of shell length. Inequilateral valves are elongate to short-obtuse-triangular. Raised external valve sculpture. Large byssal orifice but relatively shorter than T. crocea. Shell can be quite variable as well as mantle colour and pattern. Most closely related to T. crocea.

Juveniles:
Moderately common in nature. Juveniles have been hatchery-reared but are slow growing.

5 Tridacna crocea (Figs. N-P)
Adults:
Shell length to 15 cm (smallest species). Valves moderately heavy and thick. Valve margins undulate with 4-5 bluntly triangular extremities of rib interstices. Hinge line less than half of shell length. Shell triangular-ovate in outline. Low raised external valve sculpture worn smooth toward umbos (smooth area encased in coral pockets burrowed out by the clam). Large byssal orifice. Mantle colour and patterns variable as with T. maxima.

Juveniles:
Moderately common in nature. Few hatchery-reared juveniles have been produced.

6 Hippopus hippopus (Figs. Q-S)
Adults:
Shell length to 40 cm and weighing up to 12.9 kg; an elongate triangular shape. Thick, heavy valves with coloured strawberry blotches in irregular bands. Valve margins undulate with 8-12 squarish extremities of rib interstices. The byssal orifice closed tightly in adults. Mantle yellow-brown with green or gray lines; dull in comparison with the genus Tridacna.

Juveniles:
Shell with small projections and byssus present along with narrow byssal orifice. Uncommon in nature but hatchery-reared juveniles are moderately fast growing.

7 Hippopus porcellanus (Figs. T-V)
Adults:
Shell length up to 35 cm; a globose shape. Valves not as thick or heavy as H. hippopus in clams less than 20 cm, and with scattered or concentric weak strawberry blotches. Valve margins undulate with 8-9 squarish extremities of rib interstices. Hinge line usually greater than half the shell length. Byssal orifice opening very slight. Mantle colour similar to H. hippopus.

Juveniles:
Extremely rare, as yet unknown in nature. Recent larval culture in the Philippines (1986) have produced some juveniles.

Distribution:

T. gigas                   
T. derasa  - - - - - -

T. squamosa             
T. crocea       . . . . . . . . .
T. maxima      - - - - - - -

H. hippopus                     
H. porcellanus  - - - - - -

Population:

The largest two species, T. gigas and T. derasa, exist in undisturbed state only on some reefs of Australia's Great Barrier Reef. However, even here many northern and outer-shelf reefs have been subject to poaching by Asian fishermen, especially prior to 1980. On undisturbed high density (greater than 30 per ha) reefs, adults may be found in a clumped spatial distribution. This clumping may be essential to a high rate of reproductive success in populations of these largest two species. Smaller species have not been studied enough to make a statement but T. maxima, T. crocea, and H. hippopus are generally well-represented withing their ranges where fishing pressure has not been excessive.

Mariculture and Trade:

Small-scale laboratory-rearing of tridacnid larvae took place in the early-mid 1970s and a more concerted effort at mass-rearing began in the early 1980s. Continued improvement of culture techniques for greater production are taking place on the north-central Creat Barrier Reef (Australia), Palau (W. Caroline Islands), Philippines, Papua New Guinea and several Pacific Micronesian Islands. Trade of 2–5 year old juveniles and their shells are envisaged. Since natural recruitment of juveniles of this age is uncommon to rare for the larger species, trade of such clams would be easier to control by customs officials.

Poaching of giant clam adductor muscle has caused a rapid decline in Indo-Pacific populations of the two largest species. The illegal trade in adductor muscle has been estimated at $US 100 million but this is not easily verified. The best estimate of the value of adductor muscle is about $US 20– 25/kg (1986). The promotion of mariculture will help curb the poaching.

Intraspecific variation:

Shell shape may vary slightly but it is not known if this has a genetic basis or is a response to specific environmental conditions. Mantle colouration and patterns vary greatly within species. The least variation in the mantle exists in T. gigas, H. hippopus, and H. porcellanus.

APPENDIX 2:
Village Questionaire, Tokelau Giant Clam Stock Survey and Investigation of Pearl Oyster. [translation in Tokelauan]

Question at least 5 males and females in each of three age groups - Old age (50+), Middle Age (30–50), Young (teenage-30) - for each Atoll island group.

1. How often do you eat giant clams (Daily, weekly, etc.)? takivaiaho, etc.)?]

2. Do you collect clams yourself or get them from other people? [E fagota lava e koe pe fagota mai eni e tahi tino?]

3. What is the approximate size of most clams used for food? [Hea te lalahi o na fahua e mahani fakaaoga ke kai?]

4. In your view, are clams becoming scarce? Can you give examples of past changes in availability of clams for food? [Tau kikila kua mauagata na fahua (fakatuha kina aho kua teka mana aho nei)? Ei ei ni fakatakitakiga e mafai ke taku mai ai na huiga i te maua o na fahua kafai ka kikila ki na aho kua teka?]

