APPENDIX 1:
Giant clam indentification drawings and map of worldwide
distribution. From ‘Giant Clam Identification’ - IUCN, for CITES
II listing; prepared for Australian National Parks and Wildlife
Service for CITES II by R.D. Braley, 1987.
Order Tridacninae/Family Tridacnidae | by Richard D. Braley Research Fellow, Zoology James Cook University Townsville, Qld. 4811 |
Tridacna | (5 Species) |
Hippopus | (2 Species) |
Species: | Common names: |
1 Tridacna gigas Linnaeus (1758) | Giant Clam Bénitiers/praire de géant (fr.) Almeja gigante (esp.) Muschel riesenhaft (de.) Cozza gigante (ital.) Kueir-gar (chinese) Hamaguri kyojn (jap.) |
2 Tridacna derasa Roeding (1798) | Giant Clam |
3 Tridacna squamosa Lamarck 1819 | Fluted or Scaly Clam |
4 Tridacna maxima Roeding 1798 | Small Giant Clam |
5 Tridacna crocea Lamarck 1819 | Boring Clam; Crocus or Saffron-coloured Giant Clam |
6 Hippopus hippopus Linnaeus (1758) | Horse's Hoof Clam; Bear Paw Clam; Strawberry Clam |
7 Hippopus porcellanus Rosewater 1982 | China Clam |
Scientific Synonyms: (*Note: none of the following have preference over the given species names)
Chama gigas Linnaeus 1758
Tridacna mutica Lamarck 1819
Tridacna serrifera Lamarck 1819
Tridacna obesa Sowerby 1899
Persikima whitleyi Iredale 1937
Recognised generally under the name squamosa since described
Tridacna elongata Lamarck 1819
Tridacna compressa Reeve 1862
Tridacna ferruginea Reeve 1862
Tridacna cumingii Reeve 1862
Chametrachea scapha ‘Meuschen’ Mörch 1853
Chama hippopus Linnaeus 1758
Hippopus maculatus Lamarck 1801
Hippopus brassica Bosc 1801
no synonym
Characteristics:
1 Tridacna gigas (Figs. A-D)
Adults: (largest species of giant clam)
Shell length to 137 cm. Equilateral
valves, umbos central. Valves
very heavy (300 kg +) and thick in
large specimens. Valve margins undulate
and fan-shaped in outline
with 4-5 generally sharply pointed
extremities of rib interstices.
Hinge line longer than half the
shell length. Byssal orifice small
to nearly closed. Mantle tissue
yellow-brown with numerous small circular
blue-green pigments surrounding
hyaline organs or eyes.
Juveniles:
Valves moderately thin even in larger
juveniles. Small clams rare in nature
but now hatchery-reared. Small shells
have projecting scales and shell
colours of yellow and white. Cultured
juveniles are relatively
fast growing.
2 Tridacna derasa (Figs. E-G)
Adults:
Second largest species of giant clam.
Shell length to 60 cm. Valves heavy
and very thick at umbos. Valve margins
undulate with 6-7 rounded extremities
of rib interstices. Byssal orifice
narrow and short and hinge line
usually longer than half the shell
length. Mantle tissue colourful
with many patterns, often brown,
turquoise blue and green.
Juveniles:
Uncommon in nature. Hatchery-reared
juveniles have spiny sculpture
which is later lost and shells
are white. Slow-growing on the
Great Barrier Reef but relatively
fast-growing from Palau.
3 Tridacna squamosa (Figs. H-J)
Adults:
Shell length up to 41 cm. Valves
moderately thick and heavy. Valve
margins undulate with 4-6 pointed
to bluntly rounded, crenulated extremities
of rib interstices. Shell
equilateral. Hinge line half of shell
length. Broad leaf-like projecting
scales on primary folds of ribs very
distinquishing characteristic. Medium
size to small byssal orifice (weak
attachment to substratum by byssus).
Mantle colour patterns quite variable
but generally large irregular
blotches of colour are present.
Juveniles:
Moderately uncommon in nature. Projecting
scales also a distinquishing
feature as in adults. Hatchery-reared
juveniles are moderately fast growing.
4 Tridacna maxima (Figs. K-M)
Adults:
Shell length up to 35 cm. Valves heavy
and thick. Valve margins undulate with
about 5 generally sharply triangular extremities
of rib interstices. Hinge line
less than half of shell length. Inequilateral
valves are elongate to short-obtuse-triangular.
Raised external valve
sculpture. Large byssal orifice but relatively
shorter than T. crocea. Shell can
be quite variable as well as mantle colour
and pattern. Most closely related to T.
crocea.
Juveniles:
Moderately common in nature. Juveniles have
been hatchery-reared but are slow growing.
5 Tridacna crocea (Figs. N-P)
Adults:
Shell length to 15 cm (smallest species).
Valves moderately heavy and thick. Valve
margins undulate with 4-5 bluntly triangular
extremities of rib interstices. Hinge
line less than half of shell length. Shell
triangular-ovate in outline. Low raised
external valve sculpture worn smooth toward
umbos (smooth area encased in coral
pockets burrowed out by the clam).
Large byssal orifice. Mantle colour and
patterns variable as with T. maxima.
Juveniles:
Moderately common in nature. Few hatchery-reared
juveniles have been produced.
6 Hippopus hippopus (Figs. Q-S)
Adults:
Shell length to 40 cm and weighing
up to 12.9 kg; an elongate triangular
shape. Thick, heavy valves with
coloured strawberry blotches in irregular
bands. Valve margins undulate
with 8-12 squarish extremities
of rib interstices. The byssal orifice
closed tightly in adults. Mantle yellow-brown
with green or gray lines; dull in
comparison with the genus Tridacna.
Juveniles:
Shell with small projections and byssus
present along with narrow byssal orifice.
Uncommon in nature but hatchery-reared
juveniles are moderately fast growing.
7 Hippopus porcellanus (Figs. T-V)
Adults:
Shell length up to 35 cm; a globose
shape. Valves not as thick or heavy
as H. hippopus in clams less than 20 cm,
and with scattered or concentric
weak strawberry blotches. Valve margins
undulate with 8-9 squarish extremities
of rib interstices. Hinge
line usually greater than half the
shell length. Byssal orifice opening
very slight. Mantle colour similar
to H. hippopus.
Juveniles:
Extremely rare, as yet unknown in nature.
Recent larval culture in the Philippines
(1986) have produced some juveniles.
Distribution:
T. gigas
T. derasa - - - - - -
T. squamosa
T. crocea . . . . . . . . .
T. maxima - - - - - - -
H. hippopus
H. porcellanus - - - - - -
Population:
The largest two species, T. gigas and T. derasa, exist in undisturbed state only on some reefs of Australia's Great Barrier Reef. However, even here many northern and outer-shelf reefs have been subject to poaching by Asian fishermen, especially prior to 1980. On undisturbed high density (greater than 30 per ha) reefs, adults may be found in a clumped spatial distribution. This clumping may be essential to a high rate of reproductive success in populations of these largest two species. Smaller species have not been studied enough to make a statement but T. maxima, T. crocea, and H. hippopus are generally well-represented withing their ranges where fishing pressure has not been excessive.
Mariculture and Trade:
Small-scale laboratory-rearing of tridacnid larvae took place in the early-mid 1970s and a more concerted effort at mass-rearing began in the early 1980s. Continued improvement of culture techniques for greater production are taking place on the north-central Creat Barrier Reef (Australia), Palau (W. Caroline Islands), Philippines, Papua New Guinea and several Pacific Micronesian Islands. Trade of 2–5 year old juveniles and their shells are envisaged. Since natural recruitment of juveniles of this age is uncommon to rare for the larger species, trade of such clams would be easier to control by customs officials.
Poaching of giant clam adductor muscle has caused a rapid decline in Indo-Pacific populations of the two largest species. The illegal trade in adductor muscle has been estimated at $US 100 million but this is not easily verified. The best estimate of the value of adductor muscle is about $US 20– 25/kg (1986). The promotion of mariculture will help curb the poaching.
Intraspecific variation:
Shell shape may vary slightly but it is not known if this has a genetic basis or is a response to specific environmental conditions. Mantle colouration and patterns vary greatly within species. The least variation in the mantle exists in T. gigas, H. hippopus, and H. porcellanus.
APPENDIX 2:
Village Questionaire, Tokelau Giant Clam Stock Survey and
Investigation of Pearl Oyster. [translation in Tokelauan]
Question at least 5 males and females in each of three age groups - Old age (50+), Middle Age (30–50), Young (teenage-30) - for each Atoll island group.
How often do you eat giant clams (Daily, weekly, etc.)? takivaiaho, etc.)?]
Do you collect clams yourself or get them from other people? [E fagota lava e koe pe fagota mai eni e tahi tino?]
What is the approximate size of most clams used for food? [Hea te lalahi o na fahua e mahani fakaaoga ke kai?]
In your view, are clams becoming scarce? Can you give examples of past changes in availability of clams for food? [Tau kikila kua mauagata na fahua (fakatuha kina aho kua teka mana aho nei)? Ei ei ni fakatakitakiga e mafai ke taku mai ai na huiga i te maua o na fahua kafai ka kikila ki na aho kua teka?]
Have you ever seen the larger species of clams - T. qiqas, T. derasa, & H. hippopus in Tokelau? If so, where and when? Any dead shells to view? [Na kua ke kitea na itukaiga fahua lalahi atu e ve ko te - T. qiqas, T. derasa, & H. hippopus i loto i Tokelau? Kafai na ke kitea, ko fea ma anafea? Ei ei ni atigi fahua vena e ke mafaia oi fakahino mai?]
