WOMEN IN TRAINING AND EXTENSION SERVICES IN AQUACULTURE (C. Engle)

by Carole R. Engle
Department of Economics, School of Business,
Auburn University at Montgomery
Montgomery, AL 36193-0401, U.S.A.

1. INTRODUCTION

Women around the world are involved in aquacultural production. It is generally the women who feed the fish and manage the ponds. Yet, aquaculture is almost universally considered men's work; the woman's role has gone largely unrecognized, undocumented, and ignored. Women have almost no direct access to training or to extension agents which would enable them to acquire the knowledge necessary to increase productivity. Only some 10-15% of the participants and trainers in training courses worldwide have been women. The percentage of women extension agents is even lower.

A literature search revealed that little has been written on women's involvement in aquaculture. Few development project reports make specific references to women's participation. To obtain information, several hundred letters were sent to institutions, individuals, and offices involved in aquacultural development around the world. Responses were sparse; most computerized rosters have not been programmed to sort by gender. As a follow-up to letters, a survey was conducted of women aquaculturists from nations in all regions. As a result of the information obtained, this paper presents an overview of the role of women in the field of aquaculture. It also examines their current roles in training and extension, identifies specific obstacles which obstruct their participation, and recommends programmes which would more effectively involve women.

2. THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN AQUACULTURE

Women play a major role in agricultural/aquacultural production around the world both as labourers and as managers of the production process. Women generally are responsible for daily pond maintenance and fish feeding. Men may construct the ponds, but once built, the ponds usually become the woman's domain (Deceuninck, 1985; Low, 1985). Pond management complements the woman's role in the care of other small animals and in the production of subsistence crops.

The high degree of women's involvement in the management of fisheries enterprises has been ignored (FAO, 1979b; Chakroff, 1981; Maynard and Molnar, 1985). No specific efforts have been made to integrate women into aquacultural extension and training programmes (Acharya and Bennett, 1982). However, in light of their role in subsistence production, it is important to make technical information and advice available to women involved in food production in order to increase the output of these crops (FAO, 1979a; FAO, 1986b).

Numerous development projects implemented over the years have failed. One major contributing factor is the oversight of the fundamental role which women play in agriculture (Bhasin, 1979; FAO, 1980; Morss and Gow, 1985). For example, case studies have shown that defaults on loans in aquaculture projects were high when women were not involved in the loan negotiation process (Hourihan, 1986). In many countries, particularly in Asia, women have the responsibility for managing the budget and for the repayment of loans. The inclusion of women in the design phase of loan projects greatly increased the rate of loan repayment.

While women play important roles in agricultural production, studies have shown that rural women have constituted a socially and economically marginal group compared with the male population (FAO, 1979b). Within demographic sectors classified below the poverty threshold, women increasingly form the lowest, poorest subsector. An important consequence of this rural poverty is a higher rate of female malnutrition than male malnutrition. Maternal mortality in Bangladesh, for example, is 27% (among women 10-49 years old) and the female literacy rate is 14%. Women belonging to the growing class of landless households, and households headed by women have been identified as the population sector most in need of improved nutrition and of employment (Scott and Carr, 1985). Aquaculture technology can potentially address both these needs, but women must first be reached through extension services and trained in training programmes to do so.

3. CURRENT STATUS OF WOMEN IN TRAINING IN AQUACULTURE

Training is a broad term which is applied to very different levels of education. This section of the paper will emphasize formal middle-level training programmes and farmer training sessions. Farmer-level training will be discussed in the section on extension.

Middle-level training programmes in aquaculture are conducted by FAO, various private voluntary organizations (PVO's, such as CARE, Lutheran World Service, Catholic Relief Services, Heifer Project International, etc.). Auburn University (U.S.A.), the Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center in the Philippines (SEAFDEC), the University of Rhode Island (U.S.A.), the Leetown Center of the Fish and Wildlife Service (U.S.A.) and others.

The Peace Corps conducts training on various levels. It trains its own Peace Corps Volunteers (PCV) either in the United States or in their assigned countries in the technology of aquaculture. In-country aquaculture programmes may include training of counterparts to the Volunteers, formal farmer training programmes, and informal farm-level training. Formal training programmes for fish farmers undoubtedly exist within extension services in many countries. Data on women's participation, however, were obtained only for Panama.