5. Have you ever seen the larger species of clams - T. qiqas, T. derasa, & H. hippopus in Tokelau? If so, where and when? Any dead shells to view? [Na kua ke kitea na itukaiga fahua lalahi atu e ve ko te - T. qiqas, T. derasa, & H. hippopus i loto i Tokelau? Kafai na ke kitea, ko fea ma anafea? Ei ei ni atigi fahua vena e ke mafaia oi fakahino mai?]

6. Do you now have, or in the customary past, any special times of the year, special reef areas, or general taboos to taking clams for food? [Ei ei he vaitaimi patino o te tauhaga pe ni kogafenua fakapitoa ei na akau, pe ni tulafono foki e tukutapula ai te fagotagia ote fahua ke kai?]

7. Do you see a need to restrict fishing of giant clams to preserve the stocks? Do you think the reduction in adult clams stocks on the reef affects the number of clams on the reef in future? [Tau kikila e tatau ke fakatulafono te fagotagia ote fahua taka mate fahua nao kae ke mafai ke toe fakalelei te numela e o'ola nei? Tau kikila ei na afaina te numela o na fahua i te lumanaki kafai e fagota pea ma fakataigolegia na fahua matutua?]

8. Would laws restricting fishing of giant clams be gradually accepted, taken with offense, or accepted as law, but not in practice? [Ei na mafai nei ke talia e na tino ni tulafono ke fakataigolea ai te fagotagia ote fahua (taka)? Pe ina talia oi oti kae he mafai ke fakatino?]

9. Would you like to see the Government of Tokelau start experiments on culturing of clams? Would it be safe to leave small clams in underwater cages for experiments or would some people take the clams and destroy the experiments? [E fia kikila nei koe kae kamata e te malo o Tokelau ni fakatakitakiga ke toe fakatupulahia te fahua? Ei na haogalemu nei kafai e tuku ni tama fahua i loto o ni pa uaea kae tuku ki lalo o te tai? Pe ina olo na tino oi kave ma fakakinogia ai na fakatakitakiga?]

10. How do you prepare giant clam for food? Recipes… [E vehea ni kuka e tunu ai te fahua?

PEARL SHELL:
Have you ever seen pearl shells taken from this lagoon, and if so where and when? [Na kua ke kitea he tifa e maua pe kave ite namo nei, kafai io, ko fea te koga ma anafea?]

LOG FOR FAO-SPONSORED GIANT CLAM STOCK SURVEY/PEARL OYSTER STUDY IN TOKELAU ISLANDS

Dr. R.D. Braley

10–12.89 (Fiji):

11.5.89 (Samoa):
Arrived 2115 at airport; after customs there was apparently someone waiting from Tokelau affairs but due to poor English I was taken to town by unmarked taxi so paid the fare but got to the Tusitala Hotel where I was booked. A representative of the Tokelau affairs office said that the boat was delayed until Mon. for leaving for Tokelau.

12.5.89:
Worst news this morning…Wairua presently in Cook Isl. steaming from Rarotonga to Pukapuka; not due to leave Apia for Tokelau until 24 May. Called Roberto Foscarini at home to inform him and pass message to Foua Toloa via Bob Gillett's wife to call us ASAP re. charter arrangements. Otherwise, I have booked a flight to Tonga on Tues. 16 May for 1 week first, then return to Apia to go on the Wairua on the 24/25 May. Visited W. Samoa Fisheries (Lui Bell and Tanielu Sua) and had a look at the T.s. [1 yr. old now] in their tanks; most of the 8000 produced have been distributed to field sites now on the other side of the island. It is clear that Lui is keen on still having some connection with the ACIAR project but it was the Chief Fisheries Officer that could not be convinced that the involvement was a good thing. Lui is Acting Chief at the moment whilst Ueta Faasila is dealing with charges put up against him by the government for involvement with illegal contraband (export of scleractinian corals). Returned to Tokelau Affairs Office with the skipper of the W. Samoa Fisheries Research Boat, Mr. Stan Weinberg, to discuss a possible charter of the boat to Tokelau. After a couple of hours of deliberation with Mr. Semu Uili and Mr. Henry ...... we all decided that the best possible situation would involve two charters by the Fisheries boat, Toutai Mata Pala Pala. The rough cost was quoted as T500–700/day. The charters would be thus:
15.5 (Mon.) 1700 leave
16.5 at sea
17.5 (Wed.) Fakaofo
17.5 leave for Samoa 1200
18.5 at sea
19.5 (Fri.) 1400 arrive Apia [4 full days]