Do you now have, or in the customary past, any special times of the year, special reef areas, or general taboos to taking clams for food? [Ei ei he vaitaimi patino o te tauhaga pe ni kogafenua fakapitoa ei na akau, pe ni tulafono foki e tukutapula ai te fagotagia ote fahua ke kai?]
Do you see a need to restrict fishing of giant clams to preserve the stocks? Do you think the reduction in adult clams stocks on the reef affects the number of clams on the reef in future? [Tau kikila e tatau ke fakatulafono te fagotagia ote fahua taka mate fahua nao kae ke mafai ke toe fakalelei te numela e o'ola nei? Tau kikila ei na afaina te numela o na fahua i te lumanaki kafai e fagota pea ma fakataigolegia na fahua matutua?]
Would laws restricting fishing of giant clams be gradually accepted, taken with offense, or accepted as law, but not in practice? [Ei na mafai nei ke talia e na tino ni tulafono ke fakataigolea ai te fagotagia ote fahua (taka)? Pe ina talia oi oti kae he mafai ke fakatino?]
Would you like to see the Government of Tokelau start experiments on culturing of clams? Would it be safe to leave small clams in underwater cages for experiments or would some people take the clams and destroy the experiments? [E fia kikila nei koe kae kamata e te malo o Tokelau ni fakatakitakiga ke toe fakatupulahia te fahua? Ei na haogalemu nei kafai e tuku ni tama fahua i loto o ni pa uaea kae tuku ki lalo o te tai? Pe ina olo na tino oi kave ma fakakinogia ai na fakatakitakiga?]
How do you prepare giant clam for food? Recipes… [E vehea ni kuka e tunu ai te fahua?
PEARL SHELL:
Have you ever seen pearl shells taken from this lagoon,
and if so where and when? [Na kua ke kitea he tifa e
maua pe kave ite namo nei, kafai io, ko fea te koga ma
anafea?]
LOG FOR FAO-SPONSORED GIANT CLAM STOCK SURVEY/PEARL OYSTER STUDY IN TOKELAU ISLANDS
Dr. R.D. Braley
10–12.89 (Fiji):
11.5.89 (Samoa):
Arrived 2115 at airport; after customs there was apparently
someone waiting from Tokelau affairs but due to poor English
I was taken to town by unmarked taxi so paid the fare but
got to the Tusitala Hotel where I was booked. A
representative of the Tokelau affairs office said that the
boat was delayed until Mon. for leaving for Tokelau.
12.5.89:
Worst news this morning…Wairua presently in Cook Isl.
steaming from Rarotonga to Pukapuka; not due to leave Apia
for Tokelau until 24 May. Called Roberto Foscarini at home
to inform him and pass message to Foua Toloa via Bob
Gillett's wife to call us ASAP re. charter arrangements.
Otherwise, I have booked a flight to Tonga on Tues. 16 May
for 1 week first, then return to Apia to go on the Wairua on
the 24/25 May. Visited W. Samoa Fisheries (Lui Bell and
Tanielu Sua) and had a look at the T.s. [1 yr. old now] in
their tanks; most of the 8000 produced have been
distributed to field sites now on the other side of the
island. It is clear that Lui is keen on still having some
connection with the ACIAR project but it was the Chief
Fisheries Officer that could not be convinced that the
involvement was a good thing. Lui is Acting Chief at the
moment whilst Ueta Faasila is dealing with charges put up
against him by the government for involvement with illegal
contraband (export of scleractinian corals).
Returned to Tokelau Affairs Office with the skipper of the
W. Samoa Fisheries Research Boat, Mr. Stan Weinberg, to
discuss a possible charter of the boat to Tokelau. After a
couple of hours of deliberation with Mr. Semu Uili and Mr.
Henry ...... we all decided that the best possible situation
would involve two charters by the Fisheries boat, Toutai
Mata Pala Pala. The rough cost was quoted as T500–700/day.
The charters would be thus:
15.5 (Mon.) 1700 leave
16.5 at sea
17.5 (Wed.) Fakaofo
17.5 leave for Samoa 1200
18.5 at sea
19.5 (Fri.) 1400 arrive Apia [4 full days]
12.6 (Mon.) 1200 leave
13.6 at sea
14.6 (Wed.) Nukunonu 0400
14.6 leave for Atafu (10 hr. steam)
15–17.6 Survey at Atafu
17.6 leave Atafu 1700+
18.6 at sea
19.6 arrive Apia 0700
The New Zealand Government would probably have to pay for
this charter as it is doubtful that FAO would have the money
to pay for even part of it.
Returned to Fisheries and talked with Lui Bell, Mike McKoy
[of Micronesian Fame… working with UNDP for 2 yrs now in
Apia] and Stan Weinberg about this proposal. Lui will have
to discuss it with the Minister for Fisheries/Forestry on
Monday.
Had some drinks and clam discussions with Mr. Tanielu Sua
and lovely wife at the hotel. Tanielu's wife has a cousin
doing an MSc at JCU, in Geography…see them sometime.
Tanielu suggested strongly that since JCU has been involved
for some time in regional projects in the South Pacific
(particularly the giant clam project) that we should be
involved in all of the annual FFA meetings. Dr. John Munro
goes to these meetings and at Tanielu's suggestion, ICLARM
has less involvement in the regional clam work than ACIAR,
which is not represented. The only requirement is that
ACIAR-JCU apply to FFA - Honiara for observer status at
least 1 month before next year's meeting (about April '90)
which is to be held in Nauru. FFA would pay for the
observer to be sent. We also discussed that someone from
Fisheries Div. W. Samoa should be sent to our ACIAR-JCU
training program at Orpheus Isl. along with the project
country trainees…perhaps FAO-SPADP could fund their travel
and per diem expenses and ACIAR-JCU would accommodate them.
They are independent from the project but still putting
effort into the giant clam spawning/rearing so should be
encouraged.
13.5.89:
Plans to go fishing with Tanielu Sua in his boat this
morning…for skipjack. We went out to Lefaga area and out
on his aluminium katamaran along with two fishermen he
regularly employs. We went out 6 or 7 miles and the sea was
quite rough with large ocean swells. Despite trolling
(using Samoan-made reels) through some schools of skipjack
we only caught 3 fish and had one bite that got off the
hook. The katamaran operated well in those conditions.
Returned to Apia and went out with some Samoan friends.
14.5.89(Sun., mother's day):
Called FAO-Suva office; discussed with Mr. Tanaka the
options for getting to Tokelau and Tonga without wasting
days in Apia. Will call him from Tokelau Affairs office
tomorrow morning before 0900 Suva time when he leaves for
airport. Went for mid-day dinner to a Samoan family house.
Returned in mid-afternoon to update computer log, etc.
15.5.89:
All day making arrangements with Tokelau Affairs and with
Lui Bell/Stan Weinberg for the red tape needed to get the
charter of the Tautai Matapalapala. I checked out of the
hotel at noon-left things at Fisheries. Lui Bell had to
write letters to Customs, Immigration and to the Public
Service so the boat could be granted approval to leave.
Even Tokelau Affairs had to write a letter to the Public
Service. Slept at Stan and Joanna Weinberg's house.
16.5.89:
Helped organise some things needed to set up the above-ground
splasher pool that Tanaka-san sent to Lui Bell (ie.
drain pipe, fittings, ideas of depth of sand and shape of
the bottom). Again, like Fiji, they lack the male and
female fittings for 2" pipe. We found a suitable
substitute, however. Talked with Foua Toloa and he helped
organise the last part of this trip today. Final approval
to go by Customs/Immigration at 5pm - we left at 6pm from
Apia Fish. Wharf (Stan, 3 crew and I). During the night one
of Foua's Scuba tank safety valves blew off and lost the
air. Samoa Marine may have overfilled it.
17.5.89:
Still 2.5–3m swells from the E-NE. By 1545 we stopped
opposite Swains Isl. (Amer. Samoa) and called Tokelau
Affairs to check that all was arranged for an early morning
pickup.
18.5.89:
Arrived at Fakaofo about 0400. I was picked up about 0730
by Kirifi of Agriculture/Fisheries. The Administrative
Officer, Iuta, set me up in the guest house and his wife is
providing me with dinner each day. They are short of food
on the island and wished that Tokalani in Apia had sent some
food along on this boat. Met the Fisheries/Agriculture staff who would
be working with me on this survey: Mose, who will be going
with me to the outer islands for the survey [he graduated
from the School of Marine Sci., U.S.P. this past year];
Samuelu [and his sister Moana also works for Fisheries];
Petio; Mika; another fellow also assisted. About 0930 we
got the steel pipe onto the aluminium boat we would use for
the survey and set out for the southeastern side of the
atoll to begin the survey. We returned to the village at
1730 after completing 13 tows. We found a large number of
Tm in these tows but very few Ts. Discussed clams and the
survey with Mose at night and worked on the computer.
19.5.89:
Readings were made with the Rangefinder to test its
accuracy. The following results were obtained:
Measured distance | Rangefinder reading |
63.5m | 66m |
100m | 103m |
150m | 148m |
We towed on the SE and E side of the lagoon today; some good weather but it got progressively worse through the day. We finished tow #30 today.
20.5.89:
Went out for half a day with 3 willing fisheries staff in
rain and NE winds-very cold; we completed 9 tows and
returned to the village. After showers and warming up I did
some data organisation and computer work on this survey.
