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PRODUCTION, MARKETING AND TRADE OF SEAWEEDS

NIRMALA RICHARDS - RAJADURAI

Technical Officer, Technical Advisory Division
INFOFISH, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Abstract

World production of seaweed was approximately 4 million MT in 1988, with production levels similar for the last 5 years. The Asia-Pacific produced 80% of this total and exported an estimated US$ 250 million in seaweeds and seaweed products.

The seaweed industry is worth US$ 1 billion. While agarophytes are in good demand with values increasing, carrageenophytes and alginate-bearing seaweeds have a tendency towards oversupply. World seaweed demand has grown at about 10% annually.

Contrary to seaweed production, 90% of the seaweed colloid industry is concentrated in the developed West followed by Japan and the Republic of Korea. Demand for phycocolloids has grown between 10–30% per year.

Some 400 000 MT (product weight) of edible seaweeds including, Porphyra, Laminaria, Hizikia and Undaria are mainly produced, consumed and traded amongst Japan, Korea and China. An emerging market is the USA.

1. Introduction

For centuries, various seaweeds have been utilized throughout the world of which edible species were the earliest. Development of their uses were favored by their ready availability and proximity to centres of human settlement, characteristically coastal areas. With human development and discoveries, other species were found to yield medicinal, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, industrial and agricultural use.

The principal use of seaweeds in general is directly as human foods. The other main use of seaweeds is for the extraction of colloids.

The overall world consumption (MT/dry weight) are as follows :

Food for direct consumption:400 000 MT
Seaweed colloids:50 000 MT

The most dynamic sector of the industry is that manufacturing seaweed colloids for a variety of commercial applications which range from air fresheners, textiles, pharmaceuticals, processed foods, medias for medical, industrial, microbiological and horticulture applications in tissue and cell culture.

While the seaweed industry traditionally relied on the exploitation of naturally growing beds, presently advances in seaweed culture meet demands and replace depleted stocks. For example, Chile is the world's largest producer and exporter of Gracilaria and Gracilaria-derived agar. In the last decade, its supply to Japan has less than halved (7851 MT in 1980 to 2728 MT in 1987). It is believed that much of the natural resource has been depleted, and Chile now actively practices mariculture (Pers. Comm. S. van Eys, INFOPESCA, July 1990).

The production, utilization and international trade of commercial seaweeds and their products have been reviewed in the past by Naylor (1977), the International Trade Centre UNCTAD/GATT(1981), McHugh and Lanier (1983) and in separate reviews in 1987 on Agars (Armisen & Galatas), Carrageenans (Stanley) and Alginates (McHugh) compiled in the FAO Fish. Tech. Paper 288 - 'Production and Utilization of Products from Commercial Seaweeds' (McHugh, 1987).

2. World Production of Seaweeds

Seaweeds and aquatic plants are broadly classified into brown, red, green seaweeds and miscellaneous plants. Of these red and brown seaweed are the most important commercially.

In 1988, the total seaweed production was about 4 million MT (wet weight) (FAO, 1990). The main groups were produced in the following order: brown seaweeds (2.5 million MT, 66.5%), red seaweeds (1.25 million MT, 33%) and green seaweeds (15 000 MT, 0.4%).

While traditionally seaweed was collected from the wild, virtually all brown seaweed, 63% of red seaweed and 68% of green seaweed are now maricultured (Table 4). The main species maricultured are Laminaria japonicus, (Phaeophyceae), Undaria pinnatifida, (brown seaweeds), Eucheuma spp, Gracilaria spp, Porphyra tenera, (red seaweeds) and Monostroma nitidum (green seaweed).

World seaweed production by country and seaweed type are shown in Tables 1,2,3 & 4. Leading producers of seaweed in 1988 were China, Japan, Republic of Korea followed by the Philippines, USSR, Norway and Chile (See Fig. 1 & Tables 1,2,3,4 and 5 (i, ii, iii). The Asia-Pacific region, accounts for the production of some 3 million MT (80%) of the world's total production mainly for the colloid industry (Table 6) while seaweed for human consumption is mainly produced in the 3 major consuming countries - China, Japan, Republic of Korea and Taiwan.

Note:

Figures used in this paper are FAO estimates and have been questioned by some authors in the past. Production is usually given as wet weight while product is quoted in dry weight. Export statistics for some countries such as China and Vietnam could not be obtained at time of preparation, to accurately evaluate seaweed trade figures from the Asia-Pacific.

3. International Markets, Industry and Trade.

World seaweed demand grows at about 10% per year. World trade in seaweed and seaweed products was valued at US$ 50 million in 1970, and five times that in 1980 (ITC/UNCTAD/GATT 1981). In 1988, an estimated US$ 250 million worth of seaweed and seaweed products were exported from the Asia-Pacific region alone.

The international demand for phycocolloids (agar, alginates, carrageenan and furcellaran) has grown much more rapidly. The world seaweed colloid market was estimated at US$ 1 billion and to have grown between 10% to 30% per year during the 1980s (Bung-Orn, 1989).

While world supply of seaweeds is mainly from developing countries, the seaweed colloid manufacturing industry is concentrated in a few developed nations: Denmark, France, Japan, Norway, Spain, the United Kingdom and the United States. Colloid manufacture is slowly developing in a few seaweed producing countries in Asia.

Potential producers from developing countries wishing to enter the seaweed and seaweed colloid trade will face very stiff competition from the established producers. Often, since colloids are made up specifically and marketed with technical support for its use, market preference and confidence in a particular performing brand or grade of colloid is difficult to dislodge despite their higher price (INFOFISH, 1983). Similarly, since the quantity and quality of derivatives from seaweeds vary and are characteristic for a particular geographical area or season, market acceptance of seaweeds from new sources may be difficult and prices offered somewhat low.

Competitors to phycocolloids in some applications and uses come from plant gums and cellulose derivatives. While competing colloids are usually cheaper, established performance of seaweed colloids in certain applications give it a firm foothold in the market.

3.1 Agars & Agarophytes

a. World Production

Total world production of agar was estimated at 7 000–10 000 MT half of it originating in Japan and Rep. of Korea (Globefish, 1988). The major producing countries are Japan, Spain, Chile and Rep. of Korea. Many leading producers of agar export most of their production (Tables 7 & 8). Emerging producers in the Asia-Pacific are Indonesia, the Philippines and Thailand.

The world agar industry uses the following seaweeds: Gracilaria -Chile, Argentina, S. Africa, Japan, Brazil, Peru, Indonesia, Philippines, People's Republic of China, Taiwan Province, India and Sri Lanka.

Gelidium-Spain, Portugal, Morocco, Japan, Korea, Mexico, France, USA, People's Republic of China, Chile and S. Africa (until 1960), the major and preferred source of agar)
Pterocladia-Portugal (Azores), New Zealand.
Gelidiella-Egypt, Madagascar, India etc.