12.6 (Mon.) 1200 leave
13.6 at sea
14.6 (Wed.) Nukunonu 0400
14.6 leave for Atafu (10 hr. steam)
15–17.6 Survey at Atafu
17.6 leave Atafu 1700+
18.6 at sea
19.6 arrive Apia 0700

The New Zealand Government would probably have to pay for this charter as it is doubtful that FAO would have the money to pay for even part of it.
Returned to Fisheries and talked with Lui Bell, Mike McKoy [of Micronesian Fame… working with UNDP for 2 yrs now in Apia] and Stan Weinberg about this proposal. Lui will have to discuss it with the Minister for Fisheries/Forestry on Monday.
Had some drinks and clam discussions with Mr. Tanielu Sua and lovely wife at the hotel. Tanielu's wife has a cousin doing an MSc at JCU, in Geography…see them sometime. Tanielu suggested strongly that since JCU has been involved for some time in regional projects in the South Pacific (particularly the giant clam project) that we should be involved in all of the annual FFA meetings. Dr. John Munro goes to these meetings and at Tanielu's suggestion, ICLARM has less involvement in the regional clam work than ACIAR, which is not represented. The only requirement is that ACIAR-JCU apply to FFA - Honiara for observer status at least 1 month before next year's meeting (about April '90) which is to be held in Nauru. FFA would pay for the observer to be sent. We also discussed that someone from Fisheries Div. W. Samoa should be sent to our ACIAR-JCU training program at Orpheus Isl. along with the project country trainees…perhaps FAO-SPADP could fund their travel and per diem expenses and ACIAR-JCU would accommodate them. They are independent from the project but still putting effort into the giant clam spawning/rearing so should be encouraged.

13.5.89:
Plans to go fishing with Tanielu Sua in his boat this morning…for skipjack. We went out to Lefaga area and out on his aluminium katamaran along with two fishermen he regularly employs. We went out 6 or 7 miles and the sea was quite rough with large ocean swells. Despite trolling (using Samoan-made reels) through some schools of skipjack we only caught 3 fish and had one bite that got off the hook. The katamaran operated well in those conditions. Returned to Apia and went out with some Samoan friends.

14.5.89(Sun., mother's day):
Called FAO-Suva office; discussed with Mr. Tanaka the options for getting to Tokelau and Tonga without wasting days in Apia. Will call him from Tokelau Affairs office tomorrow morning before 0900 Suva time when he leaves for airport. Went for mid-day dinner to a Samoan family house. Returned in mid-afternoon to update computer log, etc.

15.5.89:
All day making arrangements with Tokelau Affairs and with Lui Bell/Stan Weinberg for the red tape needed to get the charter of the Tautai Matapalapala. I checked out of the hotel at noon-left things at Fisheries. Lui Bell had to write letters to Customs, Immigration and to the Public Service so the boat could be granted approval to leave. Even Tokelau Affairs had to write a letter to the Public Service. Slept at Stan and Joanna Weinberg's house.

16.5.89:
Helped organise some things needed to set up the above-ground splasher pool that Tanaka-san sent to Lui Bell (ie. drain pipe, fittings, ideas of depth of sand and shape of the bottom). Again, like Fiji, they lack the male and female fittings for 2" pipe. We found a suitable substitute, however. Talked with Foua Toloa and he helped organise the last part of this trip today. Final approval to go by Customs/Immigration at 5pm - we left at 6pm from Apia Fish. Wharf (Stan, 3 crew and I). During the night one of Foua's Scuba tank safety valves blew off and lost the air. Samoa Marine may have overfilled it.

17.5.89:
Still 2.5–3m swells from the E-NE. By 1545 we stopped opposite Swains Isl. (Amer. Samoa) and called Tokelau Affairs to check that all was arranged for an early morning pickup.

18.5.89:
Arrived at Fakaofo about 0400. I was picked up about 0730 by Kirifi of Agriculture/Fisheries. The Administrative Officer, Iuta, set me up in the guest house and his wife is providing me with dinner each day. They are short of food on the island and wished that Tokalani in Apia had sent some food along on this boat. Met the Fisheries/Agriculture staff who would be working with me on this survey: Mose, who will be going with me to the outer islands for the survey [he graduated from the School of Marine Sci., U.S.P. this past year]; Samuelu [and his sister Moana also works for Fisheries]; Petio; Mika; another fellow also assisted. About 0930 we got the steel pipe onto the aluminium boat we would use for the survey and set out for the southeastern side of the atoll to begin the survey. We returned to the village at 1730 after completing 13 tows. We found a large number of Tm in these tows but very few Ts. Discussed clams and the survey with Mose at night and worked on the computer.

