Mediterranean species needs
Mr. J. GUILLAUME
INTRODUCTION
Those species found in the Mediterranean can not be clearly defined. The species reared for commercialization have no particular characteristics either. As the climatic conditions have little influence on the nutritional requirements, a bibliographical review is uncalled for. Therefore, it appears preferable to limit this report to two typical families of Mediterranean aquaculture; sparidae and serranidae. As there is little information available on these families; when referring to nutrition, it is that for teleoster which is generally taken into account while applying the classical works (HALVER 1972; HOAR and RANDALL 1969–1979; Anonyme 1981). It often happens that the studies carried out on the best known family have been taken as reference: salmonidae. But, before going into details, let us recall the excellent review by ALLIOT and PASTOUREAu, 1984 also.
Before giving a brief account on larvae broodstock needs and the different facters liable to modify requirements, juveniles shall be the first case to be examined, while reviewing the essential energy and food needs. Finally, the nutritional particularities of the fish by which we are concerned, shall be taken into account.
I - JUVENILE FEED REQUIREMENT
1.1. Energy requirements
1.1.1. The importance of this requirement
The first requirement remarked, when fish or superior vertebrates fast, is their energy requirement. Experiments carried out by ROZIN and MAYER, 1961, point out clearly that when the energetic density of a diet is changed, the gold fish can adopts its consumption in such a way so that its energetic consumption is nearly always constant. Numerous nutritional and non-nutritional factors can modify this balance (FLETCHER 1984) but it can be admitted that if the fish is fed ad libitum, it can make up for its needs, as long as the diet given is sufficiently appetizing and not greatly diluted with non - nutritional feed.
This principle, now greatly accepted by land vertebrates, furnishes a very simple and good way of expressing nutritional needs. Indeed, for a given animal in a given condition, if the needs or standards employed by the food manufacturers are expressed in percentages of the energetic level, the animal fed ad libitum, will have satisfied its requirements in amino-acids, vitamins and other nutrients along with nits energetic requirements. Theoretically, this would justify the systematic measurement of the energy consumed each time the requirements in any nutriment are studied. It would also justify a thorough study of the different factors liable of modifying the energetic consumption and so the energetic requirements of fish.
Many works have been certainly devoted to this subject and just taking the more recent reviews as example, let us mention the synthesis by FISHER, 1979; BRETT and GROVES, 1979. The great relation of the energetic consumption evolution are well known; proportionality between the “basal” or routine consumption (standard metabolism) and the body weight, revised to a power while not taking into account the temperature, size nor species (around 0, 8 power); the relative effect of temperature and salinity; the physical activity of the fish etc..Nevertheless, there are yet many problems to settle
- The effect of temperature has been hardly ever studied in a zone of sufficient size, so that, for a given species the range of “proportio nalite”, (existance of a constant Q10) the compensation zone, where respiration reaches its maximum and the highest temperature limit is compatible with life, cannot be defined. The relation, between growth rates and temperature for different sizes or ages (BRETT 1979) has not been thoroughly examined either at rearing level.
- Few global have been proposed and it is rarely found that the same study comprehends a way to plan the effect of size, feed rates or temperature. Particular attention should be paid to the works carried out by HOGENDOORN and a1, 1982 and HOGENDOORn, 1983 on the african cat fish Clarias lasera on this subject.
- The ration tables are more or less of empiric origine. those by HOGENOORN, 1983, are somewhat an exception.