(Source : Armisen & Galatas, 1987).

b. The Agar Industry, Market and Trade :

The agar industry today probably represents a market value well above US$ 200 million (Bung-Orn, 1989). Agarophytes are higher priced than other colloid-bearing seaweeds.

International trade in agar is active and values are increasing (Fig.3) An estimated 10 000 MT of raw agar and 3 500 MT of final product enter international trade each year. The raw material goes principally to Japan, which is also the main exporter of agar final product (Globefish, 1988).

In 1987 Japan imported 9 205 MT of Agarophytes. Japanese imports of agar-bearing Gelidiaceae increased from less than 700 MT in 1980 to 2 100 MT in 1987, though this is less than the average annual import of 8 600 MT of Gracilaria during the same period. Japan exported about 450 MT of agar product, 40% of this to countries of South and South East Asia.

Japan is the main agar consuming country (about 2 000 MT a year), almost all coming from domestic production. Since Japan produces, exports and imports a large quantity of the agar, it is used as an index for world production (Armisen & Galatas, 1987).

The USA another major consumer (1 000 MT per year), obtains more than 80% from imports, main suppliers being Chile, Morocco and Spain, and more recently the Philippines. In 1987, the Philippines succeeded in entering the agar market by shipping 300 MT of agar to the USA (Globefish, 1988). In 1990, the Philippines is expected to export Agarophytes to China, presently facing short supply of Porphyra from which their agar is derived.

The demand for agar in the EEC is approximately 1300 MT per year (Globefish, 1988).

Demand exists in newly developed and developing countries for food-grade and bacteriological agar. Thailand, Indonesia, Singapore and Malaysia import about 200 MT each per year. Main suppliers to the region are Republic of Korea and Japan, while Chile recently established a foot-hold in this market (Globefish, 1988). Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia and India have small domestic production of agar, whilst exporting insignificant quantities (Tables 9 & 10).

Agar is marketed pure. High-grade agar is white, while yellow is allowed for lower grades. Apart from seaweed powder and dried/treated Agarophytes, other product forms are pill, strip, flake and powdered agar. Prices for dried seaweed or alkali-treated seaweed (colagar) vary depending on the agar quantity and quality. Prices are often quoted after extraction has been completed by the importer or end-user. Prices depend on gel strength, specifications and applications.

Marketing of industrial grade agar is generally through international trading companies dealing with food additives. Bacteriological agar is most expensive and represents 4-5% of total agar sales. With increasing demand and legislation for wholesome foods by consumers and major food importing countries, the demand for bacteriological agar will continue to grow. Main suppliers are the USA and the UK. Agarose, an agar-derivative with biochemical applications is the highest priced seaweed product, taking 0.2% of the market (Armisen & Galatas 1987).

Decline in agarophyte prices in world markets can only be anticipated with increased production of raw material. Meanwhile, the demand for agar remains strong as evidenced by continuing high prices and ease with which exporting countries such as Japan, People's Republic of China and Republic of Korea dispose of their product. Agar appears to have priced itself out of certain markets with resultant takeover by competitive colloids. For instance, carrageenan replaced agar in canned meats.

Market potential for additional volumes of agarophytes from mariculture in the Asia-Pacific is encouraging. Mariculture of Gracilaria should be linked with the manufacture of agar in the region rather than the export of dried weeds. This would benefit the national economies involved, while expensive agar imports are also being replaced by domestic production (McHugh & Lanier, 1983). China, India, Thailand and Indonesia have already developed processes for small-scale agar manufacture. China has about 100 small agar factories producing 200– 300 MT annually. Prices fluctuate greatly between RMB55 000/MT (1988) to RMB105 000/MT (1990) (Pers. Comm., Lian Peizhi, Xiamen Fisheries College, Aug, 1990). In Indonesia, Gracilaria is maricultured in South Sulawesi. Plans are underway for setting up an agar-processing factory which will utilize 50–100 MT raw material per month (Hussain, 1989). Much needs to be done to bring the regional industry up to par with international standards and requirements. Full-scale development will have to depend very much on the regional and worldwide market, with perhaps joint-ventures with established colloid producers.

3.2 Carrageenan and Carrageenophytes:

a. World Production

World production of carrageenophytes was estimated at 43 500 MT in 1984 (Stanley, Marine Colloids, 1987) and 65 000 MT in 1989 (Pers comm., Hans Porse, Copenhagen Pectin, July 1990), a growth of over 20 000 MT raw material in 5 years.

In 1984, principal producers were the Philippines (Eucheuma), Chile (Iridaea), Canada (Chondrus crispus), Indonesia (Eucheuma), Spain, France, Portugal, Morocco and others (Gigartina acicularies and G. pistillate) (Table 11). A potential producer is China, (Eucheuma spp.).

E. cottonii and E. spinosum are now heavily utilized by carrageenan producers and are commercially maricultured in the Philippines and Indonesia. They are turned into both dried seaweed and semi-refined carrageenan.

The demand for Eucheuma spp. is estimated to be 50 000 MT/year. The growth of production by these major producers has done much to increase and stabilize the supply of carrageenophytes. In the future, it is expected that production will outpace demand expansion.

In the Philippines, two decades of seaweed culture has brought about improvement in culture practices and yields. Since 1979, production grew from 100 000 MT to 277 000 MT in 1989. It declined by 27% from 1980 (114 000 MT) to 1981 (83 000 MT), and again from 1985 (182 000 MT) to 1986 (169 000 MT). The biggest increase of 36% was recorded from 1986 to 1987 (Anon, 1990(3)).

In an attempt to protect the seaweed production industry, the government of the Philippines recently banned the export of seedlings to neighboring Indonesia.

In 1970, the Philippines exported 318 MT of seaweed then valued at US$ 0.092 million. In 1989 the estimate was 50 000 MT (a 150-fold increase) valued at US$ 40 million. Exports grew at an average of 10% per annum in the last decade, and are projected to reach US$ 50 million in 1990 (Anon(2) 1990).

In 1978–1979, the annual yield of dry weight seaweed was 6 272 kg/ha/yr, 10 years later it was 36,036 kg/ha/yr (Padilla & Lampe, 1989). Figs. 3 and 4 illustrate the increase in seaweed production and hence export by the Philippines. The overall average dry weight production in the Philippines is 12 MT/ha/yr (McHugh & Philipson, 1988).

In parts of the Philippines, buying stations have been located among several farms. Multinational companies have designed strategies for wide acceptance of seaweed culture among fishermen such as contract-farming schemes, provision of farm inputs, and marketing of produce. Non-price competition is practiced amongst the few buyers who control the market (Padilla & Lampe, 1989). In other areas, farmers may be disorganized, and marketing individualistic, rushing to sell on demand resulting in low quality and production yields, and therefore poorer profits. (Pers. Comm., Trono, 1989).