19.5.89:
Readings were made with the Rangefinder to test its accuracy. The following results were obtained:

We towed on the SE and E side of the lagoon today; some good weather but it got progressively worse through the day. We finished tow #30 today.

20.5.89:
Went out for half a day with 3 willing fisheries staff in rain and NE winds-very cold; we completed 9 tows and returned to the village. After showers and warming up I did some data organisation and computer work on this survey.

21.5.89 (Sunday):
After church, recorded some data onto the computer. Updated the tow map in the afternoon; talks with locals.

22.5.89:
Discussed the clam survey and pearl oyster work with the Council of Elders which is held every Monday. They were very much interested in the clam situation and asked numerous questions through the interpreter, Iuta. They wanted to know about the reproduction of the clams, how they grew in culture, etc. They are concerned that the Ts are becoming so rare. I questioned them about the high percentage of dead coral bommies in the lagoon and they agreed that it began dying before 1980 [the year the Fijian Longliner went up on the reef on the N-NE corner; some people wonder if the rust of the ship is killing things in the lagoon?]. The cause is unknown because no one recalls ever seeing large numbers of Crown-of-thorns starfish. The bommie formations in the lagoon are certainly quite spectacular so when these all had live coral cover they would have been superb. They were keen to get a copy of the Giant Clam Monograph of ACIAR's. Also, they will pursue the idea of having New Zealand or FAO fund someone from Tokelau to come to our clam project in Australia and see the clam farming firsthand [maybe someone for the training program]. I left with the fisheries boys for the surveying at mid-day. We made some tows going south and stopped at one spot which had nice live bommies of Porites starting from the bottom of the reef flat slope down a gradual slope to the deep lagoon; here I used the first Scuba tank allotted to Fakaofo to check to about 30m the situation for pearl shell - none found, though the spondylid oysters were found (at about 3/m² at 30m and nearly the same at 25m). Measured 50 Tm and let Moses measure 50 on Scuba (he trained in Fiji). We continued tows and then stopped for a walk across the wide reef flat at Te-Tafa reef on the southerly E side of the atoll. The first Teatfish holothurian (Holothuria nobilis) was seen on this walk; other holothurians seen were Bohadschia argus, H. hilla under rocks, and the usual H. atra and H. coluber. There was a lot of coralline algae covering rocks on the whole reef flat and the reef crest had coralline algae ridges near a channel out. We carried on with the tows and two boys stopped at a small motu to cook some fish and get some coconuts for us, as we had no food to eat since early morning. The others and I went on to the area already surveyed and finished tows to there whilst I finished the air in the scuba tank trying to do a transect to look at other invertebrates. Finished this only halfway and had to return to the village when the air was gone. Updating the files at night and starting the questionnaire survey. Also, headache from the dive.

23.5.89:
Went out surveying the NW - N side of the atoll lagoon. There are no motu along this reef. There is a wide shelf with coral bommies scattered on the sand bottom - 9–12m depth. We found more clams here than the Eastern side but fewer than the SE - S side. Walked across the reef flat near Te Tafatafa where the Fijian longliner is sitting upright on the reef flat. The numbers of holothurians, particularly the black 'loli' are high [average 300/50m × 1m]. Some redfish sea cucumbers were also seen. Brown seaweeds were common on this reef flat. We returned by 1500 since the casual workers are supposed to finish at 1530 and have not been getting paid for overtime. At night we carried on the questionnaire survey. The names of the boys who have helped on this survey for the report record:
Kirifi Kirifi, Mose Pelasio, Petio Iasona, Samuelu Manatua, Eli Lapana, Mika Kelesoma.

24.5.89:
Most recent news, the Wairua is arriving on Sat. 27 May. We are completing the tows for Fakaofo today and plan to also make a dive into the lagoon to check for pearl shell. All the tows are now complete for the clam survey. Tomorrow and Friday may be spent diving off bommies to look for pearl shell in the lagoon and to conduct a transect survey of other invertebrates [ie. holothurians; spondylid oysters]. The dive today for the pearl shell search was made by Mose as my sinuses were still blocked from the cold and aggravating the situation with the 90 ft. dive made on 22.5. Mose dove to 120 ft.; the slope went down to 110 ft. with a shelf here and another small slope to 120 ft. Large numbers of spondylid oysters were found between 80–120 ft. [ie., 68 counted in a 2m × 1m area]. Apparently dead and live shells cover the bottom so they are a major filter feeder in the lagoon and as such would be competition for any introduced pearl oysters which hopefully would become established. After work I entered data into computer files. Later we continued carrying out the clam questionnaire survey.

