Portrait of a dry region

Mohamed Ahmed Mohamed

MOHAMED AHMED MOHAMED is at the United Nations in New York. At the time that he wrote this article he was Acting Director of the FAO/ECWA Agriculture Division.

Natural resources conservation, management and development in the countries of the United Nations Economic Commission for Western Asia

Thirteen countries, sharing to various degrees the common characteristics of aridity and fragile ecological conditions, belong to the UN Economic Commission for Western Asia (ECWA) and form what is usually referred to as "the ECWA region." Some differ widely in development potential-in size and population, in natural resources, in dependence on food imports, in decreasing man/land ratios, in labour migrations or shortages, in gaps between rural and urban income and in social patterns and traditions. But they all speak the same language - Arabic - and live in geographical proximity. Their combined population is more than 90 million.

Within the ECWA region they form three sub-regions: the Gulf states and the Arabian Peninsula which includes Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, Yemen Arab Republic, and Democratic Yemen; the Fertile Crescent, which consists of Iraq, the Syrian Arab Republic, Lebanon and Jordan; the third sub-region composed exclusively of Egypt which has Asian territory, the Sinai Peninsula beyond the Suez Canal but, above all, common problems of land and water with the other sub-regions.

The area of the Gulf states and Arabian Peninsula is characterized by comparatively low agricultural and livestock potential. It is very arid with low rainfall and high temperature, and depends mainly on irrigation from floods and underground aquifers. It also has relatively high nomadic populations who depend on livestock. In this sub-region the problem of overgrazing and eventual desertification is the most serious.

The Fertile Crescent is characterized by relatively high agricultural and livestock potential, except for Lebanon and Jordan where agriculture is developed, but has a low production potential (see Table l?. It is semiarid and depends on perennial rivers and underground aquifers for irrigation water and on rainfall.

Geographically isolated from the region, Egypt has a comparatively highly developed agriculture but its potential for expansion is low. It depends mainly on river water for irrigation and is characterized by a very arid climate and a sedentary system of livestock production.

At this point we should stress that none of the ECWA countries is able to supply recent information on conservation, management and development of natural resources - and particularly with regard to desertification. The reason is that governments are not yet aware of the long-term seriousness of the situation, economic or otherwise. Most of the information available is based on previous studies by FAO and the last UN Conference on Desertification held in Nairobi in 1977.

The desertification problem. As a whole, the region suffers from extremely wide variations in temperature, aridity and wind. Desertification in the form of deterioration and decrease of vegetative cover, coupled with soil deterioration and degradation, is widespread in its arid and semiarid areas. This is mainly caused by misuse of land and of other natural resources. Specifically, desertification in the region can be attributed to overgrazing, over-exploitation of woody vegetation for fuel and construction and clearing marginal land for dry farming (particularly cereals). In addition, and very important economically, there is the problem of water-logging, salinization and alkalinization resulting from poor irrigation practices.

Natural resources

Land. Out of the region's total area of approximately 456 million hectares of land, only 3.8 percent or 17.1 million hectares are arable (Table 1). In the Gulf states and Arabian Peninsula out of the total area of 309 million hectares, only 0.9 percent or 2.8 million hectares are arable. In this sub-region, 102 million hectares (33.2 percent of total) are permanent pastures, and have traditionally been the basis for the sub-region's livestock production and development. Of these, 85 million hectares, generally of low and limited potential, are located in Saudi Arabia. They are mainly suitable for grazing and browsing. On the whole, the natural vegetation is sparse and consists mainly of shrubs and trees of xerophytic character. Grasses and herbaceous plants are confined to wadis, mountainous areas and areas where water is available in sufficient quantities either through rainfall (Yemen, and to some extent the mountains of Oman) or irrigation, mainly from underground water.

About 61 percent of the sub-region's area can be considered as wasteland or complete deserts of no value or use - even for marginal rough grazing. Irrigated land constitutes some 7.2 million hectares or some 25.5 percent of the total arable land. The main source of water is seasonal flood and underground water mainly in the deltas of wadis.