21.5.89 (Sunday):
After church, recorded some data onto the computer. Updated
the tow map in the afternoon; talks with locals.
22.5.89:
Discussed the clam survey and pearl oyster work with the
Council of Elders which is held every Monday. They were
very much interested in the clam situation and asked
numerous questions through the interpreter, Iuta. They
wanted to know about the reproduction of the clams, how they
grew in culture, etc. They are concerned that the Ts are
becoming so rare. I questioned them about the high
percentage of dead coral bommies in the lagoon and they
agreed that it began dying before 1980 [the year the Fijian
Longliner went up on the reef on the N-NE corner; some
people wonder if the rust of the ship is killing things in
the lagoon?]. The cause is unknown because no one recalls
ever seeing large numbers of Crown-of-thorns starfish. The
bommie formations in the lagoon are certainly quite
spectacular so when these all had live coral cover they
would have been superb. They were keen to get a copy of the
Giant Clam Monograph of ACIAR's. Also, they will pursue the
idea of having New Zealand or FAO fund someone from Tokelau
to come to our clam project in Australia and see the clam
farming firsthand [maybe someone for the training program].
I left with the fisheries boys for the surveying at mid-day.
We made some tows going south and stopped at one spot which
had nice live bommies of Porites starting from the bottom of
the reef flat slope down a gradual slope to the deep lagoon;
here I used the first Scuba tank allotted to Fakaofo to check to
about 30m the situation for pearl shell - none found, though the
spondylid oysters were found (at about 3/m2
at 30m and nearly the same at 25m). Measured 50 Tm and
let Moses measure 50 on Scuba (he trained in Fiji). We
continued tows and then stopped for a walk across the wide
reef flat at Te-Tafa reef on the southerly E side of the
atoll. The first Teatfish holothurian (Holothuria nobilis)
was seen on this walk; other holothurians seen were
Bohadschia argus, H. hilla under rocks, and the usual H.
atra and H. coluber. There was a lot of coralline algae
covering rocks on the whole reef flat and the reef crest had
coralline algae ridges near a channel out. We carried on
with the tows and two boys stopped at a small motu to
cook some fish and get some coconuts for us, as we had no
food to eat since early morning. The others and I went on
to the area already surveyed and finished tows to there
whilst I finished the air in the scuba tank trying to do a
transect to look at other invertebrates. Finished this
only halfway and had to return to the village when the air
was gone. Updating the files at night and starting the
questionnaire survey. Also, headache from the dive.
23.5.89:
Went out surveying the NW - N side of the atoll lagoon.
There are no motu along this reef. There is a wide shelf
with coral bommies scattered on the sand bottom - 9–12m
depth. We found more clams here than the Eastern side but
fewer than the SE - S side. Walked across the reef flat
near Te Tafatafa where the Fijian longliner is sitting
upright on the reef flat. The numbers of holothurians,
particularly the black 'loli' are high [average 300/50m ×
1m]. Some redfish sea cucumbers were also seen. Brown
seaweeds were common on this reef flat. We returned by 1500
since the casual workers are supposed to finish at 1530 and
have not been getting paid for overtime. At night we
carried on the questionnaire survey. The names of the boys who
have helped on this survey for the report record:
Kirifi Kirifi, Mose Pelasio, Petio Iasona, Samuelu Manatua,
Eli Lapana, Mika Kelesoma.
24.5.89:
Most recent news, the Wairua is arriving on Sat. 27 May. We
are completing the tows for Fakaofo today and plan to also
make a dive into the lagoon to check for pearl shell. All
the tows are now complete for the clam survey. Tomorrow and
Friday may be spent diving off bommies to look for pearl shell in
the lagoon and to conduct a transect survey of other
invertebrates [ie. holothurians; spondylid oysters]. The dive
today for the pearl shell search was made by Mose as my sinuses
were still blocked from the cold and aggravating the situation
with the 90 ft. dive made on 22.5. Mose dove to 120 ft.; the
slope went down to 110 ft. with a shelf here and another small
slope to 120 ft. Large numbers of spondylid oysters were found
between 80–120 ft. [ie., 68 counted in a 2m × 1m area].
Apparently dead and live shells cover the bottom so they are a
major filter feeder in the lagoon and as such would be
competition for any introduced pearl oysters which hopefully
would become established. After work I entered data into
computer files. Later we continued carrying out the clam
questionnaire survey.
25.5.89:
Went out the channel to the ocean to tow in two area along
the outer reef drop-off. The drop-off was rapid [ie. 100m out
from the breakers on the reef crest and the depth was from 20–
30+m]; there was about 60–70% coral cover (low relief) on the
slope, though the slope ascending to the reef crest was almost
bare rock as expected. No clams (Tm or Ts) were seen. This may
have something to do with the effect of cyclones on this slope
when live animals are scoured off the face of the rock. We then
went to the middle of the lagoon and made a dive off a bommie to
look for pearl shell. Again, Mose dove to 120 ft. and recorded
no pearl shell but the following numbers of spondylid oysters in
1m2 areas:
80 ft. - 56; 100 ft. - 39; 120 ft. - 32. We went to the
reef outside of Fenua fala island and set a 50m transect
tape across shallow bommies in a sand area. Here, Mose and
I counted visible bivalves 1m on either side of the tape,
summarized for each 2m distance. There was little found other
than a small mussel which grows mainly on branching corals.
Returned to the village to record data on the computer files;
later in the evening the Agriculture Dept. was putting on a
function with some nice food, etc. for me and the survey.
26.5.89:
Started out mid-morning to carry out three transects across
the reef flat to count bivalves and holothurians. The first
site was near the village on Fenua Fala Is. A 50m transect
tape was laid out and stakes were placed in the reef every
10m up to 200m, thereafter stakes were placed every 50m to
within 50–100m of the reef crest. The other two transects
were near the cemetary Islet near Fenua Fala and Nukumatini
Islet. Returned for a rest and did some computer file
updating. We had a really nice dinner/party at Mose's house
with the people who were in the field survey.
27.5.89:
Had over half the day for rest and visiting with Tokelauans
whom I have got to know in the past week. I did some
reading and taking notes from “Fisheries in Tokelau, a
compilation of various documents and reports” by Robert
Gillett (UNDP/FAO) and some work on the computer for files
, etc. Dinner at the Administrative Officer's house where
we talked about clams, other fisheries potential, and solar
and other alternate sources of energy for atolls.
28.5.89:
After going to church I did some reading and writing of
notes from B. Gillett's Compilation of Reports on Tokelau
Fisheries. Some most interesting consultant reports from
the past on pearl oysters, trochus, etc. with some mention
of giant clams. Several of the consultants suggested that
pearl oysters would be ideally suited to introducing to the
lagoon, but others said it would be doubtful if it would
succeed and would cost a lot of money. I have other reasons
to support the latter view and will expound on it in the
final report. In the evening, Mose came around and I showed
him how to start using the word processor.
29.5.89:
Early in the morning (0300) Petio, Mose and I went outside
the atoll to the ocean side to troll for fish along the reef
drop-off and in the early dawn to troll for yellowfin or
skipjack. We got no pelagic fish (nor did 2 other boats that
were out there trying with us). Very difficult getting Mose's
boat back over the reef through the extremely narrow natural
channel near the village, especially since he tide was retreating
fast. The extreme difficulty of getting in and out of the lagoon
was apparent here. Packed my things and spent lunch with the
Administrative Officer, Iuta, Dr. Iona at the hospital, and 2 N.Z
public service visitors + went for a quick trip to one of the
motus for the NZ visitors. We got back just in time for me to
pay off the accommodation cost of the rest house and get our
things together to carry to the boat. Boarded the Wairua with
Mose about 1830.
30.5.89:
Arrived at Nukunonu early morning and disembarked about 0830
to the island. The village looks very neat and pleasing.
The area where you enter has coral and foram sand beach and
sand flats. The islet with the village is quite long and
there is a road from one end to the other; it is much more
similar to the Ha'apai Islands of Tonga with houses
scattered all along the road, though there is a
concentration in the village it is not the density seen in
Fakaofo. Mose and I were taken with our gear to the
Agriculture Rest House at the end of the village on the area
of the motu called Vao. We will be here ourselves because
the only two house in this area are being evacuated by
people returning to Fakaofo. We will have to fend for
ourselves for catching fish & clams to eat, though the
Agriculture man in charge, Alofa, offered any of the
coconuts and other food growing at that end of the islet
(Agric. property). Met with the Acting Admin. Off., a lady,
Julie. We discussed our needs for the survey. Also, met
with the Pulenuku and others to discuss the survey.
Monday is a holiday (Queen's B'Day) but may still be able
top talk with the Council of Elders on that day re. the
survey. Updating computer files this afternoon and working
through some of the data. We are not able to start working
on the survey with the Agriculture boys until tomorrow because
everyone is busy today unloading and loading the Wairua.
31.5.89:
Mose got the boys who were to work with us today organised.
Their names: Atonio Eneliko and Sefo Tioni. They came to
the old rest house near us with the boat which we fitted
with the 5m pipe and set out for the northeast section of
the lagoon. There are fewer patch reefs in this lagoon than
Fakaofo. We started tows at the end of the longest motu and
found almost no live clams, very dead side of all lagoons I
have visited so far. After passing a few small passes
between small motus we got into an area of large numbers of
Tm but still no Ts seen. Rain during our tows so we stopped
in the almost enclosed small lagoon of Tokelau islet and the
boys collected some coconut crabs and coconuts which we ate
for lunch. Continued the tows along the long open reef on
the north side of the lagoon and I made one dive with Scuba
(30 min.) to measure 100 random Tm at about 4–5m depth.