25.5.89:
Went out the channel to the ocean to tow in two area along the outer reef drop-off. The drop-off was rapid [ie. 100m out from the breakers on the reef crest and the depth was from 20– 30+m]; there was about 60–70% coral cover (low relief) on the slope, though the slope ascending to the reef crest was almost bare rock as expected. No clams (Tm or Ts) were seen. This may have something to do with the effect of cyclones on this slope when live animals are scoured off the face of the rock. We then went to the middle of the lagoon and made a dive off a bommie to look for pearl shell. Again, Mose dove to 120 ft. and recorded no pearl shell but the following numbers of spondylid oysters in 1m² areas:
80 ft. - 56; 100 ft. - 39; 120 ft. - 32. We went to the reef outside of Fenua fala island and set a 50m transect tape across shallow bommies in a sand area. Here, Mose and I counted visible bivalves 1m on either side of the tape, summarized for each 2m distance. There was little found other than a small mussel which grows mainly on branching corals. Returned to the village to record data on the computer files; later in the evening the Agriculture Dept. was putting on a function with some nice food, etc. for me and the survey.

26.5.89:
Started out mid-morning to carry out three transects across the reef flat to count bivalves and holothurians. The first site was near the village on Fenua Fala Is. A 50m transect tape was laid out and stakes were placed in the reef every 10m up to 200m, thereafter stakes were placed every 50m to within 50–100m of the reef crest. The other two transects were near the cemetary Islet near Fenua Fala and Nukumatini Islet. Returned for a rest and did some computer file updating. We had a really nice dinner/party at Mose's house with the people who were in the field survey.

27.5.89:
Had over half the day for rest and visiting with Tokelauans whom I have got to know in the past week. I did some reading and taking notes from “Fisheries in Tokelau, a compilation of various documents and reports” by Robert Gillett (UNDP/FAO) and some work on the computer for files , etc. Dinner at the Administrative Officer's house where we talked about clams, other fisheries potential, and solar and other alternate sources of energy for atolls.

28.5.89:
After going to church I did some reading and writing of notes from B. Gillett's Compilation of Reports on Tokelau Fisheries. Some most interesting consultant reports from the past on pearl oysters, trochus, etc. with some mention of giant clams. Several of the consultants suggested that pearl oysters would be ideally suited to introducing to the lagoon, but others said it would be doubtful if it would succeed and would cost a lot of money. I have other reasons to support the latter view and will expound on it in the final report. In the evening, Mose came around and I showed him how to start using the word processor.

29.5.89:
Early in the morning (0300) Petio, Mose and I went outside the atoll to the ocean side to troll for fish along the reef drop-off and in the early dawn to troll for yellowfin or skipjack. We got no pelagic fish (nor did 2 other boats that were out there trying with us). Very difficult getting Mose's boat back over the reef through the extremely narrow natural channel near the village, especially since he tide was retreating fast. The extreme difficulty of getting in and out of the lagoon was apparent here. Packed my things and spent lunch with the Administrative Officer, Iuta, Dr. Iona at the hospital, and 2 N.Z public service visitors + went for a quick trip to one of the motus for the NZ visitors. We got back just in time for me to pay off the accommodation cost of the rest house and get our things together to carry to the boat. Boarded the Wairua with Mose about 1830.

30.5.89:
Arrived at Nukunonu early morning and disembarked about 0830 to the island. The village looks very neat and pleasing. The area where you enter has coral and foram sand beach and sand flats. The islet with the village is quite long and there is a road from one end to the other; it is much more similar to the Ha'apai Islands of Tonga with houses scattered all along the road, though there is a concentration in the village it is not the density seen in Fakaofo. Mose and I were taken with our gear to the Agriculture Rest House at the end of the village on the area of the motu called Vao. We will be here ourselves because the only two house in this area are being evacuated by people returning to Fakaofo. We will have to fend for ourselves for catching fish & clams to eat, though the Agriculture man in charge, Alofa, offered any of the coconuts and other food growing at that end of the islet (Agric. property). Met with the Acting Admin. Off., a lady, Julie. We discussed our needs for the survey. Also, met with the Pulenuku and others to discuss the survey. Monday is a holiday (Queen's B'Day) but may still be able top talk with the Council of Elders on that day re. the survey. Updating computer files this afternoon and working through some of the data. We are not able to start working on the survey with the Agriculture boys until tomorrow because everyone is busy today unloading and loading the Wairua.