Indonesian seaweed production is growing. The average yield is 50–100 MT/ha/yr. In 1988, annual production was approximately 3 000–4 000 MT (E. cottonii) and 4 500–5 000 MT (E. spinosum) (McHugh & Philipson, 1988) (Fig. 5). In the '60s, Indonesia supplied 1/4 to 1/2 of world Eucheuma, mainly E. spinosum from wild crop. With poor supplies, cultured production switched to the Philippines in the 1970s. E. spinosum culture was then introduced to Bali in 1978. When prices fell in 1979, minimal production continued at the rate of 10 MT/yr until 1983. In 1984, productivity rose to 600 MT/yr and by 1986, 200 MT/mth! Manufacturers of carrageenan could not absorb this E. spinosum. Hong Kong buyers stepped in and currently import 400 MT/mth. Marine Colloids of Indonesia also switched to the development of E. cottonii production.

b. The Carrageenan Industry

About 12 000–15 000 MT of carrageenan are utilized by the industry annually. (Stanley, 1987). In 1989, 13 000 MT was utilized. (Pers Comm., Copenhagen Pectin, July 1990).

Ninety percent of the world carrageenan industry lies in developed countries. Marine Colloids (a subsidiary of MC Corporation) is the sole domestic producer of carrageenan in the USA and its production in 1981 represented nearly 40% of total world production. In Denmark, two companies Litex A/S and Genu (A/S Kobenhavns Pektinfabrik) together manufactured 30%, while France Satia, the world's second largest producer manufactured a further 25% (McHugh & Philipson, 1988). The leading carrageenan producer in Asia is the Republic of Korea.

Domestic processing of E. cottonii in the Philippines began in 1878. Philippine processing of E. spinosum began in 1983 and reached 800 MT in 1986. In 1987, 23 000 MT was processed locally.

Shemberg Marketing Corporation, Philippines, associated with Hydralco GmbH, Germany was the first and until 1988 the only manufacturer of refined carrageenan in the Philippines. Other principal Philippines processors are MCPI Corporation (linked with Marine Colloids of the US), Genu Products, Philippines (linked with Genu, Denmark) and Marcel Trading Company, which owns a carrageenan refinery in Taiwan.

Now there are two carrageenan producers in the Republic of Korea and three principal ones in Japan. The main source of raw material is Eucheuma from the Philippines, while Republic of Korea also buys from the Philippines. Carrageenan was not produced in China till 1985. Now, in China, there are two carrageenan factories in Hainan, one using Philippines seaweeds and another locally produced Eucheuma. Their output and uses are still quite limited. In Indonesia, a joint-venture with a Japanese company resulted in a 40 MT factory for semi-refined carrageenan (McHugh & Philipson, 1988).

c. The carrageenan and carrageenophyte market

Carrageenan enjoys a good market due to growing demand. The seaweed output market has about five major buyers. Moderate excess of production over sales exists (Stanley, 1987). Market demand for E. spinosum yielding iota-carrageenan is stronger than that for E. cottonii yielding kappa carrageenan. E. cottonii is facing an oversupply situation through significant increases in mariculture (Stanley, 1987).

In July 1990, the United States lifted its ban on Philippine natural grade (PNG) carrageenan for use as food additive. The product had been banned at the instigation of a US competitor in 1985. This opens a market of up to US$ 40 million for the local seaweed industry (New Straits Times, 26 July 1990, Malaysia).

Burrows, FMC Corp (Anon, 1990) recently reported the Asia-Pacific market as growing rapidly. According to him, Konjac flour a newly introduced carrageenan-based hydrocolloid will require substantial raw material from the Far East.

Carrageenan's potential use as binders in aquaculture feeds - a growing industry itself - could well serve as a boom to the industry and its market.

Distribution of carrageenan sales by end-use and region are depicted in Table 12. Note that the different types of carrageenan obtained has a very significant effect on segmenting the market.

China is especially interested in the use of carrageenan for improving food products. While Eucheuma production is underway in Hainan, China could be a potential large volume market.

Lower priced ‘semi-refined’ carrageenan has almost totally replaced ‘refined’ carrageenan in several applications. The market for normal grade ‘refined’ carrageenan is growing slowly, about 5 percent per annum. It is utilized in many prepacked foods in developed countries. If new application for the product are found, the market could well expand, otherwise in any new production ‘semi-refined’ carrageenan might simply replace ‘refined’ carrageenan in established uses, resulting in more limited sales potential (McHugh & Lanier, 1983).

d. Carrageenan and Carrageenophyte Prices

Carrageenophyte prices are very sensitive to supply fluctuation, especially for E. spinosum (Fig.6). Prices are cyclical; as demand increases, farmers move into production creating oversupply, which forces a drastic drop in prices. Production decreases and moves the prices up again. 1988 prices were about half the 1980 price (Globefish, 1988).

In the Philippines, ex-farm prices for Eucheuma of Pesos 1.42/kg (US$ 0.06/kg) in 1972, increased to Pesos 6.17/kg (US$ 0.26/kg) in 1988. Prices for Eucheuma seaweeds paid by major buyers in Cebu have moved in opposite trends to the above, so that profit to traders is smaller while farmers receive better prices for their produce. For comparison purposes, ex-farm Indonesia was US$ 0.11–0.20/kg), Philippines - US$ 0.20–0.23/kg, Fiji - US$ 0.28/kg (McHugh & Philipson, 1988).

In 1978 it cost Pesos 0.56 (US$ 0.02) to raise 1 kg of seaweed. In 1989 it cost Pesos 1 (US$ 0.04 in 1978 Pesos), so that costs for production have increased. Indicative prices for raw E. spinosum and E. cottonii (35% moisture) for 1987 are presented below:

July 1987 Indonesia US$/MT (FOB). USA US$/MT (CIF). Europe US$/MT (CIF)

E. cottonii265455355
E. spinosum242432332

(Source : McHugh & Philipson, 1988).

The Philippine product fetches a similar price. The wide disparity between US and European cif prices for Eucheuma is mainly due to the cost of freight. The Pacific Islands, in particular Fiji produced Eucheuma for Coast Biologicals in New Zealand. Since that market closed its doors, Fiji found it uneconomical to ship seaweed to US and European buyers, given prices offered by other producers worldwide.

With Eucheuma supply high, prices are not expected to increase.

3.3 Alginates

a. World Algin and Alginate-seaweed Production

Alginates represent the most important seaweed colloid product in terms of volume. Production averages 22 000–25 000 MT/yr. Alginates production is concentrated in a few companies in the USA, UK, Norway and France. It is expected that demand for alginates will reach 50 000 MT/yr by 1995 (Globefish, 1988).