Finished field tows at 1630 and returned to village islet at
1715. Updating on computer and some work on summarising
questionnaire forms from Fakaofo.
1.6.89:
We went again to the northern reef of the lagoon (Ahaga
loa), starting from the islet on the NW corner and going to
the place we completed yesterday. Also, on this reef we
made a transect across the reef flat with the tape (marked
every 10m up to 200m, then 50m intervals [only 250m here
anyway] to count Tm as well as holothurians. Very devoid of
larger organisms; coralline algae was the most abundant
thing. We carried on in choppy seas and rain from the NW
islet south along the western side. Here the clams were
vastly reduced in numbers from the Agaha loa reef area. In
fact, to check accuracy of counts on the A.l. tows we made
actual counts of clams on bommies of various diameters, then
had one of the two towers count numbers of small (1–3m
diam.), medium (3–6m), large (>6 or 7m) whilst the other
counted clams. Returned at 1630. At 1845 Mose and I went
to the village and met 2 girls (Pulapula Leo and Vefa
Penitito) who helped us with the questionnaire survey. We
started on old men and women.
2.6.89:
Began at 0600 updating computer files. Went out about 0900
with the boys to the Eastern side of the lagoon (out of the
incessant SE wind) and completed tows down to the SE corner
of the lagoon, where clams started to be more abundant
again. We also carried out a transect (#2) across the reef
flat in this area. Very poor reef flat (as was the flat at
the northern end [Agaha loa]). Returned about 1430 to the
village. Mose and I went out to the village with the local
ladies to continue questionnaires. We completed these about
1845. Later at night I updated computer files and worked on
other data.
3.6.89:
Heavy rain and thunderstorm last night and this morning so
we did not go out as planned for half a day. We will have
the leave the work until Tues. About noon I went to the
reef in front of the village [akau loa] and snorkelled about
300m along the length of the reef edge on one side and then
back toward the village on the other side to find 100 clams
(Tm) to measure for a comparison with the clams measured at
Ahaga loa. It took 2 hrs to find enough clams to measure.
The mean size was about 47mm shell length. Did some
visiting in the latter afternoon and then some updating of
computer files.
4.6.89:
Went to church in the morning and then there was a large
feast in the maneape (masses of food considering resources
on the atoll). Mose and I were thanked in the speeches for
the survey we are conducting and I replied with thanks and
that I hoped something very positive would come out of the
survey. Did some data analysis.
5.6.89:
An Island holiday today so cricket was the main show of the day.
I watched for a short time but spent much of the day writing on
the computer and data analyses.
6.6.89:
Talked with Foua Toloa at Tokelau Affairs Office re. the
ship schedule. The Tautai Matapalapala will not be
chartered to come up here again as the Wairua is coming on
12.6 and will pick us up to arrive in Atafu 13.6. We will
have 2–3 days there whilst there is a meeting of the
combined Council of Elders so will have to complete the
survey in that time. Foua will inform the Agriculture head
there so that we can get started with 2–3 boys immediately
on arrival. Mose and I had a meeting with the Council of
Elders for about 1.5 hrs. They asked some good questions
and were positive on the idea of setting up two clam reserve
areas. After this we went to the NW side of the lagoon and
completed tows to Akau Loa in front of the village. We
collected two specimens of T. squamosa from about 7m depth
and set these near an anchor in front of the Administration
office. The Agriculture Dept. had a very nice function put
on for us in the mid-late afternoon. *A note about the
discussion with the Council today: they said that alomea,
the crown-of-thorns starfish has been moderately abundant
here since they were children and that people regularly went
out to collect and kill them (by burning them on a motu);
they are interested to hear from the head of the COTSAC team
in Townsville to see what assistance they might be able to
get.*
7.6.89:
We spent a full day completing tows on the southern side of
the atoll lagoon. There are quite large numbers of Tm here
but the numbers drop to extremely low levels near to the
village islet. We found some Ts today on the tows…2 of
these I dived for to 12–15m to collect and leave in front of
the Admin. Office where the others were left. The day was
quite calm and sunny so we feel the energy drain. We saw
two large Crown-of-Thorns starfish (about 60cm diam.) during
the tows and I noticed a number of small freshly eaten
(white skeleton) Acropora colonies so there are without
doubt more of the COTS about (alomea in Tokelauan). We
completed the remaining questionnaires tonight.
8.6.89:
I went to the hospital this morning to see the doctor about
a painful boil developing on my right lower leg. After this
we went out to the centre of the lagoon to do some clam tows
around patch reefs to get approximations of the clam
populations on these reefs. There are far fewer patch reefs
in this lagoon than in Fakaofo and most of them are very
small patch reefs comprised of a lot of sand. One of the
largest ones we covered was Te Tu Valu which had a wide
platform (10m) around the patch pinnacles in the centre. We
towed around the perimeter of the visible bottom and when
half-way around from the buoy at the starting point we took
a reading with the rangefinder to establish a diameter of
the patch reef so the circumference could be determined. I
made a dive to 120ft (36m) off the north side of this patch
reef. Mostly dead coral but from the formations it must
have very luxuriant coral growth at one time. Saw spondylid
oysters at 35, 60, 80, 100, 120ft but they were <1m-2. No
pearl oysters. The dive was short (ie. 5 min. at deepest,
total of about 18 min.). A second dive to 120ft was made by
Mose off a patch reef further south in the lagoon. There
was less coral cover than the first one; he found 4
spondylid oysters per m2 at 30 & 40ft, but only 1m-2 at
80ft, and none at 60 & 120ft. The slope here had lots of
sand and he said some corals were covered with sand. No
pearl oysters were found. After we completed several patch
reefs in the lagoon for the surface clam tows we finished
our last reef flat transect to get an estimate of clams and
holothurians on the reef flat. This transect was done just
south of the main village islet. Returned to the village
and put one more Ts we collected at the site in front of the
Admin. Office for spawning purposes. Updating the computer
files at night and working on some data.
9.6.89:
We went out this morning to do our last tows, over the
ocean-side reef (outside the lagoon). We went north of the
village islet and crossed outside through a very small
channel. One 625m tow was made north of here and the other
opposite the northern end of the village islet (Mulifenua)
heading north. There is about 85–90% live coral here; it
looks better than outside Fakaofo, but there is a slightly
wider shelf at about 15–20m. After this we fished a school
of skipjack tuna and 3 were caught. Also, Mose caught a
yellowfin tuna but a shark took 3 bites and only left the
head to be pulled into the boat. Dismantled the pipe and
rope on the boat, cleaned everything with freshwater.
Preparing to go to Atafu on Monday 12.6 and be there to
start our survey on 13.6. Updating computer files.
10.6.89:
Did a lot of writing on computer files today and analyses of
survey work.
11.6.89:
Did some writing and updating of computer files.
12.6.89:
Cleaned up in preparation for leaving today on the boat.
Left at 1700 and I did some analyses on the boat before it
was dark.
13.6.89:
Arrived in Atafu early morning and unloaded our things by
about 0830. We got the boat ready with two of the
Agriculture boys and were off to start the lagoon survey by
0930. Worked all day doing 18 tows and covered about half
the lagoon perimeter. Tried to find the Agriculture
Extension Officer to help us with the questionnaire but she had
gone out somewhere with friends. Left the information at her
house and asked her to call here early in the morning re. getting
the questionnaires done for us during the day while we work the
lagoon.
14.6.89:
Went out again all day on the lagoon. Some rain showers and
wind made some of the tows difficult. We completed the reef
areas around the lagoon and then covered several of the
patch reefs in the centre of the lagoon. Also, Mose and I
made a dive to 100ft off a patch reef in the southern centre
part of the lagoon. There was a good cover of coral (only
5% live) on the slope and a lot of a brown algae growing
amongst the rocks. There were numerous overhangs and
crevices but no pearl oysters were found. At 60, 80, and
100ft there were far fewer than 1 spondylid oyster m-2. At
40ft there were about 0.5 spondylids m-2. Whilst we were
completing the field tows Mavaega, one of the extension
officers, and a group of 3 men carried out the questionnaire
survey and managed to complete 16 persons.
15.6.89:
Went out in the morning to complete two tows on the ocean
side of the reef. We found no clams on these tows. The
live coral in the shallower (3–8m depth range) water is only
about 5–10% but below 8–10m it is at least 60% live. We
took some of the gear out to the Wairua which is floating
offshore today. Updating the computer files and packing to
leave this afternoon. Also, working on some data analysis.
Left on the boat and travelled at night to Nukunonu.
16.6.89:
On the Wairua dropping people off at Nukunonu and Fakaofo
today; the boat will leave for Apia late this afternoon.
Doing some data analyses on the boat; weather quite good.
It looks like Mose will also be going to Apia on the boat; a
job attachment for him at UNDP first and then possibly on to
a clam course in Palau [unless this is put off so he can
come to our course at Orpheus Island instead].
17.6.89:
On the Wairua enroute to Apia. Doing some data analysis and
writing on the boat whilst the seas are calm. We arrived in
Apia late (about 2200hr) and did not manage to get through
immigration and out until after midnight due to some
problems. Foua was there and took me to Olivia's Rest House
and Mose was to go with him.