31.5.89:
Mose got the boys who were to work with us today organised. Their names: Atonio Eneliko and Sefo Tioni. They came to the old rest house near us with the boat which we fitted with the 5m pipe and set out for the northeast section of the lagoon. There are fewer patch reefs in this lagoon than Fakaofo. We started tows at the end of the longest motu and found almost no live clams, very dead side of all lagoons I have visited so far. After passing a few small passes between small motus we got into an area of large numbers of Tm but still no Ts seen. Rain during our tows so we stopped in the almost enclosed small lagoon of Tokelau islet and the boys collected some coconut crabs and coconuts which we ate for lunch. Continued the tows along the long open reef on the north side of the lagoon and I made one dive with Scuba (30 min.) to measure 100 random Tm at about 4–5m depth. Finished field tows at 1630 and returned to village islet at 1715. Updating on computer and some work on summarising questionnaire forms from Fakaofo.

1.6.89:
We went again to the northern reef of the lagoon (Ahaga loa), starting from the islet on the NW corner and going to the place we completed yesterday. Also, on this reef we made a transect across the reef flat with the tape (marked every 10m up to 200m, then 50m intervals [only 250m here anyway] to count Tm as well as holothurians. Very devoid of larger organisms; coralline algae was the most abundant thing. We carried on in choppy seas and rain from the NW islet south along the western side. Here the clams were vastly reduced in numbers from the Agaha loa reef area. In fact, to check accuracy of counts on the A.l. tows we made actual counts of clams on bommies of various diameters, then had one of the two towers count numbers of small (1–3m diam.), medium (3–6m), large (>6 or 7m) whilst the other counted clams. Returned at 1630. At 1845 Mose and I went to the village and met 2 girls (Pulapula Leo and Vefa Penitito) who helped us with the questionnaire survey. We started on old men and women.

2.6.89:
Began at 0600 updating computer files. Went out about 0900 with the boys to the Eastern side of the lagoon (out of the incessant SE wind) and completed tows down to the SE corner of the lagoon, where clams started to be more abundant again. We also carried out a transect (#2) across the reef flat in this area. Very poor reef flat (as was the flat at the northern end [Agaha loa]). Returned about 1430 to the village. Mose and I went out to the village with the local ladies to continue questionnaires. We completed these about 1845. Later at night I updated computer files and worked on other data.

3.6.89:
Heavy rain and thunderstorm last night and this morning so we did not go out as planned for half a day. We will have the leave the work until Tues. About noon I went to the reef in front of the village [akau loa] and snorkelled about 300m along the length of the reef edge on one side and then back toward the village on the other side to find 100 clams (Tm) to measure for a comparison with the clams measured at Ahaga loa. It took 2 hrs to find enough clams to measure. The mean size was about 47mm shell length. Did some visiting in the latter afternoon and then some updating of computer files.

4.6.89:
Went to church in the morning and then there was a large feast in the maneape (masses of food considering resources on the atoll). Mose and I were thanked in the speeches for the survey we are conducting and I replied with thanks and that I hoped something very positive would come out of the survey. Did some data analysis.

5.6.89:
An Island holiday today so cricket was the main show of the day. I watched for a short time but spent much of the day writing on the computer and data analyses.

6.6.89:
Talked with Foua Toloa at Tokelau Affairs Office re. the ship schedule. The Tautai Matapalapala will not be chartered to come up here again as the Wairua is coming on 12.6 and will pick us up to arrive in Atafu 13.6. We will have 2–3 days there whilst there is a meeting of the combined Council of Elders so will have to complete the survey in that time. Foua will inform the Agriculture head there so that we can get started with 2–3 boys immediately on arrival. Mose and I had a meeting with the Council of Elders for about 1.5 hrs. They asked some good questions and were positive on the idea of setting up two clam reserve areas. After this we went to the NW side of the lagoon and completed tows to Akau Loa in front of the village. We collected two specimens of T. squamosa from about 7m depth and set these near an anchor in front of the Administration office. The Agriculture Dept. had a very nice function put on for us in the mid-late afternoon. *A note about the discussion with the Council today: they said that alomea, the crown-of-thorns starfish has been moderately abundant here since they were children and that people regularly went out to collect and kill them (by burning them on a motu); they are interested to hear from the head of the COTSAC team in Townsville to see what assistance they might be able to get.*

7.6.89:
We spent a full day completing tows on the southern side of the atoll lagoon. There are quite large numbers of Tm here but the numbers drop to extremely low levels near to the village islet. We found some Ts today on the tows…2 of these I dived for to 12–15m to collect and leave in front of the Admin. Office where the others were left. The day was quite calm and sunny so we feel the energy drain. We saw two large Crown-of-Thorns starfish (about 60cm diam.) during the tows and I noticed a number of small freshly eaten (white skeleton) Acropora colonies so there are without doubt more of the COTS about (alomea in Tokelauan). We completed the remaining questionnaires tonight.