3.1 Middle-Level Training Programmes

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), operates a number of regional aquaculture training centres; for example, the Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia (NACA) headquartered in Thailand with two centres in China and the Philippines; the Latin American Regional Centre (CERLA) in Brazil; the African Regional Aquaculture Centre (ARAC) in Nigeria; and the Mediterranean Regional Aquaculture Programme (MEDRAP) headquartered in Tunisia with a training centre in Southern Italy. The programmes are of 6-12 months duration and train participants at the level of senior aquaculturist. NACA's course in the Philippines is affiliated with SEAFDEC and the University of the Philippines (Visayas) and certain candidates qualify for the M. Ag. degree. ARAC is affiliated with the Rivers State University of Science and Technology and certain candidates qualify for the degree of M. Tech. in Aquaculture.

The FAO centres, to date, have not made any special efforts to recruit women and have no specific scholarships for women. They have, however, generally admitted all qualified women candidates who have been nominated by the governments concerned.

Table 1(A) indicates the number and percentage of all women participants by year and by country for three of the FAO training centres; the data of NACA are included in Table 1(B). At ARAC, 18 of 131 total participants (13.7%) have been women. Of these women, half (9) participated in the sixth course in 1986. In this last course, women comprised 30% of total participants and indicated a dramatic increase in women's participation compared with previous years. At CERLA, 13 of 70 (18.6%) were women. These data were for the 1982, 1983 and 1984 sessions. The 1985 session was postponed and data were not available for the 1986 session. MEDRAP has held three 8-month training courses for aquaculture technicians in Policoro, Southern Italy. Of a total of 67 participants over a three year period, only 4, or 6%, were women even though women from all Mediterranean countries were asked to participate. More women participated in short (1-2 weeks) training sessions on specific topics at a higher level. Topics covered included intensive culture and fish pathology. For all three centres, a total of 35 women of 268 total participants (13%) have been trained at the regional centres. In the principal training courses of NACA, 22% of the trainees on the one-year course in the Philippines were women, and 13% of the trainees on the four-month course in China.

The Private Voluntary Organizations (PVO), a consortium of private voluntary organizations, has sponsored a series of training programmes in aquaculture since 1983. Funding for these programmes is provided by the organizations themselves, which include CARE, Catholic Relief Services, Save the Children, Heifer International, and the United States Agency for International Development (US AID). A Joint PVO/University Rural Development Centre has been established at Western Carolina University in the United States to provide direction for the project. Six training courses have been held from 1983-85; two at Auburn University, one in Panama, one in Indonesia, one in Rwanda (for East Africa), and one in Cameroon (for West Africa). Table 2 lists percentages of women participants per programme. Eight participants out of a total of 89 (9%) were women. The project director for the PVO programme is a woman and has participated in all but one training programme.

The Aquaculture Training Programme (ATP-Auburn), at Auburn University in Alabama (U.S.A.), runs a 10-week non-degree training course for international students. The course is financed primarily through scholarships from the US AID, although some participants obtain independent funding. The equivalent of a high-school diploma is required for entrance. Since its inception in 1979, 12 of 130 participants (9.2%) have been women. Countries which have sent women to ATP-Auburn include: Nigeria (2), Mexico (4), Italy (1), Dominican Republic (1), Rwanda (1), Cameroon (1), Peru (1), and Spain (1).

Table 1(A). Women participants in FAO regional training programmes by training centre by year

Year	Number of Women	Total number of participants	Nationality	% Women's participation
Port Harcourt
1980-81	2	23	Sudan (2)	9
1981-82	2	16	Nigeria (1) Congo (1)	12
1982-83	1	17	The Gambia (1)	6
1983-84	2	20	Nigeria (1) Mali (1)	10
1985	2	25	Nigeria (1) Guinea (1)	8
1986	9	30	Nigeria (6) Tanzania (2) Zimbabwe (1)	30
Sub-total	18	131		14
Pirassununga
1981-82	4	23	Bolivia (1) El Salvador (1) Paraguay (1) Brazil (1)	17
1983	5	21	Nicaragua (1) Panama (1) Brazil (3)	24
1984	4	26	Brazil (1) Nicaragua (2) Mexico (1)	15
Sub-total	13	70		19
Policoro
1984-85	0	20		0
1985-86	2	24	Yugoslavia (1) Greece (1)	8
1986-87	2	23	Yugoslavia (1) Greece (1)	9
Sub-total	4	67		6
TOTAL	35	268		13