In the Gulf states and Arabian Peninsula, there is heavy population pressure on the available land. This is particularly true in the smaller Gulf states whose economies are dominated by the oil sector and where per caput arable land ranges from .001 ha in Kuwait to a maximum of .04 ha in Oman, On the other hand, in Democratic Yemen and more so in the Yemen Arab Republic, agriculture plays a major role in the economy and contributes about 50 percent and 20 percent of total GDP, respectively. In contrast to the economy's limited income generation, the agricultural sector still is a major employer in the Yemen Arab Republic, Democratic Yemen, Oman and Saudi Arabia.

In the Fertile Crescent (Iraq, Lebanon, Jordan and the Syrian Arab Republic), arable land constitutes some 16 percent, or about 12 million hectares of the total area, and, per caput, triple that of the Gulf states and Arabian Peninsula (Table 1). This is mainly due to higher rainfall and the availability of irrigation water from rivers.

TRANSPORTING FODDER a common scene in the Fertile Crescent

Except for Egypt, where agriculture depends wholly on irrigation, only 25.5 percent and 15.8 percent of the land is irrigated in the Gulf states and Arabian Peninsula and the Fertile Crescent. The irrigated area for the whole region amounts to some 5.4 million ha or about 32 percent of the total arable land. However, the irrigated cropped area has remained virtually the same in spite of the expansion that took place in Egypt, the Syrian Arab Republic and Iraq between 1972 and 1977, through heavy investments in irrigation projects. The probable reason is that large areas of irrigated land have gone out of production because of salinity and water-logging.

Table 1. Land use in the ECWA region, 1977 (thousand hectares)

	Total area	Arable land	Arable and permanent crops	Permanent pastures	Forest and woodlands	Others	Irrigated
							1972	1977
Bahrain	62	1	2	4	-	56	1	1
Egypt	100145	2695	2831	-	2	96712	2855	2831
Iraq	43492	5100	5290	4000	1500	32607	1120	1160
Jordan	9774	1175	1365	100	125	8128	60	60
Kuwait	1782	1	1	134	2	1645	1	1
Lebanon	1040	240	348	10	76	589	80	85
Oman	21246	16	36	1000	-	20210	n.a.	36
Qatar	1100	2	2	50	-	1048	-	-
Saudi Arabia	214969	1040	1110	85000	1601	127258	360	390
Syrian Arab Republic	18518	5083	5509	8531	452	3920	625	531
United Arab Emirates	8360	6	11	200	1	8147	5	5
Yemen Arab Republic	1950	1520	1570	7000	1600	9330	220	230
Democratic Yemen	33297	245	265	9065	2480	21487	45	58
Total	455735	17124	18340	115094	7839	331137	5372	5388

Source: FAO Production Yearbook, 1978.

Water resources. Including Egypt, the total volume of irrigation water used is estimated at 60 to 80 thousand million m³ per year (see Table 2 for country estimates). This is roughly 50 percent of the ECWA countries' potential surface and groundwater resources. The average water use in the region is 13400 m³ per cropped hectare.

About 95 percent of the water used for irrigation purposes comes from surface water - mainly rivers - but also from flood waters especially in the Gulf states and Arabian Peninsula. The rest is drawn by underground water aquifers, the volume of which has never been comprehensively estimated. Other possible sources of water supply for agriculture, such as desalinated water or treated sewage water, are as yet of no importance.

The relative importance of the irrigated sub-sector varies among the ECWA countries. In Egypt, all agriculture is irrigated. In the northern sub-region of ECWA (Fertile Crescent) there exists an important rainfed sector alongside the irrigated sector. In the southern sub-region of ECWA, (Gulf states and Arabian Peninsula) output almost exclusively depends on irrigation, the exceptions being rainfed agriculture in the mountainous areas of Saudi Arabia and the Yemen Arab Republic.