8.6.89:
I went to the hospital this morning to see the doctor about a painful boil developing on my right lower leg. After this we went out to the centre of the lagoon to do some clam tows around patch reefs to get approximations of the clam populations on these reefs. There are far fewer patch reefs in this lagoon than in Fakaofo and most of them are very small patch reefs comprised of a lot of sand. One of the largest ones we covered was Te Tu Valu which had a wide platform (10m) around the patch pinnacles in the centre. We towed around the perimeter of the visible bottom and when half-way around from the buoy at the starting point we took a reading with the rangefinder to establish a diameter of the patch reef so the circumference could be determined. I made a dive to 120ft (36m) off the north side of this patch reef. Mostly dead coral but from the formations it must have very luxuriant coral growth at one time. Saw spondylid oysters at 35, 60, 80, 100, 120ft but they were <1m^-2. No pearl oysters. The dive was short (ie. 5 min. at deepest, total of about 18 min.). A second dive to 120ft was made by Mose off a patch reef further south in the lagoon. There was less coral cover than the first one; he found 4 spondylid oysters per m² at 30 & 40ft, but only 1m^-2 at 80ft, and none at 60 & 120ft. The slope here had lots of sand and he said some corals were covered with sand. No pearl oysters were found. After we completed several patch reefs in the lagoon for the surface clam tows we finished our last reef flat transect to get an estimate of clams and holothurians on the reef flat. This transect was done just south of the main village islet. Returned to the village and put one more Ts we collected at the site in front of the Admin. Office for spawning purposes. Updating the computer files at night and working on some data.

9.6.89:
We went out this morning to do our last tows, over the ocean-side reef (outside the lagoon). We went north of the village islet and crossed outside through a very small channel. One 625m tow was made north of here and the other opposite the northern end of the village islet (Mulifenua) heading north. There is about 85–90% live coral here; it looks better than outside Fakaofo, but there is a slightly wider shelf at about 15–20m. After this we fished a school of skipjack tuna and 3 were caught. Also, Mose caught a yellowfin tuna but a shark took 3 bites and only left the head to be pulled into the boat. Dismantled the pipe and rope on the boat, cleaned everything with freshwater. Preparing to go to Atafu on Monday 12.6 and be there to start our survey on 13.6. Updating computer files.

10.6.89:
Did a lot of writing on computer files today and analyses of survey work.

11.6.89:
Did some writing and updating of computer files.

12.6.89:
Cleaned up in preparation for leaving today on the boat. Left at 1700 and I did some analyses on the boat before it was dark.

13.6.89:
Arrived in Atafu early morning and unloaded our things by about 0830. We got the boat ready with two of the Agriculture boys and were off to start the lagoon survey by 0930. Worked all day doing 18 tows and covered about half the lagoon perimeter. Tried to find the Agriculture Extension Officer to help us with the questionnaire but she had gone out somewhere with friends. Left the information at her house and asked her to call here early in the morning re. getting the questionnaires done for us during the day while we work the lagoon.

14.6.89:
Went out again all day on the lagoon. Some rain showers and wind made some of the tows difficult. We completed the reef areas around the lagoon and then covered several of the patch reefs in the centre of the lagoon. Also, Mose and I made a dive to 100ft off a patch reef in the southern centre part of the lagoon. There was a good cover of coral (only 5% live) on the slope and a lot of a brown algae growing amongst the rocks. There were numerous overhangs and crevices but no pearl oysters were found. At 60, 80, and 100ft there were far fewer than 1 spondylid oyster m^-2. At 40ft there were about 0.5 spondylids m^-2. Whilst we were completing the field tows Mavaega, one of the extension officers, and a group of 3 men carried out the questionnaire survey and managed to complete 16 persons.

15.6.89:
Went out in the morning to complete two tows on the ocean side of the reef. We found no clams on these tows. The live coral in the shallower (3–8m depth range) water is only about 5–10% but below 8–10m it is at least 60% live. We took some of the gear out to the Wairua which is floating offshore today. Updating the computer files and packing to leave this afternoon. Also, working on some data analysis. Left on the boat and travelled at night to Nukunonu.

16.6.89:
On the Wairua dropping people off at Nukunonu and Fakaofo today; the boat will leave for Apia late this afternoon. Doing some data analyses on the boat; weather quite good. It looks like Mose will also be going to Apia on the boat; a job attachment for him at UNDP first and then possibly on to a clam course in Palau [unless this is put off so he can come to our course at Orpheus Island instead].

17.6.89:
On the Wairua enroute to Apia. Doing some data analysis and writing on the boat whilst the seas are calm. We arrived in Apia late (about 2200hr) and did not manage to get through immigration and out until after midnight due to some problems. Foua was there and took me to Olivia's Rest House and Mose was to go with him.

18.6.89:
Updating computer files and composing directly onto file for report. Some analyses being done. Call to John Lucas at JCU to report I have arrived from Tokelau. John was happy to have Mose come to our giant clam training course, as long as his trip was being paid for by FAO-SPADP. Continued writing and doing analyses all day and into the night at the rest house.