Alginates are used in food (30 percent of total production) textiles (50 percent of production) and other industries (Globefish, 1988). Alginate is derived from most brown seaweed growing in cold waters. Harvest takes place in processing countries with alginate producers arranging their own seaweed collection. The property of alginate derived varies with species and therefore, influences the choice of seaweed harvested. The main commercial sources are Ascophyllum, Laminaria and Macrocystis. Other species used are Sargassum, Durvillaea, Ecklonia, Lessonia and Turbinaria.

Laminaria is produced in China, Japan and Korea and is a major and popular food seaweed. In Japan and Korea the high demand for edible Laminaria and resultant higher price forces importation of brown seaweeds for alginate production. Chinese use cultured Laminaria for alginate production. Production is increasing in China and reported to be 7 000 – 8 000 MT/yr in 1987 (McHugh, 1987). Owing to its shortage, between 1988 and 1990, some sargassum is also being used. There are 32 alginate processing plants in China. Production and prices for Chinese alginate are depicted in Table 16.

In North America, Kelco Incorporated turns 50 000 MT of Macrocystis into US$ 100 million of algins (Anon(3), 1990).

b. Alginate Prices

Prices for dried seaweed depend on moisture and alginate content, and can show considerable variation from year to year. FOB prices can vary from US$ 150/MT (Lessonia, Chile) to US$ 500–700 (L. japonica, China) (McHugh, 1987). On the international market, Chinese alginate is much cheaper than alginate of other countries thus meeting with strong opposition from US manufacturers. However on the domestic market, the price is higher. Prices have fluctuated from RMB38 000/MT to RMB32 000/MT (July, 1990) (Pers. Comm. Lian Peizhi, Aug, 1990).

Prices for alginates depending on their uses are as follows :

Sodium alginate-pharmaceutical (US$ 13–15.50/kg),
Food grade (US$ 6.50–11.00/kg), and
Technical grade (US$ 5.50–7.50/kg).

(Source : McHugh, 1987).

c. Alginate Trade

International trade in alginate products is shifting with expansion of the textile industry in developing countries leading to strong demand. Approximately 8 000–10 000 MT are used in the Asia-Pacific, most of it imported. About 12 000–15 000 MT of alginates stay in development countries (Globefish, 1988). Japan relies on imports for its own alginate production of 1 500 MT/yr (Globefish, 1988).

Buyers generally fall into two groups, a few large volume buyers who are mainly specialty gum companies, and a larger group of small-volume users who require and receive technical support service from suppliers as part of the package.

The alginate market is expected to remain stable (Globefish, 1988). Supplies are plentiful with an indication towards oversupply and the possibilities of alginate substitutes decreasing demand.

Potential for developing Asian producers and exporters can only exist where a domestic market for both the seaweed and the resulting alginate exists. There is a possibility of increased usage of alginate in India by the textile printing industry, but the domestic source of alginate-Sargassum species yields a poor quality alginate for this use. The importation of better species could help the problem. The Philippines is interested in alginate production from Sargassum but has little domestic market for it. The Republic of Korea has suitable seaweeds but imports alginate in appreciable quantities.

3.4 Edible Seaweeds

A large market for edible seaweeds exists especially in the Far East. Main consumers are Japan, China and Rep. of Korea with a total annual consumption of 400,000 MT product weight or 2 million MT wet weight each year. The bulk of the edible seaweed trade is centred around these 3 countries. The main product forms are nori (Porphyra), kombu (Laminaria), hijiki (Hizikia) and wakame (Undaria). Practically all edible seaweeds can be and are produced by mariculture, by natural extension of the use of mariculture for industrial use. Other Asians (mainly ethnic Chinese) also consume fresh or dried seaweed (Table 19).

The bulk of the edible seaweed trade is centred around the 3 major producers-China, Japan and Republic of Korea (Tables 13–18).

The trade pattern shows Japan as main importer and Republic of Korea biggest exporter. Much of Korea Rep's production is exported to Japan, where some US$ 90 million is spent importing edible seaweeds.

a. Japan

In Japan, Kombu (Laminaria), Nori (Porphyra), Hijiki (Hizikia) are all marketed in dried form, while Wakame (Undaria) is marketed in boiled and salted forms.

Some 120,000 MT of finished product (about 700,000 MT of seaweed) (Globefish, 1988) are reported to be consumed in Japan annually. Nori accounts for about 45 percent of Japanese seaweed consumption, all of which is cultured. It is a US$ 1.5 billion dollar business in Japan (Anon, 1990(3)). Domestic production now satisfies internal demand. Wakame accounts for ⅓ of Japanese seaweed consumption. Half of this is derived from imports, with Republic of Korea exporting 26,000 MT and China, 5,500 MT in 1987.

Wakame was oversupplied 1988. Japan produces some 100 000 MT annually and imports another 30 000MT from Rep. of Korea and China.

Dried Nori has long been oversupplied. In 1988 production was 11.4 billion sheets (38.5 percent higher than the previous year) with no imports.

Demand for Kombu is strong because it is considered health food. Domestic production in 1988 was 132 000 MT from wild harvest and 59 000 MT cultured, a 10.5% increase. Approximately 1 900 MT of kombu are exported from Japan annually.

Japan has a substantial export trade in edible seaweeds amounting to 34 000 MT valued at approximately US$ 60 million.

b. Rep. of Korea

Korea Rep harvests some 450 000 MT seaweed each year, mostly wakame and about 100 000 MT nori. The Republic of Korea consumes 400,000 MT of seaweed (120,000 MT product weight) with the highest per caput seaweed consumption. Wakame constitutes 75% of intake, while Nori accounts for the remainder.

In 1988 Hijiki production was 36 852 MT, 11.2% more than the previous year, and Wakame 288 368 MT, 1.3% less.

c. China

About 1 million MT wet weight of seaweed (150 000 MT product weight) is produced annually, kombu (800 000 MT), nori (120 000MT) and wakame (12 000MT). Most of China's production is consumed within the country.

d. Taiwan

Imports of edible seaweeds was 3 665 MT, double the previous year perhaps due to the popularization of Japanese cuisine. Supplies were 3 515 MT from Japan, (94.7% increase) followed by Rep Korea (87 MT).

e. USA

The USA is the fastest-growing nori market in the world. Owing to popularization of Japanese restaurants and immigration of Asians, demand for Nori is increasing. The size of this latest market is US$ 10 million, increasing by 10 percent every year. Major suppliers are Japan, Rep Korea, China and Taiwan. In Washington State, Nori is being cultured on a small scale.

f. The ASEAN

Principal seaweed genera of economic potential in the ASEAN region are depicted in Table 19. While the commercially important species are traded, consumption of the edible varieties generally do not enter commercial channels. These are consumed fresh in salads or preserved form (by salting/drying) and resoaked in water prior to use or used in desserts.