Source: Aquaculture Development and Coordination Programme (ADCP), FAO, Rome

Table 1(B). Women participants in training courses organised by NACA

Table 2. Women participants in PVO training programmes by training location and year

Training Programme	Date	No. of Women	Total No. Participants	% Women's Participation
Auburn	1983	1	11	9.1
Auburn	1984	2	12	16.7
Panama	1985	2	18	11.1
Indonesia	1985	1	17	5.9
Rwanda	1985	2	17	11.8
Cameroon	1985	0	14	-
TOTAL		8	89	9.0

Source: Blanks (unpublished). Joint PVO/University Rural Development Center, Western Carolina University, NC., USA

Auburn University has also conducted short (2-3 week) training programmes overseas. Table 3 indicates the number and percentage of women participants by country and by year.

The Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC), through its Aquaculture Department in the Philippines, has offered short-term non-degree training courses since 1975. Topics covered include, among others: tilapia cage culture, prawn hatchery management, tilapia training, and a training course for senior aquaculturists. Although the courses offered are open to international participation the majority of participants come from the Philippines. Of the 1 352 persons trained in the various courses from 1975 to mid-1986, 824 (60.9%) were women.

The SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department has a significant number (over 50%) of female professional research staff. Training expertise for the short-term courses comes largely from the staff and, hence, women play an important role as trainers in this programme.

The University of the Philippines in the Visayas (UPV) has trained a number of fish farmers and extension workers in aquaculture. The majority (73%) of the participants in these programmes in 1986 were male. Table 4. Classes on fish pond operations have been attended mostly by male participants. However, shrimp culture techniques, feed formulation, and fertilization topics attracted more women than men.

Table 3. Women participants in Auburn University training programmes overseas

Training Programme Location	Year	No. of Women	Total Number Participants	% Women's Participation
Colombia	1979	5	25	20
Dominican Republic	1980	8	18	44
Dominican Republic	1980	10	30	33
Mexico	1981	6	34	18
Panama	1982	6	20	30
Egypt	1983	4	23	17
TOTAL		39	150	26

Source: Maynard and Molnar, 1985

Table 4. Women Participants in Training and Extension Programmes in Aquaculture of the University of the Philippines in the Visayas

Programme		Total	Female
		No.	No.	%
Shrimp culture technique		12	6	50
Acid sulphate soils and feed formulation		14	9	64
Pond management for prawn/tilapia		5	-	-
Fertilization		7	4	57
Extension classes for fish pond operation (by location)
	Hinamaylan	17	2	12
	Pangasinan	18	2	11
	Aklan	58	13	22
Total		131	36	27

Source: Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research and Development (PCARRD) contributed by Aida Librero, Director

3.2 Formal Farmer Training

Panama has held three different types of training programmes: Divisa training programmes (a government hatchery, and training and demonstration center), training programmes in specific rural communities, and training programmes conducted by the regional offices of the agricultural ministry. At the Divisa Hatchery 27 women have participated in training courses representing the Provinces of Colon, Chiriqúi, Panamá, Veraguas, Coclé, and Gambúa, as well as representatives of the Institute of Public Health (Salud Pública). The Nursing School has also sent 200 women students for a one-day training session. Thirty-nine women have been trained in rural communities in Gavilán-San Pedro, La Yeguada, Subí, Bisballes, Centro Cató1ico San José, and Rincón Sucio. Fifty-three women have been trained regionally in Regions R-8, R-4 and R-3.

There have been over 500 women Peace Corps Volunteers (PCV's) in aquaculture (25%) since the programme began. Currently, about 100 (40%) of the volunteers working in aquaculture are women. All aquaculture volunteers have as a minimum a BA/BS degree with at least 10-15 semester hours of biology or a related area. Approximately 80% have their BS in biological sciences and less than 1% have graduate degrees. All Volunteers participate in a pre-service technical training programme either in the United States or in their assigned countries. Responses were received from five country programmes (Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, Sierra Leone, and Zaire). Of these, only Zaire indicated any involvement with formal farmer training programmes.

4. CURRENT STATUS OF WOMEN IN EXTENSION SERVICES

Women are noticeably absent from fisheries extension services. In Thailand, for example, even though 17% of fisherfolk in 1970 were women, there were no female extension agents. Although a high percentage of university graduates in fisheries were women, the That extension directors claimed that no woman can qualify for the extension service (Hourihan, 1986).

A project to prepare and implement a training programme for women fisheries extension workers was developed in India. Although women in India play an important role in fish marketing for local consumption, fish curing, shrimp processing, and net making, it was found that extension work related to these specific technologies had been geared towards men.