The region's aridity, due to irregular and low rainfall and the misuse of irrigation water coupled with heavy pressure of population on the available land calls for an intensive, but rational use and conservation of agricultural and other natural resources.

Animal husbandry. Of the total livestock population of the regions about 50 percent is found in the countries of the Fertile Crescent, but mainly in Iraq and Syria; 35 percent in the Gulf states and Arabian Peninsula, mostly in Saudi Arabia and the two Yemens. The rest of the livestock population, or 15 percent, is found in Egypt in spite of the fact that it has no natural permanent pastures (Table 3).

The cattle population is concentrated in Egypt and the Fertile Crescent (about 47 and 38 percent respectively with only about 15 percent in the rest of the region, most of which in Saudi Arabia and the Yemen Arab Republic. While the sheep population is highest in the Fertile Crescent sub-region (68 percent), the goat population is concentrated in the Gulf states and Arabian Peninsula (about 62 percent).

Livestock is an important sub-sector of agriculture in all countries of the ECWA region with the exception of the small Gulf states. Its significance goes far beyond its contribution to economic activity, because of its implications. Economically, most farmers benefit from livestock either as a source of food or work power, or both. Moreover, it is a source of livelihood for a relatively large number of nomadic and transhumant populations in many countries of the region including Saudi Arabia, Democratic Yemen, the Syrian Arab Republic, Jordan and even Iraq.

In the past, livestock did not get its fair share of investment, and today most of the funds have gone to the improvement of dairy cattle and poultry farming. Thus, the traditional livestock sector has been neglected in spite of the fact that most of the region's animals belong to it.

The pattern of livestock production in the Gulf states and Arabian Peninsula is more or less the same in every country: it lags behind crop production in terms of development and standards of management and husbandry. Also, crop farming and livestock production are being carried out as separate economic activities.

In contrast with Egypt, proper mixed farming and integration of live stock in an organized manner have yet to be developed. Again, unlike Egypt, livestock generally depend on pastures (range) and crop residues. Forage is produced on a limited scale, only for modern dairy and poultry farms.

Agricultural development and the environment. Environmental deterioration does not result only from the polluting effect of misused chemicals, but more from accelerated soil erosion (wind and water), creeping deserts, decline of soil fertility, salinity, water-logging and alkalinity. Although global in nature, soil degradation is especially serious in the ECWA region, where the increasing demand for food has encouraged expansion of the cultivated area as well as intensive use of the land already under cultivation.

In most of these countries, policy makers have failed to place agriculture in its proper ecological context. As a result, low yields, major crop failures, floods and droughts have confronted many of them (see Table 4). It follows that the poor countries of the region are the first victims of the misuse of natural resources. The role of man in making the region so vulnerable to damage should not be ignored. Environmental deterioration is accelerated by rapid population growth and poor social conditions.

Large irrigation projects in Egypt, Iraq and the Syrian Arab Republic, although aiming at the improvement of waterlogged and salt-affected soils, are not being carried out properly as far as drainage, leaching and other civil engineering works are concerned. A good case study of the problem of salinization could be the Greater Mussayed project in Iraq where, after ten years, the settlers had to leave. At present, with the establishment of suitable institutions and proper management, the situation has improved and reclamation is progressing.

As for animal husbandry, pastoralism is highly developed, particularly in the Gulf states and Arabian peninsula where there are extensive grazing areas. But to make the best use of natural grazing, pastoralists should follow and improve the seasonal migration of their animals. Furthermore, the increase of the stocks' population creates pressure on rangeland and this in turn accelerates the rate of its degradation.

Two major distinct types of livestock keeping are found in the region - sedentary and nomadic.

A sedentary and modern system is most common in Egypt. There, the raising of livestock is combined with crop production. The main sources of feed for livestock are stubble and crop residues, supplemented, in a few cases, with forage. Mainly cattle and milch sheep are kept in Egypt as work animals and food for the family.