18.6.89:
Updating computer files and composing directly onto file for
report. Some analyses being done. Call to John Lucas at
JCU to report I have arrived from Tokelau. John was happy
to have Mose come to our giant clam training course, as long
as his trip was being paid for by FAO-SPADP. Continued
writing and doing analyses all day and into the night at the
rest house.
19.6.89:
After organising some paperwork and dive gear to return to
people in Apia I went to town and carried out a number of
errands (ticket reconfirmation, bank, talk with W. Samoa
Fisheries, etc.). Spent some time at Tokelau Affairs Office
talking with Foua Toloa, having some of my clam reprints
photocopied by them, etc. Foua called Mr. Tanaka's office
in Suva but he was away in Ponape. We talked with Roberto
Foscarini about the US$700 I had for hire of boats,
assistants, etc. on the survey… should this be given to
Foua to help pay for the first charter of the Tautai
Matapalapala? Also, Foua is happy to have Mose come to our
ACIAR-JCU giant clam training program late this year instead
of going to the program at MMDC. Roberto will telex Tanaka
and see if we get an answer before I leave for Tonga. There
is an FAO packet for me at FAO in Apia. Apparently they do
not yet have the final paperwork complete yet for the survey
that I have just completed! Returning to the rest house to
work on the computer files writing this report.
20.6.89:
Stopped at the FAO office twice today and talked with Lars
Jacobsen. I left the FishRay 100ft depth finder to be sent
to Mr. Tanaka and later in the day I filled out forms sent
from FAO-Rome re. this contract to do the survey in Tokelau
and gave these to Lars to send in the pouch on Fri. to Suva.
Also visited Tokelau Affairs office today and took care of
the SCUBA tanks which were unloaded from the Wairua…the
three belonging to Stan Weinberg (W. Samoa Fisheries) were
returned to him. Went back to the Rest House and continued
working on the Tokelau report.
APPENDIX 3:
Daily log for the Tokelau Giant Clam Stock Survey and Pearl
Shell investigation.
APPENDIX 4:
Tokelau Giant Clam Field Survey - Tow Records. Tm - T.
maxima [fahua nao], T. squamosa [fahua taka]. fds - freshly
dead Ts.
Date/Isl. | Tow No. | Depth (m); (substratum description) | Tow Dist. (m)/ area scanned (ha.) | Clam count |
18.5.89/ FAKAOFO | 1 | 5–10; coral 75% cover, 30% live | 250 / 0.45 | 741 Tm 1 Ts 1 fds |
2 | 5–13; coral 45% cover, 20% live | 300 / 0.42 | 565 Tm | |
3 | 5–13; coral 50% cover, 20% live | 300 / 0.42 | 586 Tm | |
4 | 10–12; coral 40% cover, 20% live | 400 / 0.48 | 769 Tm 3 Ts | |
5 | 7–8; coral 15% cover, 20% live | 375 / 0.45 | 390 Tm 1 Ts 1 fds | |
6 | 8–9; coral 60% cover, 20% live | 315 / 0.56 | 880 Tm | |
7 | 8–9; coral 60% cover, 30% live | 275 / 0.38 | 510 Tm | |
8 | 3–5; coral 10% cover, 30% live | 270 / 0.32 | 621 Tm | |
9 | 4–6; coral 15% cover, 30% live | 290 / 0.34 | 1374 Tm 1 Ts | |
10 | 5–7; coral 40% cover, 35% live | 250 / 0.20 | 812 Tm | |
11 | 5–7; coral 40% cover, 35% live | 275 / 0.25 | 2217 Tm | |
12 | 7–8; coral 45% cover, 35% live | 190 / 0.11 | 2259 Tm | |
13 | 7–8; coral 50% cover, 35% live | 103 / 0.07 | 2802 Tm | |
19.5.89 | 14 | 10; coral 50% cover, 35% live; high relief | 250 / 0.40 | 473 Tm 1 Ts |
15 | 10–12; coral 50% cover, 35% live; high relief | 350 / 0.56 | 564 Tm 4 Ts | |
16 | 10–12; coral 50% cover, 40% live; high relief | 360 / 0.50 | 490 Tm 3 Ts | |
17 | 6–7; coral 45% cover, 20% live; high relief | 325 / 0.45 | 213 Tm | |
18 | 6–7; coral 60% cover, 20% live | 325 / 0.45 | 345 Tm | |
19 | 6–7; coral 60% cover, 40% live | 360 / 0.50 | 471 Tm | |
20 | 8–10; coral 40% cover, 40% live | 280 / 0.45 | 92 Tm 1 Ts | |
21 | 8–10; coral 30% cover, 10% live | 260 / 0.42 | 41 Tm 2 Ts | |
22 | 8–10; coral 50% cover, 20% live | 250 / 0.37 | 52 Tm 1 fds | |
23 | 8–10; coral 60% cover, 20% live | 270 / 0.37 | 69 Tm 1 Ts | |
24 | 8–10; coral 60% cover, 10% live | 250 / 0.37 | 25 Tm | |
25 | 6–7; coral 60% cover, 10% live | 260 / 0.36 | 4 Tm 1 Ts | |
26 | 8; coral 35% cover, 15% live | 260 / 0.36 | 175 Tm | |
27 | 8–10; coral 20% cover, 10% live | 180 / 0.18 | 127 Tm | |
28 | 9, coral 35% cover, 15% live | 225 / 0.22 | 126 Tm 1 Ts | |
29 | 8–10; coral 40% cover, 20% live | 200 / 0.24 | 167 Tm | |
30 | 6–7; coral 20% cover, 15% live | 225 / 0.20 | 7 Tm | |
20.5.89 | 31 | 4–9; coral 15% cover, 15% live | 250 / 0.25 | 6 Tm |
32 | 4–9; coral 15% cover, 10% live; ~1 HoloTDuria atra/m2 | 250 / 0.25 | 0 | |
33 | 8; coral 10% cover, 10% live | 230 / 0.18 | 33 Tm | |
34 | 6–12; coral 15% cover, 10% live | 275 / 0.27 | 4 Tm | |
35 | 1–3; coral 10% cover,70% live; along beach only | 190 / 0.11 | 7 Tm | |
36 | 4–6; coral 40% cover, 60% live | 225 / 0.13 | 6 Tm | |
37 | 4–6; coral 20% cover, 10% live | 225 / 0.13 | 5 Tm | |
38 | 4–6; coral 40% cover, 20% live | 225 / 0.13 | 28 Tm | |
39 | 5–6; coral 40% cover, 20% live | 225 / 0.13 | 23 Tm | |
22.5.89 | 40 | 1–9; coral 5% cover, 5% live | 325 / 0.32 | 13 Tm |
41 | 8–10; coral 50% cover, 75% live; Porites bommies | 225 / 0.25 | 1162 Tm | |
42 | 8–10; coral 70% cover, 50% live | 225 / 0.22 | 625 Tm | |
43 | 4–10; coral 60% cover, 60% live | 290 / 0.29 | 1262 Tm | |
44 | 4–10; coral 60% cover, 50% live | 225 / 0.27 | 1971 Tm | |
45 | 6–10; coral 70% cover, 50% live | 275 / 0.27 | 2335 Tm | |
46 | 8–10; coral 70% cover; 70% live | 250 / 0.30 | 1924 Tm | |
23.5.89 | 47 | 5–9; coral 50% cover; 15% live | 270 / 0.27 | 10 Tm |
48 | 4; coral 5% cover; 15% live | 300 / 0.27 | 67 Tm 1 Ts | |
49 | 4–6; coral 25% cover, 20% live | 260 / 0.26 | 180 Tm 1 Ts | |
50 | 9–10; coral 20% cover; 15% live | 250 / 0.25 | 869 Tm | |
51 | 10–12; coral 60% cover; 40% live | 260 / 0.26 | 411 Tm 1 Ts | |
52 | 8–9; coral 70% cover; 30% live | 210 / 0.21 | 753 Tm | |
53 | 10–12; coral 70% cover; 50% live | 280 / 0.28 | 377 Tm 1 Ts | |
54 | 8–10; coral 50% cover; 50% live | 225 / 0.22 | 604 Tm | |
55 | 9–10; coral 40% cover; 60% live | 250 / 0.30 | 830 Tm | |
56 | 6–9; coral 30% cover; 65% live | 195 / 0.23 | 498 Tm | |
57 | 6–8; coral 45% cover; 15% live | 290 / 0.29 | 996 Tm 1 Ts | |