In India cultural problems related to village women being approached by strange males prevent access to information on new technologies. The Fisherwomen Extension Service of the Department of Fisheries in Tamil Nadu developed a programme to train two fisherwomen to function as group organizers and to train link workers to serve as liaisons between fisherwomen and government officers and institutions.

The specific functions of link workers are: to mobilize fisherwomen for constructive group action, to improve their social and economic conditions, to create an understanding of the need for change in socio-cultural attitudes among men and women, to encourage women to utilize the services of governments and other institutions, and to stimulate government institutions to respond to the objectives and felt needs of target groups. Women trainees were selected based on: literacy, marital status (married below the age of 40), acceptance by all women in the village, willingness to participate in residential training course, awareness that training did not guarantee employment, and willingness and interest to work with groups of women.

Twenty-three women participated in the 10-week course. Course participants were trained in the basics of group dynamics. Field visits were organized and the residential training was followed by 2 months of on-the-job training. Link workers assisted individual women in determining their most urgent needs, identified means of meeting their needs, and registered cooperative societies of fisherwomen. The Department of Fisheries provided continuous close support through the Fisherwomen Extension Service. As a result of this project, more than 250 women from five villages received loans of Indian Rupees 200-500 each at 4% interest. Some cooperatives started savings deposits and others joined educational programmes.

The FAO project in the Côte d'Ivoire has 3 women professionals in a total staff of 11. The extension agent who has won the national competition (based on the highest total fish production by farmers under her care and for general excellence) in the past 3 years has been a woman, even though only 8-9% of all extension agents were women. Although women are integrated into the project staff, only 2 of 2 000 fish farmers are women. Positions held by women have included: Deputy Director in charge of technical coordination, station head in charge of fingerling production, head of fish culture sector in charge of evaluation, implementing and follow-up of projects, and assistant to the public relations director. There are no programmes designed specifically for rural women, but women are integrated into the project on the same level as the men.

In Jamaica, the US AID Fish Production Development Project awarded 4 scholarships to women for MS-level training at Auburn University in the United States. Upon their return, these 4 women held the positions of farm manager, station head of research, chief of marketing extension, and extension chief. Of the total project staff, 40% were women. Even though less than 10% of the Jamaican fish farmers were women, approximately 15% of the extension agents were women. Recent budget cuts have severely reduced the programme and most project staff have transferred to other positions.

Although the Government of Kenya maintains that fish farming is men's work, the FAO Lake Basin Development Authority Project is working with 396 female farmers and 161 women's groups of a total of 3 615 farmers. Extension agents are selected by Lake Basin Development Authority Project personnel without consultation with FAO experts, and all are men. Most of the women fish farmers have expressed a desire to receive technical advice from female extensionists.

In Nigeria there is one trained woman working in the fisheries extension service. As women's traditional roles in the fisheries sector have been in fish marketing and fish processing, extension efforts currently seek to enhance these roles.

In 1986, there were 54 women working in fish culture in rural areas of Panama. The emphasis of the extension programme was on pond fertilization, fish feeding, pond management, stocking, partial harvest, community marketing, and fish preservation. In Panama, 33% or 48 of 146 government employees in aquaculture were women in 1986. There were 6 female extension agents working full-time in 3 different provinces of Panama.

Women participate actively in aquaculture extension in the Philippines. Nationwide, 44% of all extension agents in 1986 were women, Table 5. In some regions, 70% of extension agents were women. Women also dominated in the fish processing extension services. A total of 99% of all extension agents working in this area were women in 1986.

US AID has funded a fish culture development project in Rwanda. The emphasis of the project is on production, training, and extension. About 300 women were directly reached by the Rwandan fish culture project's extension service in 1985. This included 2 women who inherited ponds from deceased husbands, 10 women's cooperatives with a total of 173 members, and 18 mixed women/men cooperatives including 113 female and 145 male members. There were also 15 women-oriented institutions with fish ponds including health centres, schools, a prison, and community development groups. Approximately 50-100 women per year per institution participate in the project. In addition to these institutions, 10% of fish farmers reached by project extension agents were women, although many women managed ponds classified as belonging to husbands. Project extension agents are all male and are encouraged to try to augment the number of women-owned fish ponds. Agents are at an advantage in working with women because women tend to follow their advice better than the men; the agents themselves are evaluated on the basis of their farmers' productivity. Most local officials are amenable to including women's groups in assigning pond construction sites.