19.6.89:
After organising some paperwork and dive gear to return to people in Apia I went to town and carried out a number of errands (ticket reconfirmation, bank, talk with W. Samoa Fisheries, etc.). Spent some time at Tokelau Affairs Office talking with Foua Toloa, having some of my clam reprints photocopied by them, etc. Foua called Mr. Tanaka's office in Suva but he was away in Ponape. We talked with Roberto Foscarini about the US$700 I had for hire of boats, assistants, etc. on the survey… should this be given to Foua to help pay for the first charter of the Tautai Matapalapala? Also, Foua is happy to have Mose come to our ACIAR-JCU giant clam training program late this year instead of going to the program at MMDC. Roberto will telex Tanaka and see if we get an answer before I leave for Tonga. There is an FAO packet for me at FAO in Apia. Apparently they do not yet have the final paperwork complete yet for the survey that I have just completed! Returning to the rest house to work on the computer files writing this report.

20.6.89:
Stopped at the FAO office twice today and talked with Lars Jacobsen. I left the FishRay 100ft depth finder to be sent to Mr. Tanaka and later in the day I filled out forms sent from FAO-Rome re. this contract to do the survey in Tokelau and gave these to Lars to send in the pouch on Fri. to Suva. Also visited Tokelau Affairs office today and took care of the SCUBA tanks which were unloaded from the Wairua…the three belonging to Stan Weinberg (W. Samoa Fisheries) were returned to him. Went back to the Rest House and continued working on the Tokelau report.

APPENDIX 3:
Daily log for the Tokelau Giant Clam Stock Survey and Pearl Shell investigation.

APPENDIX 4:
Tokelau Giant Clam Field Survey - Tow Records. Tm - T. maxima [fahua nao], T. squamosa [fahua taka]. fds - freshly dead Ts.

APPENDIX 5:

Summary of Village Questionaire Survey. Questions are listed by number (Appendix 2 lists questions in English and Tokelauan). This summary show the answers for men and women in each of three age groups: <30yr, 30–50yr, >50yr. Answers are in fractions of the number of people interviewed in each category, ie. 2/5 indicates that 2 of 5 persons answered in the same way and the other 3/5 answered differently. The type of answer is indicated by code as outlined below. Answers for each question within row A = Fakaofo Atoll, within row B = Nukunonu Atoll, and within row C = Atafu Atoll. The codes used are as follows:

Question 1 (Q-1): 1/d (1x/day), 1/w (1x/week), 1/m (1x/month), 3/y (3x/year), etc. Ir (Irregular or Rare) , NE (never eat).

Q-2: ch (collects him (her)self), oc (others collect), fc (family collects), n (never eat, not applicable).

Q-3: A (4–6cm), B (6–8), C (8–10), D (10–15); E (15–20), F (>25cm).

Q-4a: Nnd (No, can not deplete stocks), Nnc (No, no change, Ni (No, increasing numbers),Yd (Yes, decreasing numbers).

Q-4b: NC (no change), HUT (higher use today), MIP (more in the past), LIP (larger in past), DT (diving necessary today to get clams), ET (easier to get today), L83 (extreme prolonged low tides in 1983 caused clam mortalities in shallows; El Nino Effect?), DK (do not know).

Q-5: Tms (know T. maxima and T. squamosa), Tm or Ts (T. maxima only or T. squamosa only), Tg (T. gigas), Td (T. derasa), add e (seen outside of Tokelau) to Tg or Td.

Q-6: NT (no taboos or customary laws re. clam fishing), CE (Council of Elders proposed regulations), DK (do not know).

Q-7a: N (no), Y (yes), DK (do not know).

Q-7b: N (no), Y (yes), Yi (yes, increase in clams), Yr (yes, reduction in clams), DK (do not know).

Q-8: Na (not accept law), Ya (Yes, accept law), ± (some will accept and some will oppose the law so some poaching will occur), DK (do not know).

Q-9a: N (no), Y (yes), DK (do not know).

Q-9b: S (experiment will be safe), Sl (safe only if the council makes a law and manages it, perhaps with a fisheries caretaker), U (unsafe, will be damaged), DK (do not know).

Q-10: Answers will be listed under Results in the text.

* Asterisk indicates a question may have had 2 legitimate answers by the same person(s) so that the fraction denominator will still indicate the actual number of people answering the question but the numerator may appear larger than it should be. The number of people did not remain the same for all questions because some people did not answer some questions.

PEARL OYSTER: NS (never seen), Y (yes, found him (her) self) [year if known], Yo (yes, other person found one but they know of it or saw the shell).