1.1.2. Energetic consumption of sea-bass and of sea-bream
There are few studies dealing with consumption for those fish by which we are concerned. For records, the records, the works carried out by PIONETTI, 1984, on the embryo of sea-bass, that by ELORIGE and a1, 1982 and by CECH, 1981, on the embryo and juvenile of the american striped bass Morone saxatilis, could be taken into account. However, to our knowledge there is but one thorough study on the energetic consumption of the european sea-bass (Dicentrarchus labrax), that by BICAL, 1979. this author, points out that the relation between oxygen consumption (thus energetic consumption) and body weight is very close to the general interspecific relation by WINBERG, 1956, and also that found for the american striped bass, Morone saxatilisby KRUGER and BROKSEN, 1978. The energetic consumption increases regularly when the temperature rises from 8° to 25° C, although the maximum Q10 is between 10° and 15° C, reaching more than 20° C. Therefore, the sea-bass seems to be a relative hot water fish, which is not very unlikely. Salinity has little influence on the energetic consumption, even when it varies around 2, 5 to 45 %. This unexpected result goes to show that the osmoregulation consumption is overestimated and could be interpreted as a consequence of the euryhalinity of the species.
With sea-bream Chrysophrys major, a different result can be achieved, while using the classical theories: this fish can live longer at a salinity level of 12%, which means, in conditions where osmozeregulation consumption is at it's lowest level (WOO and MURAT, 1981).
Finally, it can be said that the sea-bass is a relatively classical fish from an energetic point of view. BOHAC, 1981, has already proposed ration tables in function of the body weight and the temperature of the water. However, it seems that additional work in this field is necessary, especially so that the optimum temperature and the “routine margin for the activity” (by FRY, 1957) may be defined precisely. OUr knowledge being limited, it also seems difficult to define the consumptions liked with physical activity, which in turn is itself linked with climatic factors and rearing conditions. Empiric works are still necessary in this sphere.
As for sea-bream Sparus aurata, there is hardly any data available on the energetic metobolism. However, the preliminary works by DOSDAT, 1984, carried out in rearing tanks and not in a laboratory, shows that it must be assumed that a fish having a relatively high metabolic consumption, even greater than that of sea-bass, could be partly due to the quicker growth speed of sea-bream at the age when examined.
1.1.3. Use of the energy from the diet and coverage of sea-bream requirements
For the past century zootechnicians who deal with land animals have proposed partition methods of the chemistry energy of food, in faces energy, nitrogenous wastes energy and energy used by the animal (metabolisable, digestible or net energy). The latter fraction being used to cover the consumption of the standard metabolism, muscular consumption, anabolism consumption etc…This method has been transposed to fish by the authors (ex RUMSEY, 1977; CHO, SLINGER and BAYLEY, 1982). The only theoretical particularity with fish is the persisting doubt on the linearity relations between losses (ex: faeces and food injected (HOGENDOON, 1983)
Theoretically, it is therefore possible to estimate for a fish, the capacity of any food to cover the energetic requirements above mentioned, or at least for fish of moderate consumption: if sufficient measures, were employed, energetic values, digestible or metabolisable tables, could be made out for the principal food ingredients so to formulate diets of known energetic level.
In practice, this work is more difficult with fish than with land animals, due to the fact that it is very hard, to collect excrements in water and especially to measure branchial and urinary nitrogenous wastes. To our knowledge, no data on the digestible or metabolisable energetic value is available on the sea-bass or the sea-bream, only a few measures on protenic digestibility have been carried out by ALLIOT, 1982. Salmonidae, which are the nearest species, were employed to take these measures (RUMSEY, 1977; CHO and al, 1982).
1.1.4. The role of proteins, glucides and lipids as sources of energy.
Technology being as it is, it is impossible to say precisely what quantity of respective energy is furnished by proteins, glucides and lipids in the food distributed out to sparidae and serranidae, as their digestibility is still unknown. By the food distributed and their estimated digestibility, it seems clear however, that the balance of these three main categories of food play a principal part not only for growth (this is evident for proteins, lipids, another molecule source is also known) but also for the good use of food energy itself. This balance influences the part of energy employed for the thermic consumptions and tissue synthesis. But because of the double part played by proteins and lipids, which supply unsynthetizable molecule though organism and energy sources, It is very complex to determine the best balance between these three categories of food. This has only been tackeled very briefly: for instance, research work has been carried out on the optimal proteinic rate and the best calory-nitrogene relation, etc…)
1.1.4.1. Optimal proteinic rates for the sea-bass as for the sea-bream have been often studied, the results of which are not very convergent; the differences remarked may be attributed either to variations. in requirements themselves (differences in species, in size, growth rates special environmental conditions) or to the study methods employed and especially to the type of diet (digestibility of the various elements, nature and percentage of glucides and lipids, (digestibility and biological value of the proteins,...) The same applies for the different species of sea-bream as the “need” estimates start at a 40% SABAUT and LUQUET, 1973 (Sparatus aurata) reaching 55% after YONE, 1976 (Chrysophrys major).