Conservation of natural resources cannot be imposed on desert people by force or by law. They have to know why they should reduce their animal stocks or change their pattern of living.

The nomadic and transhumant system prevails in the Gulf states and Arabian Peninsula, as well as in the Fertile Crescent, where sheep, goats and camels are grazed on natural vegetation. However, some transhumants make use of crop residues from agricultural areas. Especially in the Gulf states and Arabian Peninsula' droughts and the absence of feed cause important livestock losses. In fact, it is feed, more than water, that constitutes the real problem under this system of animal husbandry. And in spite of the resulting low productivity, consumption and demand are growing at a considerable rate, in this sub-region in particular.

Except for Egypt, where rangeland does not constitute a major feed source, a new short/long-term feed policy should put an end to the misuse of range resources. If the present carrying capacity of grazing land is not improved, by the end of the century it will not be able to adequately support the livestock population.

Natural ranges in the Gulf states and the Fertile Crescent constitute the main and the cheapest source of animal feed, particularly for sheep and goats. Yet very little is done to conserve and properly manage them, let alone develop them - especially in the Gulf states and Arabian Peninsula where feed will continue to be the main constraint to future livestock production. Finally, without the collection of accurate and meaningful data, no serious development programme is possible. But some measures should be adopted without much delay.

To begin with, the stocking rate in all countries of the region - except Egypt - should be reduced to the carrying capacity of the land. To accomplish a task of this kind is not easy. Animal husbandry in this part of the world represents a way of life, prestige and wealth accumulation. To carry out such a plan, better and more rational uses of grazing areas should be devised, as well as measures for alleviating the after-effects of such a social transformation. Unless animal owners were assured of adequate feed supplies, satisfactory market prices and similar provisions, they would be reluctant to dispose of their stock.

In the Fertile Crescent, where the feed situation is not very critical, special year-round extra feed supplies should be provided during the initial stage. But in the Gulf states and Arabian Peninsula, social and economic traditions - including the size of the herd - generate conflict between the interest of the individual and the interest of the community as a whole. Therefore, it will be necessary, in all future plans for development involving reducing stock, to adopt an institutional structure which will take into account the individual's interest along with the welfare of society.

The ECWA region also supports a population of four million mules, horses, donkeys and camels. The number of such animals can be reduced, whenever possible, through the introduction of mechanical power (tractors, diggers, pumps, etc.). Any reduction in number of these animals will ease the pressure on land, whether range or cropped.

In the rainfed zones of the Syrian Arab Republic, Jordan and Lebanon, cereal cultivation has been extended to areas of low rainfall. As a result, land productivity has declined and soils are exposed to degradation by erosion. This trend might expand not only in the above countries but also in Iraq and the Yemen Arab Republic. Marginal and sub-marginal land should return to permanent pastures.

In the Fertile Crescent and the Gulf states, forests, woody plants and shrubs have suffered much destruction for fuel purposes. Suitable fuels for the needs of the pastoralist (perhaps kerosene in the Gulf states and Arabian Peninsula) could stop the destructive practices of uprooting shrubs and cutting down trees.

Table 2. Water availability for agricultural use, total and per cropped hectare, in the ECWA countries, 1975

Country	Total	Per irrigated cropped hectare
	Million m3.	m3
Iraq	20000-27000	15950
Egypt 1	30000-43000	11000
Syrian Arab Republic	5000-7000	11600
Lebanon	600-700	10850
Jordan	200-300	8600
Democratic Yemen	700-900	12700
Saudi Arabia	1500-1900	10100
Yemen Arab Republic	1100-1500	10100
Bahrain	100-150	283000
Kuwait	100-150	2125000
Oman	300-400	315900
Qatar	80-100	60000
United Arab Emirates	200-300	252000
ECWA region	59880-83400	13400

Source: ECWA, Agriculture a Development No. 2, 1979, on the basis of Table 1 in the appendix ''Information from national sources, and A. About Khaled, Potential of land and water resources In the Arab countries, an exploratory study, FAO Rome, 1977 (in Arabic).