4. FUTURE DEVELOPMENT

4.1 New Market

China is the world's leading seaweed producer. It uses seaweeds primarily for domestic markets and human consumption. Lately, China is more interested in the use of Carrageenan for improving food product, and so could be a potential for a large volume market. They also culture about 5000 MT of Gracilaria per annum around Hainan. With promising results, China expects a substantial development of Gracilaria culture to meet the increased demand for agar.

4.2 Aquaculture Feeds

Work is proceeding in developing the use of Carrageenan as a binder in aquaculture feeds. It has been estimated that by the year 2000, Asia alone will probably need 1.1 million MT of shrimp feed (New and Wijkstrom, 1990). Given a 1–3% requirement for a feed binder, the estimated utilization of colloid binders which may originate from seaweeds is 33 000 MT ! Broadly estimating, this would require five times the quantity of dried seaweeds or another 165 000 MT of seaweed from which gels for binders may be derived annually. On an experimental level, a feed technologist has boiled Eucheuma to extract the colloid, mixed the resulting colloid proportionally in a molasses mixer and incorporated it into fish feeds. It is claimed to work well as a binder (Pers. Comm. Kuan Foo Seong, Amerisia Sdn. Bhd., 1990).

4.3 Culture Methods/Application in Biotechnology

Rapid spray cultivation in fine mists of seawater as an alternative growth system to natural harvesting and yields of up to 140 MT (dry weight) per year is economically bringing seaweed into contention as sources of many new chemicals, particularly fine chemicals such as enzymes.

Thus practical use for seaweeds, especially now, in the field of biotechnology are more diversified than have been hitherto anticipated. Now available are the possibilities of enzymatic post-harvest modification of alginic acid, extraction and purification of non-protein amino acids with bio-inhibitory effects and the use of seaweed biomass as a sole nutrient source to heterotrophic microbes of mineral biodegradation (Madgwick, 1990).

5. RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1. Develop Market Intelligence and Strategies

In the seaweed industry, although end-users are many, international buyers are relatively few and large processing concerns. Technical developments for the seaweed producing industry have to be closely linked with adequate marketing arrangements and a study of the supply/demand picture. Well designed distribution and marketing programmes will ensure commercial viability and resultant growth.

Find means applicable in each country to simplify distribution, increase market acceptability and raise returns to growers.

Constant evaluation and monitoring of existing markets should be carried out by potential seaweed exporting countries to evaluate and control production and therefore, keep tab on price fluctuations.

Countries culturing seaweed should exercise caution and control in the number of land ceases granted to prevent supply exceeding demand with resultant slump in prices and therefore losses to the farmers.

Special attention should be given to an appropriate form of organization for selling seaweeds and supplying initial credits facilities to farmers/fisherfolk.

A distinction between domestic and international market orientation needs to be made. The two markets bring to bear different economic conditions and marketing structure that influence prices and hence profits to seaweed collections and farmers. Outlets are not a matter of producers' choice in that potential markets are determined by characteristics of and available uses for fresh and processed seaweeds.

Localize the colloid industry where possible especially agar and now refined carrageenan. Domesticate the industry with imported technology. Find end-uses within the region. Domestic markets should be expanded to reduce overdependence on foreign markets and utilize domestic production.

5.2 Developing and Improving Technology

Past experiences indicate that quality control in harvesting, cleaning, sorting, washing, drying and semi-processing have to be given greater attention.

Priorities should be given to selection of species with higher growth rates, higher yield of colloid and better quality.

Research is required to develop fast growing, high yielding varieties through biotechnology.

Development of polyculture - seaweed with fish or shrimp or Gracilaria with abalone farming should be considered.

Conserve Natural Stock. Encourage cutting or pruning when harvesting from natural seaweed beds so as to preserve the natural resources.

References

Anon. 1990(1). ‘FMC Marine Colloids Open New Office in Singapore.’ Asia-Pacific Food Industry, March, 1990; p 62.

Anon. 1990(2). ‘Seaweed Updates’, Vol. 1 No. 3, May, 1990. Dept. of Agri./Board of Investment, Philippines.

Anon. 1990(3). ‘Sea Vegetables’, Seafood Leader. (March/Apr, 1990): 283–297: 12p.

Armisen & Galaktas. 1978. ‘Production, Properties and Uses of Agar’ in McHugh D.J. (ed). ‘Production and Utilization of Products from Commercial Seaweeds’. FAO Fish. Tech. Pap., (288): p 1–57.

Bung-Orn, S. 1989. ‘Opening Address’ - A Seminar on Gracilaria - Production and Utilization in the Bay of Bengal, Oct., 1989, Songkla, Thailand.

Coppen, J.J.W. 1989. ‘Production of Agar from Seaweeds, with special reference to India’. Paper presented at Bay of Bengal Programme 'Seminar on Gracilaria Production and Utilization in the Bay Bengal' 23–27 Oct, 1989, Songkhla, Thailand.

FAO. 1989. ‘Aquaculture Production (1984–1987)’ FAO, Fisheries Circular No. 815 Rev. 1, Rome: 130p

FAO. 1990. Yearbook of Fishery Statistics: Catches & Landings, Vol. 66, 1988. FAO Fisheries Series No. 34, FAO Statistics Series No. 92.

Globefish, FAO. 1988. ‘Seaweed - The Least Known of Marine Based Industries - Special Feature’. Globefish Highlights No. 3/88.

Hussain, S.A. 1989. ‘The Development of Commercial Gracilaria farming in Sulawesi, Indonesia.’ BOBP Seminar on Gracilaria. Production and Utilization, Oct. 1989, Songkla, Thailand: 10p

INFOFISH. 1983. ‘Seaweeds - Products and Markets’. INFOFISH Marketing Digest No. 4/83: p 23–26.

ITC, UNCTAD/GATT. 1981. ‘Pilot Survey of the World Seaweed Industry and Trade’, Geneva, 1981: 111

Jahara, J. & Phang, S.M. 1989. ‘Seaweed Marketing and Agar Utilisating Industries in Malaysia’. Paper Presented at the Bay of Bengal Programme ‘Seminar on Gracilaria Production and Utilisation in the Bay of Bengal’ 23–27 Oct., 1989: 68p.

Jingwen, T. 1987. ‘Status and Trends of Seafarming in China’. Report on the First National Coordinators Meeting on Regional Seafarming and Demostration Project, Bangkok, Thailand: p15–18.

Madgwick, J. 1990. ‘Untapped Source of Chemicals and Food’ Asia-Pacific Food Industry, March 1990: p 22.

McHugh D.G. & Lanier, B.V. 1983. ‘The World Seaweed Industry and Trade: Developing Asian Producers and Prospects for Greater Participation’. ADB/FAO/INFOFISH Market Studies Vol. 6: 30p.