The estimates are homogenous with sea-bass as they go from 50 % (ALLIOT and al. 1974) to more than 53%, if the works carried out by METAILLER and al, 1981, are taken into account. The latter shows that there is improvement of growth weight when the proteinic tenor of the direct passes from 53 to 63%. But even with higher rates, proteins are well digested by sea-bass (BRIGAUDEAU, 1981; PERES, 1981; ALLIOT, 1982) and are always an excellent source of energy.
1.1.4.2. The energy/protein relation (often known as calory-nitrogen relation) gives a more homogenous criterion than proteinic rates do, so the energetic level is taken into account, even if it cannot be thoroughly estimated. A thorough study has been carried out on juvenile sea-bass by ALLIOT and al, 1979 and by ALLIOT, 1982, the optimal value of this relation is situated around 7 to 8 kcal of metabolisable energy per g. of proteins. Creater values, corresponding to a certain proteinic deficiency, are explained by the decrease in the conversion rate which doesn't even show an improvement in the proteinic efficiency coefficient, often remarked with land vertebrates.
However this relation does not take into account the two possible origins of non proteinic energy.
1.1.4.3. The optimal rate of lipids has been studied with sea-bass as with sea-bream. Once the essential fatty acid needs have been satisfied, it seems, lipids are the most appropriate source of energy, that spares proteins. By the fact, like most teleoster, these fish make good use of low fusion point lipids at digestive as well as at metabolic level, but a limit above which growth rates decreases has been remarked many authors. It is around 12% for sea-bass (ALLIOT and al, 1974) and 9% for Sparus aurata (MARAIS and KISSIL, 1979) and 10% for Chrysophrys major (YONE and al, 1971 – 1975).
The differences are too slight for them to be imputed to specific requirements. It can also be remarked that the maximum dose tolerated is feeble when compared, with that supported by salmonidae, where 15–16 % rates are usually found in certain marketable feed. It is not to be taken for granted that this superior limit has been studied adequately and so requires further study.
1.1.4.4. Glucides are a more rare source of energy in the natural feed of fish by which we are concerned. Indeed it can be estimated that with prey fish, one or more percent of glycogen is found in the dry matter. However, it should be remarked that up to 10 % of glycogen dry matter basis can be found in the lung tissues of molluscs. It is well known that teleoster have little or no enzymatic store concerning glucydasis (PEBES, 1979) A second limit for the use of glucides is found at the metabolic level, the fish being prone to diabetes (SHIMENO and al, 1979).
By this fact, if some herbivorous fish are excluded and especially sole, which consumes mollusc rich in glycogen, a great increase of glucides is quickly remarked. through the bad regulation of the glycemia, hypertrophy of the liver, linked with the storage of glycogen, slow growth, etc... There are certainly big differences between the various types of glucides. Glucides of feeble molecular weight digested by land vertebrates are also digestable by fish which evidently doesn't stop these same constituants from causing the metabolic disorders which we have spoken about. Starches, which very well assimilated by earth vertebrates are not so by fish, moreover as high rates are incorporated.