¹ Estimates based on Table 1.
² Irrigated cropped areas do not Include the forested areas, greenbelts, windbreaks etc.: Inclusion of these green areas would reduce Irrigation water use to the more realistic level of 40000 to 60000 m, per cropped area.
³ Irrigated crowed areas In Oman and the United Arab Emirates Include 15000 and 3500 ha of dates respectively, which have a much lower water requirement than other crops.

Table 3. Livestock population in the ECWA region, 1978 (000 head)

	Cattle	Sheep	Goats	Camels	Horses, donkeys and mules
Bahrain	5	3	13	1	-
Egypt	14325	1800	1380	95	1628
Iraq	22842	11488	3620	232	543
Jordan	36	820	490	19	62
Kuwait	10	147	100	5	-
Lebanon	84	240	330	1	34
Oman	136	18	201	6	25
Qatar	6	42	49	9	-
Saudi Arabia	340	2400	1700	108	111
Syrian Arab Republic	649	7397	1039	8	345
United Arab Emirates	15	90	240	45	-
Yemen	950	3700	7800	105	703
Democratic Yemen	107	950	1286	40	34
Total	9505	29095	18248	674	3485

Source: FAO Production Yearbook, 1978.

¹ Includes 2,280 thousand buffaloes.
² Includes 221 thousand buffaloes.

Soil degradation

In all countries of the ECWA region one or more of the following causes can contribute to soil degradation: salinity, alkalinity, water-logging, wind erosion, water erosion, flooding, depletion of soil fertility.

In the majority of Fertile Crescent countries, water erosion is a very serious problem, especially in cultivated areas under dry-land farming or rainfed sloping land.

In the Gulf states and Arabian Peninsula, where rainfall is low and grazing and rangeland are considerably extended, soil degradation is mainly due to overgrazing and wind erosion.

Soil degradation by salinity, alkalinity, or both, is important in the whole region, but particularly in the irrigated areas of Iraq, Egypt and the Syrian Arab Republic.

In Egypt, soil salinity affects the Nile Delta (about 60 percent of 1.4 million ha of imported soil has moderate or strong salinity). It is due to the high water table. Alkalinity is also present (potassium and magnesium). Water-logging is also very serious in the northern part of the Delta, where drainage is poor. West of the Nile Delta wind erosion attacks the irrigated sandy soils.

In Iraq, water erosion is serious in the dry-land farming area of the north, where very few attempts at soil conservation are being made, these being limited to planting trees. Wind erosion is active in the semi-desert areas with low rainfall, where grazing is important. Salinity is a major problem, and the irrigation system, which included land levelling, may have contributed to it. Water-logging, due to the high water table, and flooding, although periodic, are also damaging. New irrigation projects include drainage. Depletion of soil fertility occurs especially in dry-farmed land where neither fertilizers, nor even manure, are being applied to the soil.

In Lebanon and Jordan soil degradation is caused by water erosion especially in areas of high rainfall. The governments of both countries have started conservation programmes, including planting of trees, terracing and organized grazing.

In Jordan, especially in the desert and semi-desert areas, wind erosion can be and is a serious problem. The development of a proper land use system, including laws to prohibit the destruction of vegetation, range management, could ease the situation. Strangely enough, water erosion is also serious in the Syrian Arab Republic. It is due to over-grazing and also to cultivation extending into doping land and low rainfall areas. In the latter, wind erosion causes soil degradation. But salinity, alkalinity and water-logging are considered the main contributors to Syria's soil degradation.

In the Gulf states and Arabian Peninsula spate floods are the main source of irrigation water. However, some countries of this sub-region depend on underground water resources for irrigation and, as they are arid and close to the sea, salinity can be high and over-use of such water can have serious consequences. Land being limited, it should be utilized to the maximum, and the drilling of so many wells will only lead to the depletion of water resources and the destruction of usable land, as well as to sea-water intrusion. All these states are also exposed to wind and water erosion, plus the danger of floods and droughts Owing to the lack of statistics, the problem cannot be quantified.