Table 5. Female Extension Agents in the Philippines by Region, 1986

Region	Aquaculture			Fish Processing
	No. of Women	Total	% Women	No. of Women	Total	% Women
I	12	26	46	7	7	100
II	3	21	14	9	10	90
III	21	35	60	11	11	100
IV	24	40	60	26	26	100
V	8	23	35	5	5	100
VI	23	33	70	17	17	100
VII	21	40	52	15	15	100
VIII	8	12	67	10	11	91
IX	7	24	29	15	15	100
X	13	32	41	11	11	100
XI	10	36	28	15	15	100
XII	9	37	24	15	15	100
TOTAL	159	359	44	156	158	99

Source: BFAR (Philippines), 1986

As most rural women cannot leave their families for a week at a time due to their substantial workload and responsibilities around the house, project directors plan to implement training programmes to reach the women where they gather at health and nutritional centres. The project plans to train female health and nutritional link workers (monitrices) to work with fish farmers in pond management, fish preparation, and fish preservation.

The Peace Corps (PCV) has never specifically documented women's roles and participation in aquacultural training and extension. The general assumption is that women are affected by any increase in income or protein which may result from aquacultural activities.

The PCV aquaculture project in Guatemala began in 1982. It has worked in 21 municipalities in 9 departments in eastern and northern Guatemala in rural areas characterized by scarce economic resources. The principal objective of the project is to supplement the family diet with fish and a secondary objective is to generate income.

Fish ponds are constructed by the father of the family, but the daily management is done by the women and children. Women, with sole responsibility for the diet, enjoy having an additional source of protein close at hand.,-Approximately 500-600 ponds have been constructed which average 100-200 m in size. At least one woman is involved in the care of each pond. Extension agents work with the men during pond construction. Feeding technology, on the other hand, is taught in educational sessions attended by the entire family.

Twenty-one volunteers currently (1986) work with local promoters. About half of the volunteers are women. Of the 26 promoters (all rural), two are women. The programme is considering expanding the number of female promoters employed. A total of 4 117 people have been served by this programme. Approximately 120 fish ponds have been constructed, 55 rehabilitated and 426 attended in all. Over 120 courses, talks, and demonstrations have been presented.

Language problems have been encountered with women, but the Volunteers train local counterparts who then translate during educational sessons. Team work is emphasized which involves a division of labour along the traditional lines prevalent in communities.

One PCV in Honduras is working with several projects run by women. ,-In the community of Porvenir, 9 women constructed 2 ponds (230 m² and 350 m) in 1985 and are currently (December, 1986) planning construction of a third. Ten women in the community of Maye constructed a 280 m² pond in 1985, and planned to construct a second pond. A third project in Guayamen composed of 10 women constructed a 320 m² pond in 1985. This group, however, disbanded in February 1986 when some women stole fish from the pond. A general lack of leadership and unity within the group contributed to its failure. In addition, there were several women heads of household in the area who had small (50 m²) ponds which were maintained in good condition. Average production of Tilapia nilotica, common carp, and guapote (Cichlasoma managuense) in polyculture was 1 667 kg/ha/yr.

The PCV in Costa Rica serve through either the Ministry of Agriculture or the National Bank's Technical Extension Service. Each volunteer works with approximately 48 small and medium-scale farmers. In 1981, there were 3 male volunteers; in 1982, there were 4 men and 1 woman; in 1983, there were 7 men and 5 women; and in 1985, there were 7 men and 5 women.

There are no female PCVs in aquaculture in Sierra Leone and no women involved in aquaculture at the government level. Yet, a significant percentage of farmers working with volunteers are women. Numbers were not available.

In Zaire, twenty-five of the 53 PCV's (47%) working in fish culture were women in 1986. Within the government fisheries infrastructure, however, of a staff of 60 only 6 were women. Of these, only 2 were involved with extension or training. One woman managed a small fish station and occasionally presented technical sessions at training courses. The other woman, based at a regional office, was responsible for farmer visits and training at the village level. There were approximately 15 female fish farmers of a total farmer population of about 3 500. In all cases, these women became involved with fish farming after their husbands either died, abandoned their ponds, or left the village.