This phenomenon especially remarked with salmonidae, has been also found with sea-bass and sea-bream. Thus the bad effect that the glucose has on growth and hepatomegaly has been described for japonese sea-bream by FRUICHI and al, 1971, above a 10 % ratio, and for sea-bass by ALLIOT and al, 1979, who employed a much greater amount (around 20 %). It must also be remarked the negative effect that glucose has on the absorption of proteins, stressed by the first authors. thus it is quite clear, that glucides can but spare a small quantity of proteins, the highest limit being difficult to define, is around 15 % which is less than for salmonidae.
It is surprising to remark that the lowest limit of the glucide rates has been very briefly studied; It could be supposed that sea-bass and sea-bream can completely do without gluciders as there are no essential needs of these and that the gluconeogenesis is very effective with carnivorous fish of this type (BEVER and al, 1981 ). We shall however mention the preliminary results obtained by SPYRIDAKIS and METAILLER, 1985, which show that growth is delayed if the diet only includes small amounts of glucides, 6 % therefore quite sufficient.
1.1.4.5. In conclusion, the energetic needs for sea-bass and for sea-bream have not yet been studied precisely. The energetic value of the food given, is concluded from the experiments carried out on other species: The routine measures of digestable energy being at its beginning for sea-bass, to our knowledge. In spite of these blanks, there is much more information available on the energy furnished by proteinic, lipidic and glucidic food. these studies seem to show that there is little hope of feeding carnivorous fish rich glucidic diets, a part from the more predator species of molluscs which calls for a more detailed study.
1.2. Protein needs
1.2.1. The qualitative needs in essential amino-acids
The essential amino-acids required by the sea-base have been defined by METAILLER and al, 1973. From this study, at least nine amino-acids are unsynthetizable by sea-bass, there are still a few doubts about cystine and tryptophan which have not been studied while tyrosine could be classed among the semi-indispensable amino-acids, as they synthesis from phenylalamine seems possible. However, the qualitative needs of the sea-bass are very similar if not identical to those of other teleosteans and land vertebrates.
For the japonese sea-bream, SAKAMOTO and YONE, 1972, employing the most classical technique of purified diets without amino-acids, showed clearly the essential and non-essential amino-acids for these species; cystine and tyrosine are not essential. No information in this sphere on Sparus aurata is known.
1.2.2. Qualitative needs of essential amino-acids
The amount of essential amino-acids could be defined in many ways, by employing diets, lacking the essential amino-acids and by adding progressively this substance or by employing more or less mixed proteins.Both methods don't necessarly give the same results, as pure amino-acids are not always properly employed by fish (THEBAUT, 1983).
Although the real needs are the quantities expressed per day for an animal of given weight and of physicological characteristics, the “needs” are often in fact, the food percentages permitting the maximum growth of the animal.
By using the growth speed as criterion, LUQUET and SABAUT, 1973. have been able to define as following for sea-bream the lysine, sulphur amino acids and tryptophan needs. The authors find no better performance when the diet contains more than 1.5 % of arginine. This could signify that there is little need of this essential amino-acid or that its degree is perturbed by the particular part that arginine plays in the urea cycle, in relation with osmoregulation. It is a common known fact that with trout, the arginine need decreases when the fish is changed from fresh water to salt water (KAUSHIK, 1979). These essential amino-acid needs are very similar to those found for the quinnat salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) apart from arginine, which seems to indicate that the similarity between the needs, which is evident from a qualitative point of view is also applicable from a quantitative point of view.
Sea-bass require fewer essential amino-acids, but the study carried out by THEBAULT, 1983, from a different criterion must be remarked : the plasma tenor and free amino-acid tissues. This author shows, that with a diet containing barm and purified soya protein, the need sis 1, 2 to 1, 3 5 of the food which is 18 to 20 mg per day and per 100 g of live weight.
The other essential amino-acids must be studied individually: In default of this work, it should be better to adopt the balance of the essential amino-acids of the ideal protein, obtained from a hen's egg or that of the “average protein” of the species considered; both methods furnish debatable results.
1.2.3. Protein quantitative needs
With superior vertebrates which are reared at industrial scales, the diet formula is usually estimated, by taking as basis, the essential amino-acid need expressed per unit of metabolisable or digestible energy. This method however assumes that there be a sufficient amount of normal amino-acids so that the proteinic anabolism is not limited.