Water is an essential element in the ECWA region, but too much water is as harmful as too little. Too much water can cause salinity and water-logging and, given the arid nature of the region, too little use of water can lead to the same problem, owing to the high trans-evaporation.

Project managers entrusted with irrigation projects should make provision for drainage programmes in most of the perennially irrigated countries of ECWA, to avoid heavy expenses of reclaiming much-needed land which could otherwise be lost to salinity, erosion and other damaging factors. The conservation of natural resources in the region cannot be imposed by force or laws. People living in the desert have to know why they must reduce their animal stocks or change their pattern of living. Poor and subsistence farmers cannot be easily forced, convinced or persuaded to change their way of life for the benefit of future generations by conserving natural resources. Only through social and economic adjustments will these people respond to their governments' plans.

An Expert Meeting on Management, Conservation and Development of Agricultural Resources was held jointly by the Economic Commission for Western Asia (ECWA) and FAO at the Arab Centre for the Study of Arid Zones and Dry Lands in Damascus, Syrian Arab Republic, in May 1981. Among the meeting's recommendations to governments were the following.

Table 4. Average yields of selected crops in the irrigated and rainfed sector of certain ECWA countries, 1975 (Tonnes per hectare)

	Egypt	Iraq		Jordan		Syrian Arab Republic		Saudi Arabia	Yemen	Democratic Yemen
	All land (irrigated)	Irrigated	Rainfed 1	Irrigated	Rainfed 2	Irrigated	Rainfed 2	All land	All land	All land (Irrigated)
Wheat	3.47	1.06	0.43	1.80	0.64	2.10	0.71	1.92	1.20	1.86
Barley	2.83	0.99	0.54	-	0.41	1.60	0.59	1.57	1.29	1.64
Maize	3.62	2.90	-	1.10	-	1.90	-	-	1.78	2.54
Sorghum	3.77	-	-	33.53	3 0.65	31.70	0.72	1.48	0.80	1.48
Rice	5.48	1.91	-	-	-	5.20	-	-	-	-
Lentils	1.31	-	0.94	-	0.78	1.20	0.67	41.64	1.00	-
Chick-peas	1.72	-	0.65	-	0.69	-	0.47	-	1.00	-
Potatoes	17.49	15.60	-	13.30	-	16.40	12.50	7.60	12.00	5.23
Tomatoes	15.43	-	5 8.66	18.20	6.33	19.60	4.20	1.02	59.30	5.00
Groundnuts	2.08	-	-	-	-	1.65	-	-	-	0.88
Sesame	1.23	0.64	0.52	-	-	0.81	0.20	0.97	0.65	0.86
Seed cotton	1.86	1.02	1.90	-	-	2.20	0.40	-	0.96	1.35
Sugar-beet -	-	24.40	-	-	-	22.43	9.44	-	-	-

Source: Compiled by ECWA on the basis of national sources and FAO Production Yearbook 1976, Rome, 1977.
¹ Average 1974-76.
² Average 1971-75.
³ Feed grains, total.
⁴ Pulses in general.
⁵ Vegetables, total.

National land use policies

It was recommended that all countries in the region develop land-use policies based on sound ecological principles. Once these policies are developed, the necessary institutional and administrative procedures should be adopted to make their implementation possible. Land-use policies must be long-term and must be given the necessary political and administrative support to achieve their aims. Short-term planning, ad hoc decision-making and unilateral action must be guarded against. The agricultural resources of this region are endangered and can only be developed and conserved by well conceived and managed programmes based on sound policies. The alternative is further land degradation and a decline in productivity.

Forest policy and law

Some of the countries in the region do not have a well-defined forest policy and complementary suitable legislation. They should equip themselves with these two essential requirements. The countries that do have a forest policy and a forest law should review and update these periodically.