Women did get involved with the daily management of their husband's ponds however; women helped feed fish and fertilize with compost. The traditional involvement of women in the fisheries sector was in fish marketing. No attempt has been made to increase the number of female farmers. The female farmers who participated in the project received the same attention and training as male farmers. In fact, the highest recorded harvest in the project, 125 kilograms of fish in 6 months from 250 m², or 10 tons/ha/yr, was produced by a woman.

5. CONSTRAINTS FOR WOMEN IN TRAINING AND EXTENSION

Training and extension services are male-oriented and are traditionally carried out almost exclusively by men. In Madagascar, for example, a main condition for extension agents was that they be male. Of 158 candidates, 5 were women. Only 1 woman of 76 applicants took written exams but was not requested to take oral exams (Claeys, 1986). There is consequently a shortage of trained female extension personnel at all levels of most extension services.

Preconceived notions on the part of middle administrators, planners and project directors can prevent assistance from reaching women. If they perceive aquaculture as strictly men's work, programmes and project resources will not be advertized nor made available to women (Hourihan, 1986).

For this reason, simple promotion of aquaculture will not necessarily draw in more women. In many cases there are socio-economic constraints which must be overcome first (Yap, 1980a). Women's access to training, credit, and extension information is often hindered by attitudes that aquaculture is men's work and of no interest to women.

For cultural reasons men cannot work with women in many areas of the world (FAO, 1986b). For example, purdah in Moslem nations prevents women from talking with unknown men. When invited to training courses women are expected to, and do, act reticently and deferentially to males. Trainees are hesitant to ask questions of a male instructor (Hourihan, 1986).

In areas where aquaculture is not a traditional activity, teaching by example is the most effective way of reaching the rural poor. Yet many extension agents, particularly women who have not been encouraged to participate in field work, may lack the practical experience to carry out this type of programme (FAO, 1986a).

Time is a crucial issue. Time spent away from the household must be justified in terms of the increased income (Acharya and Bennett, 1.982). They can find time only by placing greater household burdens on their children or by working on tasks which can be accomplished simultaneously with household work (Scott and Carr, 1985). It is difficult to get women off the farm; women responsible for households, children, and small animals cannot leave for long periods of time. Demonstration farms located at research and training centres are often not accessible to women for these reasons (Hourihan, 1986). Dormitory facilities sometimes lack facilities for women. These problems tend to make formal training programmes inaccessible to many women.

Available jobs are often limited and most women, with some exceptions, have not had a basic education. Language problems can be important barriers. Many women have not learned to ride bicycles or motorcycles, and are not attracted to extension work because it is not considered fashionable.

6. A SURVEY OF WOMEN IN TRAINING AND EXTENSION

A survey was conducted of a sample of women aquaculturists from various nations to identify recommendations for increasing women's participation in training and extension services. The following is a summary of their responses.

Aquaculture, in most countries, was considered men's work. Women in aquaculture must constantly prove themselves; their work may be more carefully examined. It may be more difficult for women to advance in the field of aquaculture because of their gender. At the same time, the few women who are self-confident enough to pursue a career in aquaculture have often become prominent persons in the field. Others, however, do not continue in aquaculture even when trained because t-.hey see little chance for advancement.

Women need to be aware that aquaculture is a field with potential for them. Both men and women need to be educated about the accomplishments and activities which women have already achieved in aquaculture. Successes and opportunities for women in aquaculture should be publicized so that others will be attracted.

Women have been confined mostly to the "safety" of laboratory work and experimental ponds with few venturing into commerical aquaculture. Most women are channelled into laboratory research during their training and are less prepared than their male counterparts for extension work which requires substantial field experience. Specific barriers to women's participation in aquaculture which were mentioned included: (i) girls are taught early on to dislike fish, (ii) many trainers discourage women and do not take them seriously, (iii) people are often surprised and doubtful of the qualifications and knowledge of women in the field, and (iv) there is aversion to hiring women for work on a fish farm.

Directors of institutions should give equal opportunities to men and women to be trained. Women need to be trained in field skills and specifically in the use of machinery and heavy equipment, aerator maintenance, pump and generator maintenance, mowers, chain saw handling, and repair of tools, cars, and tractors. Fish farms which are owned and operated by women could serve as effective demonstration units.

Women should be offered internships concentrating on field activities. Women-only training sessions may be necessary to provide women with particular skills which in general women lack, such as equipment operation and maintenance. On-the-job training programmes or volunteer work during high school and early college years should be developed. Women need farm exposure and strong mathematical skills. Successful women need to be found and made visible to younger women to serve as role models.