To estimate the “true” (daily necessary supply) total protein needs, the maintainance needs and growth needs could be measured. The first measure was carried out by ALLIOT (1982) employing sea-bass and the need would be from 390 mg. per 100 g.-1 of the metabolic weight. However, the proteinic need of growth expressed per g. of proteinic gain has not yet been established it is very difficult to define, because of the double role played by proteins which are at the same time a nitrogenous and an energy source.
1.2.4. In conclusion, the quantitative “need” of serranidae and sparidae in essential amino-acids, is roughly known. They yet to be expressed in function of the food energy while the age of the animal must be taken into account, as is applied with superior vertebrates. From a practical point of view, as long as great quantities of biological high value proteins. such as animal meal, are employed, the essential amino-acid need is more or less covered when the proteinic need is adequate. In other words, all proteins become limiting more quickly than amino-acids when the total nitrogenous matter level is lowered. The need of one of these elements, independantly of the others, can be determined however and numerous studies shall have to be reexamined if proteins and amino-acids are to be cut to a minimum.
1.3. Fatty acid needs
Since the works carried out by CASTELL (1972) which show how necessary serie w-3 fatty acids are, (the linolenic acid family) numerous studies have been carried out on this problem, sea-bass and sea-bream included ( see review by COWEY and SARGENT, 1977; CASTELL, 1979). It is only possible to cover the essential amino-acid needs of this serie, which are mostly polyunsaturated long clain fatty acids 20: 5 w-3 et 22: 6 w-3, by supplying directly these same fatty acids (YONE and FUJII, 1975, a and b, FUJII and YONE, 1976). Indeed, on the contrary of that remarked with trout for example, the desaturation elongation mecanisms permitting the synthesis of these fatty acids from linolenic acid (18: 3, w-3) are quite insufficient (YONE, 1978; WATANABE, 1982). Excess of linolenic acid has visibly a bad effect on the lipidic metabolism and consequently on the growth of fish.
From a quantitative point of view the japonese sea-bream does not have a great of serie w-3 essential fatty acids.
YONE, 1978, estimates them at 0, 5 p in the diet, the latter containing 2, 5% of cold liver oil or 5 to 6 5 of fish oil about.
The role played by serie w-6 fatty acids has not yet been clarified for the fish by which we are concerned. It has been proven that these fatty acids which are the principal essential fatty acids of land vertebrates, play a vital role somewhat similar for fish, they can be the origin of the synthesis of certain postaglandines for gold fish (HERMAN and al, 1984). Generally, feeble amounts are incorporated into triglycerids and also into phospholipids. However, if there are great quantities present in the food and if serie w-3 essential fatty acids are lacking especially, growth is delayed and the lipid composition is totally modified. It is unknown if sparidae and serranidae have a need of these fatty acids and precise data, on the tolerable maximum, is also lacking.
From a practical point of view, with serranidae and sparidae the w-3 and w-6 series (if necessary) of essential fatty acid needs are always covered if the food contains an amount of oil corresponding to the optimum which is empirically established, as long as oil of marine origin is employed. It seems feasible to use vegetable oil rich in series w-6 fatty acids once the needs of polyunsaturated long chain fatty acids have been satisfied (YONE and al, 1971) but the consequences on growth and composition have yet to be established.
Another subject calls for reflexion: what happens about the needs of the sea-bass when it is reared in low salinity as the w-6/w-3 relation increases generally with euryhalin fish when they are changed from sea water to fresh water (see CASTELL, 1979) ?
1.4. Vitamins
The role and the need of vitamins by fish have been thoroughly studied, especially fir salmonidae (HALVER, 1972) Fish have the same vitamin requirements as land animal with the possibility of three exceptions: vitamin D, vitamin K and paraminobenzoic acid for which a direct role in the physicological metabolism of the fish is still unsure.