McHugh, D.J. 1987. 'Production, Properties and Uses of Alginates. In McHugh, D.J. (ed) Production and Utilization of Products from Commercial Seaweeds, FAO Fisheries Technical Paper (288): p58–115.

McHugh, D. and Philipson, P., Jan. 1988. 'Post-Harvest Technology and Marketing of Cultured Eucheuma Seaweeds, FFA Report 88/2: 19p.

Naylor, J. 1976. 'Production, Trade and Utilization of Seaweeds and Seaweed Products. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No.159: 73p.

New, Michael B. and Wijkstrom, UN. 1990. ‘Feed for Thought’ World Aquaculture Vol. 21(1), March 1990: p 17–19, p 22–23.

Padilla, J.E. & Lampe, H.C. 1989. ‘The Economics of Seaweed Farming in the Philippines.’ NAGA, The ICLARM Quarterly, July 1989: p3–5.

RAPA Publication. 1989/6. ‘Marine Fishery Production in the Asia-Pacific Region.’

Stanley, N. 1987. 'Production, Properties and Uses of Carrageenan. In McHugh, D.J. (ed) Production and Utilization of Products from Commercial Seaweeds. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper (288): p117–147.

APPENDICES

A List of Tables

1. World Brown Seaweed Production, 1985–1988

2. World Red Seaweed Production, 1985–1988

3. World Green Seaweed and other Algae Production, 1985–1988

4. Aquaculture Production by Species Groups, 1984–1987

5. Main Seaweed Producing Countries by Seaweed groups (i), (ii) and (iii)

6. Main Seaweed production and producing countries

7A. Agar Production in Different Countries (1984)

7B. Japan: Import of Agarophytes, 1984–1987

8. Major Agar Exporters, 1986, 1987

9. Agar Imports: BOBP countries (tonnes)

10. Agar Exports: BOBP countries (tonnes)

11. Production of Carrageenan Seaweed World Basis in MT

12. Distribution of Carrageenan Sales

13. Japan: Production of Edible Seaweed, 1987–1989 (thousand MT)

14. Japan: Exports/Imports of Seaweed, 1985–1988

15. Statistic on the production of cultured seaweeds in China, 1984–1988

16. Production & Prices of Seaweed in China, 1989–1990

17. Republic of Korea: Annual Production of Seaweed by Species, 1980–1987 (Net Weight in MT)

18. Republic of Korea: Edible Seaweeds Imported/Exported (1985–1987) MT.

19. Principal Seaweed Genera of Economic Potentials in the ASEAN

B List of Figures

  1. Main Seaweed Producers (1989)
  2. Agar strip (Import Price to Malaysia) (1989)
  3. Philippines Production of Seaweed, 1979–1989
  4. Philippine Dried Seaweed Exports, 1979–1989
  5. Indonesia Seaweed Exports, 1980–1987
  6. Average Prices Paid for E. cottonii and E. spinosum (1978–1986).

Table 1. World Brown seaweed production, 1985–1988. Production by species, fishing areas and countries or areas.

SpeciesFishing area1985(mt)1986(mt)1987(mt)1988(mt)
Brown seaweeds  Phaeophyceae 
France2767 52365 10358 019103 663
Iceland2715 14810 23712 21514 984
Norway27133 319159 328174 109172 148
Spain274201 2603 2492 364
USSR2718 29717 69915 41820 039
UK Scotland2712 76310 0507 14010 698
Area total27470 477270 150323 896323 896
Argentina412824022
Area total412824022
South Africa4720 92021 00021 00021 000
Area total4720 92021 00021 00021 000
Australia5713 62712 86216 24817 955
Area total5713 62712 86216 24817 955
China611 523 0341 220 6221 073 4001 298 490
Japan61306 211328 573294 518309 253
Rep Korea61299 932389 399339 289338 805
USSR6114 11923 10034 18151 184
Area total612 143 2961 961 6941 741 3881 997 732
USA67----
Area total67----
Mexico7731 38042 50938 93120 077
USA7781 23953 90880 53967 429
Area total77112 61996 417119 47087 506
Chile8736 03328 02533 53270 673
Area total8736 03328 02533 53270 673
Species totalS2 574 2472 384 5152 201 7902 518 764
Group totalS2 574 2472 384 5152 201 7902 518 764

Source: FAO, 1990.
FAO Yearbook of Fishing Statistics, 1988.

Table 2. World Red Seaweed Production, 1985–1988. Production by species, fishing areas and countries or areas.

SpeciesFishing area1985(mt)1986(mt)1987(mt)1988(mt)
Red seaweeds Rhodophyceae
Canada2122 61017 24029 55017 230
USA21-1 588-4 082
Area total2122 61018 82829 55021 312
France272 4791 9433 3072 468
Portugal277 9085 9556 3495 385
Spain274 0634 7545 5485 130
USSR271 3291 3631 819924
Area total2715 77914 01517 02313 907
Saint Lucia31---4
Area total31---4
Morocco344 5004 5004 5004 500
Area total344 5004 5004 5004 500
Argentina4112 5845 9472 5752 575
Uruguay41----
Area total4112 5845 9472 5752 575
South Africa471 1801 2001 2001 200
Area total471 1801 2001 2001 200
Madagascar510000
Tanzania5100102486
Area total5100102486
Indonesia57427384324540
Thailand57211010
Area total57429385334550
China61123 670135 860122 850155 790
Japan61361 808412 171330 549452 755
Rep Korea61114 783149 13293 140125 841
USSR6110 80413 33815 26811 538
Other nei A6110 7549 8245 7226 653
Area total61621 819720 325567 529752 577
USA67----
Area total67----
Fiji7115173217217
Indonesia7155 25072 42185 09290 800
Philippines71184 410170 483222 003257 305
Thailand714 2311 154990990
Area total71243 906244 231308 302349 312
Kiribati77-1 500324411
Mexico777 5425 4797 1408 110
USA77----
Area total777 5426 9797 4648 521
New Zealand810510
Area total810510
Chile87146 37795 87483 64395 466
Peru87245437256267
Area total87146 62296 31183 89995 733
Species totalS1 076 9711 112 7261 022 4791 250 677
Group totalS1 076 9711 112 7261 022 4791 250 677

Source: FAO, 1990.
FAO Yearbook of Fishery Statistics, 1988.

Table 3. World green seaweed and other algae production, 1985–1988. Production by species, fishing areas and countries or areas.

SpeciesFishing area1985(mt)1986(mt)1987(mt)1988(mt)
Green seaweeds Chlorophyceae
Japan041 0431 2141 2842 207
Area total041 0431 2141 2842 207
Argentina4113---
Area total4113---
Rep. Korea6112 65213 22011 24813 080
Area total6112 65213 22011 24813 080
Fiji7119313737
Area total7119313737
Species total S13 72714 46512 56915 324
Group total S13 72714 46512 56915 324

Source: FAO 1990.
FAO Yearbook of Fishing Statistics, 1988.