58 | 8–10; coral 45% cover; 50% live | 250 / 0.25 | 821 Tm | |
59 | 6–12; coral 60% cover; 40% live | 260 / 0.26 | 145 Tm | |
60 | 8–10; coral 40% cover; 20% live | 270 / 0.27 | 290 Tm | |
24.5.89 | 61 | 0–9; coral 15% cover; 70% live; 190 spondylid oysters top 3m over 172m length | 345 / 0.34 | 29 Tm |
62 | 0–10; coral 15% cover; 60% live | 550 / 0.88 | 5 Tm | |
63 | 0–9; coral 15% cover; 60% live | 250 / 0.30 | 3 Tm | |
64 | 3–5; coral 20% cover; 50% live | 250 / 0.30 | 13 Tm | |
65 | 2–4; coral 15% cover; 10% live | 225 / 0.22 | 1 Tm | |
66 | 5–10; coral 1% cover; 10% live; sand slope | 300 / 0.27 | 12 Tm | |
67 | 5–10; coral 3% cover; 10% live | 550 / 0.49 | 3 Tm | |
68 | 3–9; coral 2% cover; 5% live | 450 / 0.32 | 0 Tm | |
69 | 9–10; coral 50% cover; 15% live | 225 / 0.16 | 19 Tm | |
70 | 6–8; coral 60% cover; 10% live | 280 / 0.19 | 5 Tm | |
25.5.89 | 71 | 5–20; coral 100% cover; 70% live; Outside reef | 500 / 1.50 | 0 Tm |
72 | 5–15; coral 100% cover; 70% live; Outside reef | 500 / 1.50 | 0 Tm | |
31.5.89/NUKUNONU | 1 | 7–10; coral 5% cover; 10% live | 200 / 0.24 | 2 Tm |
2 | 3–4; coral 10% cover; 10% live; many tunicates | 400 / 0.40 | 0 Tm | |
3 | 2–3; coral 20% cover; 10% live | 260 / 0.21 | 0 Tm | |
4 | 7–9; coral 40% cover; 20% live | 250 / 0.25 | 1245 Tm | |
5 | 6–8; coral 40% cover; 30% live | 225 / 0.11 | 2466 Tm | |
6 | 5–6; coral 40% cover; 25% live | 100 / 0.03 1 man towing | 827 Tm | |
7 | 5–6; coral 40% cover; 30% live | 230 / 0.14 | 2336 Tm | |
8 | 1–4; coral 15% cover; 25% live | 260 / 0.21 | 683 Tm | |
9 | 7–8; coral 20% cover; 25% live; 100 Tm meas. here | 250 / 0.12 | 1743 Tm | |
10 | 7–8; coral 20% cover; 25% live | 275 / 0.16 | 2918 Tm | |
11 | 6–7; coral 20% cover; 10% live | 260 / 0.21 | 2008 Tm | |
12 | 7–9; coral 45% cover; 5% live | 265 / 0.26 | 1092 Tm | |
1.6.89 | 13 | 7–8; coral 40% cover; 50% live | 270 / 0.11 | 2902 Tm |
Here, we made counts of clams on individual coral bommies of various diameters (estimated), On man counted numbers of small (1–3m diam.- aver. 2m = 6.2m2 area for a half-sphere which is general shape for massive corals; medium (3–6m - aver. 4.5m = 31.8m2; large (>6 or 7m - aver. >7m = >77m2. This only applies to tows 14–19 in Agaha loa area. The width of the tow for counting coral bommies was set at 7m (this will be shown below the first tow length and area covered by the man counting clams. | ||||
14 | 6–9; coral 20% cover; 40% live | 350 / 0.07 350 / 0.24 | 1458 Tm s-17, m-12, | |
1–3; total est. clams of4588; adjust to 0.07 ha. area = 1338 clams | ||||
15 | 6–10; coral 15% cover; 15% live | 300 / 0.06 300 / 0.21 | 875 Tm s-29, m-32, | |
1–15; total est. clams of 10,126; adjust to 0.06 ha. area = 2893 clams *tow from deeper water to start of tow 14 so less clams/bommie here | ||||
16 | 7–9; coral 20% cover; 40% live | 250 / 0.05 250 / 0.17 | 1234 Tm s-23, m-18, | |
1–9; total est. clams of 9010; adjust to 0.05 ha. area = 2650 clams | ||||
17 | 7–10; coral 20% cover; 5% live | 280 / 0.05 280 / 0.19 | 916 Tm s-18, m-11, | |
1–5; total est. clams of 5416; adjust to 0.05 ha. area = 1425 clams *tow from deeper water to start of tow 16 so less clams/bommie here | ||||
18 | 5–8; coral 5% cover; 20% live | 260 / 0.05 260 / 0.18 | 766 Tm s-18, -12, | |
1–5; total est. clams of 5620; adjust to 0.05 ha. area = 1561 clams | ||||
19 | 5–10; coral 35% cover; 10% live | 270 / 0.08 270 / 0.19 | 568 Tm s-89, m-9, | |
1–3; total est. clams of 6841; adjust to 0.08 ha. area = 2880 clams *tow from deeper water to start of tow 18 so less clams/bommie here | ||||
20 | 10–12; coral 35% cover; 15% live | 280 / 0.14 (1 diver count) | 213 Tm | |
21 | 12–14; coral 40% cover; 10% live | 280 / 0.28 | 400 Tm | |
22 | 10; coral 1% cover; 5% live | 280 / 0.39 | 14 Tm | |
2.6.89 | 23 | 3; coral <1% cover; 5% live; 752 H. atra (1 tower) | 380 / 0.38 | 2 Tm |
24 | 9; coral <1% cover; <1% live; 260 H. atra (2) | 260 / 0.26 | 0 Tm | |
25 | 4–5; coral 15% cover; 10% live; 647 H. atra (2) | 225 / 0.22 | 3 Tm | |
26 | <1–1; coral 60% cover; 10% live; mostly sand | 225 / 0.27 | 10 Tm | |
27 | 3–4; coral 5% cover; 5% live; mostly sand | 250 / 0.25 | 0 Tm | |
28 | 9–10; coral 10% cover; 5% live | 300 / 0.30 | 485 Tm 2 Ts | |
29 | 3–8; coral 8% cover; 5% live; 2/3 area sand | 290 / 0.23 | 620 Tm | |
6.6.89 | 30 | 4–7; coral 1% cover; 5% live; 43 H. atra (1 man) | 220 / 0.22 | 2 Tm |
31 | 5–12; coral 1% cover; 5% live; dead trees on sand from cyclone | 250 / 0.25 | 0 Tm | |
32 | 3–5; coral <1% cover; <1% live; 29 H. atra (1 man) | 300 / 0.30 | 6 Tm | |
33 | 1–3; coral 1–2% cover; <1% live | 250 / 0.25 | 15 Tm 1 Ts | |
34 | 7–12; coral <1% cover; <1% live | 250 / 0.25 | 1 Tm 1 Ts | |
35 | 7; coral 1% cover; 5% live | 250 / 0.25 | 5 Tm 1 Ts | |
36 | 2–5; coral 20% cover; 5% live | 300 / 0.30 | 2 Tm | |
37 | 4–8; coral 5% cover; 5% live | 250 / 0.25 | 1 Ts | |
38 | 4–6; coral 5% cover; 5% live; 129 H. atra (1 man) | 250 / 0.25 | 2 Tm | |
7.6.89 | 39 | 5–7; coral 20% cover; 15% live; bommies randomly scattered | 280 / 0.22 | 2798 Tm |
40 | 7–9; coral 25% cover; 15% live; poorer in deeper part of tow | 280 / 0.28 | 2090 Tm | |
41 | 7–10; coral 45% cover; 15% live | 270 / 0.19 | 2439 Tm | |
42 | 6–12; coral 45% cover; 15% live; poorer in deeper part of tow | 270 / 0.19 | 2400 Tm | |
43 | 8–9; coral 50% cover; 5% live; 60cm COTS seen (alomea in Tokelau) | 250 / 0.20 | 2437 Tm | |
44 | 7–12; coral 50% cover; 5% live; poorer in deeper part of tow | 250 / 0.20 | 2059 Tm 1 Ts | |
45 | 6–11; coral 20% cover; 5% live; 50 cm COTS seen | 275 / 0.22 | 2155 Tm | |
46 | 6–12; coral 15% cover; 8% live | 275 / 0.22 | 1167 Tm | |
47 | 6–15; coral 35% cover; 15% live; Tm counts over 70m length only | 290 / 0.58 | 50 Tm 3 Ts | |
48 | 5–7; coral 15% cover; 15% live | 290 / 0.29 | 486 Tm | |
49 | 3–9; coral 45% cover; 50% live | 300 / 0.30 | 195 Tm 1 Ts | |
50 | 5–12; coral 40% cover; 20% live | 300 / 0.30 | 78 Tm 1 Ts | |
51 | 8–12; coral 20% cover; 10% live | 350 / 0.35 | 8 Tm | |
52 | 4–7; coral 5% cover; 1% live | 350 / 0.35 | 0 Tm | |