In the other cases, the only particularities of fish, concern the symptoms of deficiency which not only differ from those known for land animals but seem to vary from one species to another. Other evident incertitudes are found concerning the quantitative needs: The present values published are often overestimated, which means rather the normes or recommandations than the true needs.
The work carried out by GODELUCK, 1983, on vitamins for sea-bass is very complete. Employing simplified diets (not purified) containing or not the vitamin in question, this author was unable to deprive the sea-bass juvenile of ribo-flavin, pyridoxin and even vitamin A and E, which seems to indicate that there is an overstimation of the needs or an underestimation of the ingredient supply. with vitamin C it is different: It is known that the ingredients employed in the usual composition of food do not contain vitamin C and moreover that pure ascorbic acid added to this food is always destroyed partially by the normal technological procedures. By this fact, it is difficult to determine the true need of sea-bass. To allow for losses during manufacture and stocking, the same supply as that employed for salmonidae is recommended: 500 mg/kg of food.
For japonese sea-bream, research work has been started by the japonese author (YONE, 1976). After studying the effects that a semi-purified diet lacking in a vitamin each time, these authors point out the essential role of group B vitamins sensu stricto such as thiamine, riboflavine, pyridoxin, pantothenic acid and vitamin B 12 together with choline, inositol and ascorbic acid. The results obtained on para aminobenzoic acids, folic acid and biotine are inconclusive: but for the two last vitamins mentioned it is known that small quantities are required and maybe the experimental period was too short (102 days) to induse a net deficiency. The diet 3employed by YONE (op.cit.) containing fish oil, make it impossible to carry out studies on group A vitamins.
To our knowledge no study of this type has been carried out on sea-bream (Sparus aurata) However the description given by PAPEHNA and al, 1980, on the systemic granuloma which has been since linked with the deficiency in vitamin C for turbot, (TIXERANT and al, 1984) must be taken into account.
There are few measures of measures of quantitative needs available. For sea-bass they are practically inexistant: for sea-bream they are limited to inositol and pyridoxine. The inositol requirement for growing fish is around 0,05 to 0,1 % of the diet (YONE, FURUICHI and SHITANDA, 1971) while the pyridoxin requirement is around 0,2 – 0,5 or 0,5 – 0,6 mg/kg -1 depending on what criterion is taken, the weight gain or the hepatic transaminasis activity (TAKEDA and YONE, 1971) it must be remarked that these values are only slightly inferior to those obtained for the same vitamin B 6 with Sparus aurata by KISSIL (1979).
Finally it can be said that little is known concerning the quantitative requirements in vitamins for serranidae and sparidae. The works carried out by GODELUCK (op.cit.) accredit the thesis by which the sea-bass has fewer requirements than was supposed, even fewer than those for salmonidae. Assuming this, it should be better to aim all research work on vitamin E which has the antioxydizing role of intervening in the food itself (where it is possible, avoid using the synthetic antioxydizing agent) and at tissue level, together with vitamin C, which in artificial food is often deficient.
However, the extract importance of the requirements in vitamins A and B must be defined prudently until precise measures have been taken.
1.5. The minerals
Although a marine fish has the same inorganic element needs as a land animal or a fresh water fish, it is difficult to say the food requirement of these elements, as for most of these, the result obtained from its organism depends at first, on the branchial and intestinal absorption of water drank, on the renal intestinal excretions, and only slightly on the intestinal absorption of food (LALL, 1979).
The principal exception is phosphorus which although absorbable from water, is found in insufficient quantities to satisfy the needs of the organism.
It is due to the research work carried out by YONE (1976) that the nutritional role of phosphorus with japanese sea-bream was proven and the first estimates of needs were given. The works show that the deficiency delays growth and transformation rates, decreases the serum's mineral phosphorus level and bone calcification and alters the body composition.