Table 4. Aquaculture production by species groups, 1984–87.

Species Groups1984198519861987
(metric tons)
Brown seaweeds2,522,9232,560,7402,369,8802,137,424
Red seaweeds696,058664,434737,284646,642
Green seaweeds and other algae4,73410,65811,0407,588
Misc. aquatic plants222,037248,356375,189347,819

Source: FAO 1989.

Table 5. Main seaweed producing countries by seaweed groups, 1988.

Brown SeaweedMT (1988)% of World Total
China1,298,49051.5
Korea Rep.  338,80513.5
Japan  309,25312.2
Norway  172,1486.8
France  103,6634.1
Red SeaweedsMT (1988)% of World Total
Japan  452,75536.2
Philippines  257,30520.6
China  155,79012.5
Korea Rep  125,84110.1
Indonesia    90,800  7.2
Green SeaweedsMT (1988)% of World Total
Korea Rep    13,08085.3
Japan       2,20714.5
Fiji          37 0.2

Source: FAO, 1990.
FAO Yearbook of Fishery Statistics, 1988.

Table 6. Main Seaweed Production and Producing Countries.

Main speciesMain Producing countriesMain manufacturing countries
Phycocolloids
Agar   Gelidium,
Gracilaria,
Gelidiella
Rep. Korea, Chile Spain, Morocco Portugal,
(red seaweed)
Japan, Korea Rep., Morocco, Portugal Philippines
Alginate   Sargassum,
Laminaria, Undaria Macrocystis
Ecklonia
(brown seaweed)
USA, Norway, Mexico, Ireland UK, ChinaUK, USA, Norway Japan, France
Carrageenan   (E. spinosum E. cottonii),
Gigartina, Chondus Hypnea
(red seaweed)
Philippines, Canada, Chile, Denmark, SpainUSA, Denmark France, Philippines
Direct human consumption Japan, Korea, Rep.Japan, Rep. Korea
ChinaChina
 Porphyra (nori)
Laminaria (kombu)
Undaria (wakame)
Hizikia (hijiki)
  
Animal feedNorway, IrelandNorway, Ireland
 Ascophyllum,
Sargassum (brown seaweed)
  
Fertilizer  
 Macrocystis, AscophyllumFrance, UKFrance, UK

Source: GLOBEFISH Highlights 3/88.

Table 7A. Agar production in different countries, 1984

CountryTotal (MT)
Japan2 440
Spain890
Chile820
Korea Republic600
Morocco550
Portugal320
Taiwan275
Argentina197
Indonesia150
PROChina140
Mexico80
USA70
France65
Brazil60
New Zealand26
Total6 683

Source: Armisen & Galatas, 1987.

TABLE 7B. JAPAN: IMPORTS OF SEAWEEDS 1984–1987 (Q = MT, V = MILLION YEN).

 198419851986
QVQVQV
Hijiki (hiziki fusifome)
Country
Rep Korea2 6033 1652 7632 9572 7752 9513 689
China 632045114518
Sub-total2 6663 1852 8072 9682 8202 9593 664
Wakame (Undaria pinnatifide)
Country
Rep Korea26 0368 06326 6929 49525 8647 00225 202
Taiwan------18
China 1 4112992 5156142 8945 520
Sub-total27 4478 36229 20710 10928 7587 51231 992
Other edible seaweeds
Country
Rep Korea9082856532321 0282461 000
Taiwan30204135171036
China 1 1924405061815711 090
Philippines5428237431238
Others2367235624
Sub-total2 2077791 2304571 6944682 633
Tengusu (Gelidium spp)
Sub-total8613138653331 3913852 089
Other seaweeds for agar-agar
Country
Rep of Korea496911419594149189
Taiwan77323316512018
China -----300
Indonesia69102253915018309
P'pines1 4704041 0713658592301 008
Others7 8002 3688 8173 0325 3891 0845 369
Sub-total9 4652 88310 2603 6476 5431 5011 506
Funori (Cloiopeltis)
Sub-total172279163284160356285
Non-edible seaweeds
Country
Rep Korea1 4952541 5043361 5682571 334
China 1 867921 691861 428989
Australia140211932321017120
Philippines861411 049641 181441 462
Other 9 2297507 2856416 9475 652
Sub-total13 5921 15811 7521 15011 3348249 668
TOTAL56 41016 95956 28418 94852 70014 00556 986

Note:Other major exporters are Chile (2 728 MT, 624 million Yen in 1987), Italy (238 MT, 43 million Yen), Turkey (785 MT, 141 million Yen), Brazil (176 MT, 32 million Yen), Argentina (193 Mt, 41 million Yen) and South Africa (850 MT, 149 million Yen)
Note:Other major exporters of non-edible seaweeds are Norway (1 580 MT, 126 million Yen in 1987) and Chile (3 520 MT, 165 million Yen).
Source:Fishery Trade Statistics (1987) by Fishery Agency of Japan.

Table 8. Major Agar Exporters, 1986 & 1987.

Country19861987
(MT)
Chile976873
Korea Rep.682749
Spain555715
Morocco510615
Japan529430
Portugal331347
Total3 5833 729

Source: Coppen, 1989.

Table 9. Agar Imports: BOBP countries (tons).

  1980198119821983198419851986
TOTAL  6814897391 236689689
Of which by:
Thailand209184230307260234252277
Malaysia303253233574256253259279
Indonesia15943262350163170165140
India6643635NA
Sri Lanka2~(3)7~NA~~1
Bangladesh(1)23324132

Notes: (1) Derived from exports by Japan, Korea Rep. and Singapore.
(2) Year begins 1 April
(3) <0.5

Source: Coppen, 1989.

Table 10. Agar Exports: BOBP countries (tons).

 1980198119821983198419851986
TOTAL  2156153330
Of which by:
Thailand   ~(3)1121211
Malaysia(1)  212109127
Indonesia   2 1 1
India(2)215412218 NA
Sri Lanka        
Bangladesh~       

Notes: (1) Derived from imports by Indonesia.
(2) Year begins 1 April
(3) < 0.5

Source: Coppen, 1989.

Table 11. Production of Carrageenan Seaweed World Basis in MT.

Countries197119791984
Philippines (Eucheuma spp)50014 00025 000
Chile (Iridaea)4 0006 0006 000
Canada (Chondus crispus)6 0005 7005 000
Indonesia (Eucheuma spp)4 0003 5003 000
Others (Gigartina acicularies)5 5004 5004 500
Total20 00033 70043 500

Source: Stanley, 1987.

Table 12. Distribution of Carrageenan Sales.