53 | 8–10; coral 5% cover; <1% live | 240 / 0.29 | 0 Tm | |
54 | 1–5; coral 10% cover; 10% live; 54 H. atra and 3 B. argus (one man count) | 240 / 0.24 | 1 Tm | |
8.6.89: | 55 | 8–12; coral 75% cover; 5% live; patch reef in lagoon; Dive 1 for pearl oysters to 120ft (36.6m)-none; at 35, 80, 100, 120ft Spondylus sp. <1m, at 40ft 2 long dead Ts | 659 / 1.06 | 7 Tm |
56 | 8–12; coral 20% cover; 5% live; patch reef in lagoon | 424 / 0.68 | 2 Tm | |
57 | 2–12; coral <1% cover; <1% live; sand/rubble slope on patch reef in lagoon | 471 / 0.75 | 13 Tm | |
58 | 1–3; coral 50% cover; 30% live; edge of small patch reef in lagoon; Dive 2 for pearl oysters to 120ft-none; at 30 & 40ft Spondylus sp. 4m-2 60ft -0, 80ft-1m-2, 120ft-0 | 157 / 0.12 | 9 Tm | |
59 | 3–5; coral 15% cover; 20% live; small patch reef in lagoon | 298 / 0.24 | 6 Tm | |
9.6.89: | 60 | 9–15; coral 100% cover; 85% live; Ocean tow, outside reef | 625 / 1.87 | 3 Tm |
61 | 9–15; coral 100% cover; 90% live; Ocean tow, outside reef | 500 / 1.50 | 2 Tm | |
13.6.89: | 1 | 1–3; coral 2% cover; <1% live; high # H. atra | 180 / 0.18 | 399 Tm |
2 | 3–5; coral 5% cover; 5% live | 180 / 0.18 | 620 Tm | |
3 | 4–5; coral 5% cover; 5% live | 250 / 0.25 | 359 Tm | |
4 | 8–9; coral 5% cover; 10% live | 280 / 0.34 | 498 Tm | |
5 | 6–7; coral 35% cover; 15% live | 475 / 0.48 | 1466 Tm | |
6 | 9–12; coral 35% cover; 15% live | 475 / 0.57 | 865 Tm | |
7 | 6–7; coral 25% cover; 20% live | 260 / 0.26 | 1372 Tm | |
8 | 6–12; coral 35% cover; 20% live | 260 / 0.21 | 1180 Tm | |
9 | 5–7; coral 10% cover; 15% live | 225 / 0.22 | 875 Tm | |
10 | 5–7; coral 10% cover; 5% live | 225 / 0.22 | 700 Tm | |
11 | 3–7; coral 5% cover; 1% live | 275 / 0.28 | 301 Tm | |
12 | 3–7; coral 5% cover; 1% live | 280 / 0.28 | 185 Tm | |
13 | 5–12; coral 30% cover; 5% live | 350 / 0.42 | 7 Tm | |
14 | 5–12; coral 30% cover; 3% live | 350 / 0.42 | 1 Tm | |
15 | 4–7; coral 15% cover; 1% live | 350 / 0.42 | 3 Tm | |
16 | 3–7; coral 15% cover; 1% live | 350 / 0.42 | 1 Tm | |
17 | 6–10; coral 15% cover; 5% live | 225 / 0.18 | 0 Tm | |
18 | 3–9; coral 15% cover; 5% live | 225 / 0.18 | 1 Tm | |
14.6.89: ATAFU | 19 | 1–7; coral 5% cover; 10% live; poor vis. below 5m | 190 / 0.15 | 0 Tm |
20 | 3–7; coral <1% cover; 5% live; 4–6 H. atra m-2 | 190 / 0.15 | 1 Tm | |
21 | 2–6; coral 1% cover; 2% live; 1 H. atra m-2 | 225 / 0.18 | 5 Tm | |
22 | 3–6; coral 1% cover; 2% live | 225 / 0.18 | 2 Tm | |
23 | 4–7; coral 5% cover; 5% live; water clarity good here | 300 / 0.30 | 15 Tm | |
24 | 4–7; coral 5% cover; 5% live | 300 / 0.30 | 24 Tm | |
25 | 2–5; coral <1% cover; 5% live | 275 / 0.27 | 2 Tm | |
26 | 2–5; coral 2% cover; 5% live; 0.5 H. atra m-2 | 310 / 0.31 | 156 Tm | |
27 | 2–6; coral 5% cover; 10% live | 300 / 0.27 | 327 Tm | |
28 | 5–11; coral <1% cover; 5% live | 300 / 0.30 | 216 Tm | |
29 | 2–8; coral 30% cover; 5% live | 200 / 0.20 | 947 Tm | |
30 | 4–8; coral 10% cover; 5% live; Mose and I made a 100ft. dive to look for pearl shell, at 60ft. ~1 spondylid mPT-2PT, 80 and 100ft <<1 spondylid m-2 | 210 / 0.21 | 372 Tm | |
31 | 3–8; coral <1% cover; <1% live; ~1 H. atra m-2 | 250 / 0.25 | 133 Tm | |
32 | 4–8; coral <1% cover; <1% live | 250 / 0.25 | 15 Tm | |
33 | 3–6; coral 2% cover; 1% live | 170 / 0.17 | 0 Tm | |
15.6.89 | 34 | 3–8; coral 100% cover; 5–10% live; Ocean side tow | 350 / 0.70 | 0 Tm |
35 | 10–15; coral 100% cover; 60% live; Ocean side tow | 700 / 1.40 | 0 Tm |
APPENDIX 5:
Summary of Village Questionaire Survey. Questions are listed by number (Appendix 2 lists questions in English and Tokelauan). This summary show the answers for men and women in each of three age groups: <30yr, 30–50yr, >50yr. Answers are in fractions of the number of people interviewed in each category, ie. 2/5 indicates that 2 of 5 persons answered in the same way and the other 3/5 answered differently. The type of answer is indicated by code as outlined below. Answers for each question within row A = Fakaofo Atoll, within row B = Nukunonu Atoll, and within row C = Atafu Atoll. The codes used are as follows:
Question 1 (Q-1): 1/d (1x/day), 1/w (1x/week), 1/m (1x/month), 3/y (3x/year), etc. Ir (Irregular or Rare) , NE (never eat).
Q-2: ch (collects him (her)self), oc (others collect), fc (family collects), n (never eat, not applicable).
Q-3: A (4–6cm), B (6–8), C (8–10), D (10–15); E (15–20), F (>25cm).
Q-4a: Nnd (No, can not deplete stocks), Nnc (No, no change, Ni (No, increasing numbers),Yd (Yes, decreasing numbers).
Q-4b: NC (no change), HUT (higher use today), MIP (more in the past), LIP (larger in past), DT (diving necessary today to get clams), ET (easier to get today), L83 (extreme prolonged low tides in 1983 caused clam mortalities in shallows; El Nino Effect?), DK (do not know).
Q-5: Tms (know T. maxima and T. squamosa), Tm or Ts (T. maxima only or T. squamosa only), Tg (T. gigas), Td (T. derasa), add e (seen outside of Tokelau) to Tg or Td.
Q-6: NT (no taboos or customary laws re. clam fishing), CE (Council of Elders proposed regulations), DK (do not know).
Q-7a: N (no), Y (yes), DK (do not know).
Q-7b: N (no), Y (yes), Yi (yes, increase in clams), Yr (yes, reduction in clams), DK (do not know).
Q-8: Na (not accept law), Ya (Yes, accept law), ± (some will accept and some will oppose the law so some poaching will occur), DK (do not know).
Q-9a: N (no), Y (yes), DK (do not know).
Q-9b: S (experiment will be safe), Sl (safe only if the council makes a law and manages it, perhaps with a fisheries caretaker), U (unsafe, will be damaged), DK (do not know).
Q-10: Answers will be listed under Results in the text.
* Asterisk indicates a question may have had 2 legitimate answers by the same person(s) so that the fraction denominator will still indicate the actual number of people answering the question but the numerator may appear larger than it should be. The number of people did not remain the same for all questions because some people did not answer some questions.
PEARL OYSTER: NS (never seen), Y (yes, found him (her) self) [year if known], Yo (yes, other person found one but they know of it or saw the shell).