The requirement is 0,6 and 1,38 % of the diet which is a rather high level. It can be remarked that YONE (1976) associates (without insisting) this need to a phosphocalcic ratio (Ca/P) of 0,5 about.
As there is a correct calcium contribution by sea-water even if there is no food supply, the signification of this ratio should be taken prudently: which doesn't otherwise signify that there are no interactions between Ca and P in the diet on the phosphorocalcic metabolism.
It can be remarked that the works carried out by BACLE (1980), although not as thorough as those by the japonese team, on seas-bream, show however the preponderant role of phosphorus with this species.
The only other relatively rare mineral element found in the sea water is iron, which intervenes, as known, in the synthesis of hemoglobin. The comparison of purified food with or without additives has been carried out by YONE (1976) with the japonese sea-bream. No significant difference of performance has been remarked, which shows clearly that even when this oligoelement is absent, no severe deficiency is remarked. However with dosages of hemoglobin, the authors show clearly a typical anemia of iron deficiency.
No study is known on other minerals, such as manganese, copper or zinc. A deficiency in these elements seems most improbable, but it must be remarked, even with a great food supply, excess in calcium can inhibit the absorption of the oligo elements and so cause deficiencies. The phenomenon, well known with land vertebrates is also liable to happen with fish (LALL, 1979). KOENIG (1984) draws attention to cases found with fresh water fish, feed diets containing fish meal rich in ash.
1.6. Other requirements
The different types of needs, accepted by animals have been reviewed. However, fish may not have strictly the name needs as superior vertebrates.
Many tests have been carried out where fish fed fresh fish or other living feed had a quicker growth speed than their homologues fed manufactured artificial feed. It has been assumed that other organic molecules (unknown growth factors) could be responsible for these differences. But in many cases natural food is more advantages due to the distinct property that it contains, not mentioning its nutritional value: appetence.
At present it is known that the different attitudes that fish has towards food depends greatly on the small organic and hydrosoluble molecules, such as organic basis, amino-acids, nucleotides; this, when the fish start taking and ingesting feed. Numerous studies on the effects of these compounds have been carried out on japonese sea-bream. (GOTH and TAMURA, 1980, FUKE and al, 1981). In practice these works are still uncertain but it must recalled that the appetence or inappetence must be taken into account. There is little information, on the above for sea-bream Sparus aurata but the first research work carried out by TANDLER and al, 1983 however could be taken into account.
1 7. In conclusion although disimilar, the studies presented point out a certain number of particularities differentiating the salmonidae from the Mediterranean marine fish, at nutritional levels: there is a much smaller capacity of desaturation-elongation of the linolenic acid: there are greater global proteinic requirements, and it is more difficult to replace the proteinic nutriments by glucids and lipids. However these particularities are still often very vague; no data has been calculated.
II - VARIATIONS IN REQUIREMENTS
2.1. The effect of age: the case of larvae
The vertebrate juveniles are characterised by a growth rate which decreases regularly with age. By this fact, the relative importance of the maintenance needs rise quickly at the expense of the growth need. with vertebrates, this is clearly remarked by the regular decrease of the optimal amino acid rates as the animal grows. The vitamin and mineral supplies are often increased for young animals, as the energetic level is modified inversely.
Salmonidae have the same proteinic requirements (HALVER, 1969–1970 and it is believed that the same applies for sparidae and serranidae. Therefore ALLIOT and Pastoureaud, 1984, estimate that the optimal proteinic rate drops from 60 % with 1 g sea-bass fingerlings to 45–50 % for 20 g juveniles.
There is little information available on the increase depending on age, of the essential fatty acid requirements. The works carried out by LE MILINAIRE and al, 1982 and GATESOUPE and al, 1984, show however with turbot that the w-3 serie of polyunsaturated fatty acid requirements decrease considerably from young larvae to juvenile stage, dropping from 1,5 to 0,5 % about in the diet.