By End UsePercentBy regionPercent
Dairy52Europe45
Water gel16North America23
Other food10Latin Americal12
Non-food22Far East20

Source: Stanley, 1987.

Table 13. Japan: Production of Edible seaweed, 1987–1989 (in thousand MT)

 19871988
Konbu (Laminaria)   123132156
Wakame (Undaria)   675
Tengusu (Gelidium)   999
Funori (Gloiopeltis) 11
Others  29230
Seaweed total  169180202

Source: Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Japan.

Table 14. Japan: Exports/Imports of Seaweed, 1985–1988.

 198519861987MT
1988
1000 USD
1988
Exports Total----57 577 
Edible  ----46 407  
Dried Nori Total205 512195 834206 808184 23411 519
 Taiwan, PC167 496173 136173 000156 2019 100
 USA25 93816 56022 90116 6791 440
 Others12 0786 13810 90711 3541 979 
Dried Konbu2 7722 6151 8743 60730 259
 Taiwan, PC2 6992 5551 8093 55829 378
 Others3145301 7687544 629 
Seasoned Nori Total25628135438511 170
 USA1251431391456 738
 Others49401051162 566 
 Hong Kong82981101241 866
Imports Total33 24433 27236 99034 45593 109
 Hijiki Total2 8072 8203 5644 91734 382
 Rep Korea2 7632 7753 4894 85734 269
 Wakame28t20728 75831 25526 93052 409 
 Rep Korea26 69225 86425 70222 67848 529
 Others1 2301 6942 1732 6086 681 

Note: Dried Nori (Porphyra), in 1000 sheets.
Source: Trade statistics, Ministry of Finance, Japan.

Table 15. Statistic on the production of cultured seaweeds in China, 1984–1988

 1982*1983*19841985198619871988
Kelp218 900231 200250 661253 839203 437178 900216 415
Laver6 8009 90012 37412 36712 58612 28515 576
Other seaweeds??1 3053 58014 28612 82512 712
Total??264 3402569 786230 309204 010244 703

Notes: Seaweeds were mostly sold in domestic market. Laver and undaria ect. were exported in small quantity.

Source: Ministry of Agriculture, People's Republic of China, 1990.

* Jingwen, 1987

Table 16. Production & Prices of Seaweed in China, 1989–1990.

 ExportDyelingFood
(Laminaria)
PharmaceuticalsOthers
Amount MT2 7001 2002145180*
Price35 00036 00043 00038 000 
RMB /MT
more than 1 000 MT in
  *casting
ceramic
1988.
  
Notes: US$ 1.00 = RMB6.00

Source: Pers. Comm., Lian Peizhi, Xiamen Fisheries College, China, Aug 1990.

Table 17. Republic of Korea: Annual Production of Seaweed by Species 1980–1983 (Net Weight in MT):

 1980198119821983
NaturalCulturedNaturalCulturedNaturalCulturedNaturalCultured
Laminaria2,4119403751,9637613,98744011,606
Undaria10,244196,14719,313194,6226,191225,0455,835237,128
Pachyneniopsis518041901,16201,0180
Porphyra23756,27434480,49017379,7847987,963
Sea duck weed5,55603,47602,37106210
Hijikia15,853013,743019,849015,3350
Gelidiun7,9415607,178887,36607,3543
Other Agar6820207038001,6910
Ulva1,51802,13202,15002,5320
Gracilaria90200100110
Codium1,22701,01701,79201,1610
Other seaweed12,9983,95912,8605,9003,7825,7197,71410,527
Sub-total59,194157,88061,104383,06345,996314,53543,794347,227
TOTAL317,074 444,167 360,531 391,021 

1984–1987 (Net Weight in MT):

 1984198519861987
NaturalCulturedNaturalCulturedNaturalCulturedNaturalCultured
Laminaria44011,60699611,7961699,4453,7619,980
Undaria5,835237,1286,380256,4368,227346,4347,174235,085
Pachyneniopsis1,01806480813143267261
Porphyra7987,963603109,819378143,3691583,287
Sea duck weed6210378018101370
Hijikia15,335015,4498,49711,63013,28921,58011,572
Gelidiun7,35434,1152465,0803059,620218
Other Agar1,69101,1760266659914
Ulva2,53201,52410,6581,65411,0402,9497,588
Gracilaria110201000
Codium1,16104700526065655
Other seaweed7,71410,52714,37293,9449611,79840
Sub-total43,794347,22746,113397,46132,869524,12758,556398,100
TOTAL391,021 443,574 556,996 456,656 

Table 18. Republic of Korea - Edible Seaweeds Imported/Exported (1985–1987) MT.

YearExport VolExport Value
US$
Import VolImport Value
US $
198531 00053 million51244 019
198630 00060 million26  81 986
198732 00084 million61281 075

Source: Republic of Korea, Customs Statistics, 1985, 1986 and 1987.

Table 19. Principal seaweed genera of economic potentials in the ASEAN.

CountryGeneraUsesStatus of Production
PhilippinesCaulerpafoodPond cultur and
   wild crops
 CodiumfoodWild crops
 SargassumalginateWild crops
 PorphyrafoodWild crops
 Gelidiellaagarwild crops
 Gracilariaagar, foodwild crops
 EucheumacarrageenanMariculture
  food 
 HypneafoodWild crops
IndonesiaGracilariaagar, foodWild crops
 EucheumacarrageenanWild crops
   mariculture
 Gelidiellaagar, foodWild crops
 HypneacarrageenanWild crops
  food 
 CaulerpafoodWild crops
 AcanthophorafoodWild crops
SingaporeEucheumaCarrageenanWild crops
 GracilariaagarWild crops
 SargassumalginateWild crops
BruneiGracilariaagarWild crops
E. MalaysiaPorphyrafoodWild crops
 SargassumalginateWild crops
 EucheumacarrageenanWild crops
 CaulerpafoodWild crops
 GracilariaagarWild crops
W. MalaysiaGracilariaagarWild crops

FIG 1. MAIN SEAWEED PRODUCERS

FIG. 1.

FIG. 2. AGAR STRIP PRICES, 1980–1988

FIG. 2.

Source: Yahaya & Phang, 1989

FIGURE 3: PHILIPPINE SEAWEED PRODUCTION 1979 – 1989

FIGURE 3

Seaweeds Production, 1979–1989

FIGURE 4 : PHILIPPINE DRIED SEAWEED EXPORTS 1980–1989

FIGURE 4

Source: National Statistics of the Philippines

FIG. 5. INDONESIA SEAWEED EXPORTS

FIG. 5

Source: Marine Fisheries Research Station Jakarta, Indonesia, 1989

FIGURE 6:

Average Prices Paid for E. cottoni and E. spinosum Delivered to Processors/Exporters in Cobu, Central Visayas, 1978–86 (Prices not Adjusted for Inflation)

FIGURE 6
BACKCOVER

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