Question | Island | < 30yr | 30–50yr | > 50yr | |||
Men | Women | Men | Women | Men | Women | ||
Q-1 | A | 2/w-1/5 | 2/w-1/4 | 1/m-3/5 | 4/m-3/7 | 1/w-2/7 | 3/w-1/5 |
1/w-1/5 | 1/m-2/4 | 2/m-2/5 | 3/m-1/7 | 1/m-1/7 | 1/w-1/5 | ||
4/m-1/5 | 6/y-1/4 | 2/m-1/7 | 8/y-1/7 | 3/m-1/5 | |||
3/m-1/5 | 1/m-1/7 | 6/y-1/7 | 2/m-1/5 | ||||
2/m-1/5 | 5/y-1/7 | 4/y-1/7 | 6/y-1/5 | ||||
B | 4/w-1/6 | 1/m-2/6 | 3/m-1/4 | 3/m-1/6 | 2/w-2/5 | 2/w-1/5 | |
2/m-1/6 | 10/y-1/6 | 2/m-1/4 | 2/m-1/6 | 3/m-1/5 | 1/m-3/5 | ||
1/m-3/6 | 6/y-2/6 | 1/m-1/4 | 1/m-2/6 | 2/m-1/5 | 6/y-1/5 | ||
2/y-1/6 | 3/y-1/6 | 1/y-1/4 | 6/y-1/6 | 4/y-1/5 | |||
Ir-1/6 | |||||||
C | 2/m-1/5 | 2/y-1/1 | 1/m-1/3 | 1/y-2/2 | 2/m-2/3 | 2/m-2/3 | |
1/m-1/5 | 2/m-1/3 | 1/y-1/3 | |||||
8/y-1/5 | 3/y-1/3 | ||||||
6/y-1/5 | |||||||
2/y-1/5 | |||||||
Q-2 | A | ch-5/5 | ch-2/4 | ch-5/5 | ch-5/7 | ch-6/7 | ch-3/5 |
fc-2/4 | fc-2/7 | fc-1/7 | fc-2/5 | ||||
B | ch-6/6 | ch-3/6 | ch-4/4 | ch-4/5 | ch-3/5 | ch-1/5 | |
fc-3/6 | oc-1/5 | fc-2/5 | fc-3/5 | ||||
oc-1/5 | |||||||
C | ch-5/5 | oc-1/1 | ch-3/3 | oc-2/2 | ch-2/2 | oc-1/3 | |
fc-2/3 | |||||||
Q-3 | A | C-4/5 | C-1/3 | C -1/5 | C -4/5 | D -3/6 | A -1/5 |
E -1/5 | D -1/3 | D -1/5 | D -1/5 | D -3/6 | B -2/5 | ||
F -2/5* | E -1/3 | E -1/5 | F -1/5* | C -1/5 | |||
B | C -4/6 | C -3/6 | C -1/4 | C -2/5 | C -3/5 | C -3/5 | |
D -2/6 | D -3/6 | D -3/4 | D -3/5 | D -2/5 | D -2/5 | ||
E -2/5* | |||||||
F -1/5* | |||||||
C | C -3/5 | C -3/5 | B -1/3 | C -2/2 | B -1/2 | C -2/3 | |
D -1/5 | C -1/3 | D -1/2 | D -1/3 | ||||
E -1/5 | D -1/3 | ||||||
Q-4a | A | Nnd-1/5 | Yd-4/4 | Nnc-1/5 | Nnc-1/7 | Nnc-1/7 | Nnd-2/5 |
Nnc-1/5 | Yd -4/5 | Yd -6/7 | Yd -6/7 | Nnc-1/5 | |||
Yd -3/5 | Yd -2/5 | ||||||
B | Nnc-2/6 | Yd-5/6 | Yd -4/4 | Nnd-1/5 | Nnc-3/5 | Yd -5/5 | |
Yd -4/6 | DK-1/6 | Nnc-1/5 | Yd-2/5 | ||||
Yd -2/5 | |||||||
DK -1/5 | |||||||
C | Nnd-1/5 | DK-1/1 | Nnd-1/3 | Yd-1/2 | Yd -2/2 | Yd -2/3 | |
Yd -4/5 | Ni -1/3 | DK -1/2 | DK -1/3 | ||||
Yd -1/3 | |||||||
Q-4b | A | NC -1/5 | MIP-4/4 | MIP-2/3 | MIP-5/7 | HUT-1/7 | NC -1/5 |
MIP-2/5 | DT -1/3 | DT -1/7 | MIP-4/7 | HUT-1/5 | |||
DT -2/5 | DK -1/7 | LIP-1/7 | MIP-2/5 | ||||
DT-2/7* | ET-2/5* | ||||||
B | NC -1/5 | MIP-3/4 | MIP-1/4 | MIP-2/5 | NC-1/5 | HUT-1/5 | |
HUT-1/5 | DK-1/4 | LIP-1/4 | LIP-2/5 | MIP-2/5 | MIP-3/5 | ||
MIP-2/5 | DT-2/4* | L83-1/5* | DT -1/5 | DT -1/5 | |||
L83-1/5 | L83-1/4 | DK -1/5 | L83-2/5* | ||||
C | MIP-4/5 | DK -1/1 | NC-1/3 | MIP-1/2 | HUT-1/2 | MIP-1/2 | |
ET-1/5 | MIP-1/3 | ET -1/2 | MIP-1/2 | DK -1/2 | |||
ET -1/3 | |||||||
Q-5 | A | Tms-5/5 | Tms-4/4 | Tms-5/5 | Tms-6/7 | Tms-4/6 | Tms-5/5 |
Tde-1/7 | Tde-1/6 | ||||||
Tge-1/6 | |||||||
B | Tms-5/6 | Tms-6/6 | Tms-4/4 | Tms-5/5 | Tms-5/5 | Tms-5/5 | |
Tge-1/6 | |||||||
C | Tms-3/5 | Tms-1/1 | Tms-3/3 | Tms-2/2 | Tms-1/2 | Tms-1/3 | |
Tm -2/5 | Tm - 1/2 | Tm -2/3 | |||||
Q-6 | A | NT -4/5 | NT -2/4 | NT -4/5 | NT -5/7 | NT -4/7 | NT -4/5 |
CE -1/5 | CE -1/4 | CE -1/5 | CE -2/7 | CE -3/7 | CE -1/5 | ||
DK -1/4 | |||||||
B | NT -3/6 | NT -4/6 | NT -3/4 | NT -4/5 | NT -4/5 | NT -4/5 | |
CE -1/6 | CE-3/6* | CE-2/4* | CE-1/5* | CE-5/5* | CE-4/5* | ||
DK -2/6 | DK -1/5 | DK -1/5 | |||||
C | NT -2/5 | NT -1/1 | NT -3/3 | NT -2/2 | NT -1/1 | NT -2/3 | |
CE -2/5 | CE -1/3 | ||||||
DK -1/5 | |||||||
Q-7a | A | N -1/5 | N -2/4 | N -2/5 | N -5/7 | Y -7/7 | N -4/5 |
Y -4/5 | Y -2/4 | Y -3/5 | Y -2/7 | Y -7/7 | Y -1/5 | ||
B | Y -6/6 | Y -5/6 | Y -4/4 | N -1/5 | N -2/5 | N -1/5 | |
DK -1/6 | Y -4/5 | Y -2/5 | Y -4/5 | ||||
DK -1/5 | |||||||
C | N -3/5 | N -1/1 | N -3/3 | Y -1/2 | N -1/2 | N -1/3 | |
Y -2/5 | DK -1/2 | Y -1/2 | Y -2/3 | ||||
Q-7b | A | Y -3/5 | N -1/4 | N -1/4 | N -1/7 | Y -3/7 | N -2/5 |
Yi -1/5 | Y -2/4 | Y -1/4 | Y -1/7 | Yi-2/7 | Y -1/5 | ||
Yr -1/5 | Yr -1/4 | Yi -1/4 | Yi -4/7 | Yr-2/7 | Yi -2/5 | ||
Yr -2/4 | Yr -1/7 | ||||||
B | Yi -1/5 | Yr -1/2 | Yr -4/4 | N -1/4 | N -1/5 | Yr -5/5 | |
Yr -4/5 | DK -1/2 | Yi -1/4 | Yi -3/5 | ||||
Yr -2/4 | DK -1/5 | ||||||
C | N -1/5 | Y -1/1 | Yi -2/2 | Y -1/1 | Y -1/1 | Y -1/2 | |
Y -1/5 | Yr -1/2 | Yi -1/2 | |||||
Yi -1/5 | |||||||
Yr -2/5 | |||||||
Q-8 | A | Na -1/5 | Ya -3/3 | Ya -4/5 | Na -1/7 | Ya -5/7 | Na -1/5 |
Ya -2/5 | ± -1/5 | Ya -4/7 | ± -2/7 | Ya -1/5 | |||
± -1/5 | ± -2/7 | ± -3/5 | |||||
DK -1/5 | |||||||
B | Na -1/6 | Ya -6/6 | Ya -3/4 | Ya -5/5 | Na -1/5 | Ya-4/5 | |
Ya -4/6 | ± -1/4 | Ya -2/5 | ± -1/5 | ||||
± -1/6 | ± -2/5 | ||||||
C | Na -1/5 | DK -1/1 | Na -1/3 | Ya -2/2 | Ya -2/2 | Ya -3/3 | |
Ya -3/5 | Ya -2/3 | ||||||
± -1/5 | |||||||
Q-9a | A | Y -5/5 | Y -4/4 | Y -5/5 | N -1/7 | Y -7/7 | Y -5/5 |
Y -6/7 | |||||||
B | Y -6/6 | Y -6/6 | Y -4/4 | Y -5/5 | Y -5/5 | Y -5/5 | |
C | N -1/5 | Y -1/1 | Y -3/3 | Y -2/2 | Y -2/2 | Y-3/3 | |
Y -4/5 | |||||||
Q-9b | A | S -1/5 | S -2/3 | Sl-3/4 | S -1/6 | S -1/7 | S -2/5 |
Sl-3/5 | Sl-1/3 | U -1/4 | Sl-4/6 | Sl-5/7 | Sl-2/5 | ||
U -1/5 | U -1/6 | U -1/7 | U -1/5 | ||||
B | Sl -3/6 | S -3/6 | S -2/4 | Sl -2/4 | Sl-2/5 | S -1/5 | |
Sl-3/6 | Sl-2/6 | Sl-2/4 | U -2/4 | U -3/5 | Sl-3/5 | ||
U -1/6 | U -1/5 | ||||||
C | S -3/5 | U -1/1 | S-1/3 | S -1/2 | S-2/2 | S-2/3 | |
U -2/5 | Sl-1/3 | U -1/2 | U -1/3 | ||||
U -1/3 | |||||||
PEARL OYSTER QUESTION: | |||||||
A | NS-4/5 | NS-4/4 | NS-3/5 | NS-4/7 | NS-2/7 | NS-3/5 | |
Y -1/5 | Yo-1/5 | Yo-1/7 | Yo-1/7 | Yo-1/5 | |||
(19??) | (1985) | (~1960) | (19??) | (~1968) | |||
Y -1/5 | -1/7 | Y -1/7 | -1/5 | ||||
(19??) | (1988) | (1987) | (1950s) | ||||
Y-1/7 | -1/7 | ||||||
(1978) | (~1947) | ||||||
-1/7 | |||||||
('54-'74) | |||||||
-1/7 | |||||||
(~1975) | |||||||
B | NS-5/6 | NS-6/6 | NS-3/4 | NS-3/5 | NS-3/5 | NS-5/5 | |
Y -1/6 | Y-1/4 | Y -1/5 | Yo-1/5 | ||||
(~1980) | (1981) | (~1973) | (~1985) | ||||
-1/5 | Y -1/5 | ||||||
(1976) | (~1985) | ||||||
C | NS-3/5 | NS-1/1 | NS-1/3 | Yo-1/2 | NS-1/2 | NS-3/3 | |
Y-1/5 | Y -1/3 | (1984) | Y -1/2 | ||||
(1984) | (1984) | -1/2 | (1954) | ||||
Yo-1/5 | Yo-1/3 | (1985) | |||||
(1984) | (1957) |