With sea-bass juvenile, GATESOUPE and al, 1984, obtained different survival and growth rates by modifying the feed itself or by enriching it with live prey Brachionus plicatilis and Artemia salina employed to feed larvae. When these experiments were tried out, the effects of the essential fatty acid rates obtained, were not as good as those obtained with turbot. The authors conclude that the sea-bass larvae has feeble requirements and so they are difficult to define.
2.2. Broodstock
There is very little information available on broodstock fish. In numerous rearings these animals are fresh fish or other “Living feed”. When, on rare occasions, artificial feed was employed, vitamins and essential fatty acid were added, from which the egg benefited directly as no precise data was available.
Since then, some information is available through the experiments carried out by the WATANABE team. This author pointed out that the japanese sea-bream had feeble requirements in proteins. He pointed out the beneficial effect of w-3 serie polyunsaturated long chain fatty acids, phosphorus, carotenoid (carotene or canthaxantine), the negative effect of series w-6 polyunsaturated long chain fatty acid excesses. He also showed that better results are obtainable (greater amounts of eggs and higher percentage of floating eggs) by adding deep freeze seiche or krill meal to the feed (WATANABE and al,a,b,c,d).
2.3 The effect of the environmental factors
The temperature has great influence on the quantitative requirements; but less, as already seem on qualitative requirements. To begin with, it would seem reasonable to neglect the eventual variation of these requirements during the year, apart from the winter season perhaps, where by adding the appropriate feed, the risks of juvenile mortality are perhaps reduced, although the cause of mortality is not of nutritional origin.
There is a great lack of information also concerning the relation between proteinic requirements and salinity. The reinforcement of the tendency of ammoniotelism while lowering salinity levels should promote a decrease of nitrogenous needs with sea-bass in brackish water.
So that some small differences were remarked in this direction with salmonidae (ZEITOUN and al 1973). But it is still risky to apply these with sea-bass or sea-bream. It has been remarked that the eventual consequential effect of salinity on the amino acids and essential fatty acids are still not very well known.
2.4 As long as further studies have not been carried out on the effect of the environmental factors and on age, it will be difficult to really adapt this feed to the type of fish (fingerling or juvenile) to the season or to salinity.There is only one rearing phase which needs for sure a distinct food reproduction. Unfortunatly it is the most ignored physiological stage from a nutritional point of view.
III - CONCLUSION
The data recorded for the synthesis is quote dissimilar and neither one of the two species by which we are concerned can be considered well known from a nutritional point of view. In many cases other neighbouring species were employed: striped sea-bass and japonese sea-bream. The data recorded on these species seems more applicable for the sea-bass and sea-bream than that recorded on salmonidae. The data recorded on one species must not be automatically applied for another species even if both belong to the same family. The example of salmonidae and certain land animals especially show that the requirement can differ for two very closely related zoological species. It is difficult to say whether the strict carnivorous and non amphibiotic character (although the sea-bass is euryhalin) of both Mediterranean species is responsible for all the particularities which differenciates them from salmonidae (glucids not well tolerated, greater requirements of phosphorous and especially the incapacity to synthetize w-3 serie poly unsaturated long chain fatty acids from linolenic acid)
It can be confirmed however that these differences are not to be disregarded and that feed permitting the satisfactory growth of trout need not give the same results with sea-bass or sea-bream, although the opposite may not be true.
As these great difference are known, it should be advisable top give precise quantities so to permit the feed manufacturers to make up suitable diets for each species, and this at low cost. Unfortunately the data recorded is still insufficient and often concerns other neighbouring species. so that intensive Mediterranean aquaculture may develop, it has become urgent to advance research on the nutritive requirement and especially on the costly element of a diet: fatty acids, amino acids which are necessary in particular.
Certainly, there are many options, however it is believed that the experiments carried out on nutrition, will permit to distinguish particularities in species or in physiological stages.
However, it must not be forgotten that the studies on nutritional requirements themselves do not suffice alone for the improvement of food techniques. Studies on behaviour, availability of ingredients for the nutritive elements and food technology should be carried out on parallel.
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