The women surveyed indicated a need for more women to get involved as trainers. Women trainers would serve as role models for female trainees. Other means suggested included: promotion of aquaculture at the high school level through field trips to private farms and hatcheries, establishment of scholarships for women, and letters and personal contacts explaining the potential benefits of aquaculture.

Although fewer women are involved in extension than in training, greater numbers are needed, especially in countries where women are responsible for growing and selling fish. In Nigeria, for example, women play a prominent role in marketing and preservation of fish, and it is necessary to have women in the extension services to transfer new technologies in these areas to the women.

Women should be actively recruited for extension programmes. Incentives must be offered because extension agents are of ten asked to go into depressed areas. Most of the women surveyed had no experience with women extension agents, but pointed out the importance of individual differences. Whether the clientele is male or female will influence the effectiveness of individual extension agents; there are situations in which women are more effective than men, and vice versa.

7. RECOMMENDATIONS

(i) The training programmes of on-going projects should be evaluated to determine their accessibility to women. Periodic reviews should be conducted which gather and evaluate the following types of data:

(a) numbers and percentages of women applying for fellowships for national or international training,

(b) numbers and percentages of women receiving fellowships for national or international training,

(c) numbers and percentages of women trained at fisheries centres,

(d) numbers and percentages of women graduates of fisheries training centres who continue to work in aquaculture,

(e) numbers and percentages of women graduates of fisheries training centres employed to work with fish farming families,

(f) potential for women to participate in refresher courses,

(g) potential for women study tours and women's training groups (FAO, 1979b).

(ii) Efforts should be made to utilize more women trainers in on-going training programmes.

(iii) The feasibility of village-level training programmes should be evaluated in all aquaculture projects which have a significant training component.

Training in specific production, processing, or marketing technologies should be integrated with literacy and numeracy training (Acharya and Bennett, 1982; Engle, 1982). Slide shows, video presentations, and hands-on demonstrations are extremely valuable (Hourihan, 1986). Provision for child care, programmes which enable women to acquire tools, representation of women on project committees, and support for hiring women, are critical considerations for the success of training programmes (Scott and Carr, 1985).

(iv) Extension activities must focus on generating income for women.

(v) Current extension services must be evaluated to determine their effectiveness in transferring technology to women.

A major overhaul of the current male-oriented approach to agricultural extension is long overdue (Acharya and Bennett, 1982). An extension service for and by women may be required in some areas to let fisherwomen benefit from technical improvements in fishing activities traditionally carried out by women. Special sections for rural women may need to be created and staffed by female extension agents. Existing women's extension programmes must be expanded (FAO, 1986b).

(vi) Female extension agents should be recruited, trained, and incorporated into extension services.

As cultural perceptions of women talking to men are not nearly so intense as men talking to women, female agents can deal directly with both men and women farmers. There is a need for more active recruitment of women at the pre-college level. Women extension agents from other fields could also be trained in fisheries skills (Hourihan, 1986).

(vii) Female village-level extension agents (link workers) must be trained and employed in mobile training programmes.

(viii) Contacts between male extension agents and women need to be improved.

Male extension workers at all levels must be made aware of women's major role in agriculture and of the need to reach women as well as male farmers (Acharya and Bennett, 1982). Group meetings between male extension agents and small numbers of women at selected farms on a regular, steady basis should be organized. The first few visits should include a female extension agent.

8. SUMMARY

The role of women in aquaculture around the world has gone largely unrecognized. For this reason, little effort has been made to incorporate women into training programmes and extension services. Approximately 10-15% of trainers and trainees are women with even fewer women involved in extension services.

Although aquaculture in most countries is considered "men's work", it is often the women who are responsible for managing the ponds and often repaying loans. Yet these women have virtually no access to information on new technologies. Even in activities where women visibly predominate, such as in marketing and fish processing, extension efforts are generally directed towards men.

Case studies have shown that the effectiveness of technology transfer in aquaculture depends on the development of means of reaching women. These include training women extension agents, utilization of female link workers, and men/women team approaches to extension activities.

Efforts must be made to publicize the work which women are doing in aquaculture through research, pamphlets, newspaper articles, and other media. By increasing people's awareness of women's roles, the involvement of women in on-going training programmes and extension services will increase. As more women participate in these key components of development, higher rates of project success and technology transfer can be expected.

9. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank sincerely the many people from around the world who took the time to respond to letters and to the survey, and who provided additional contacts. In particular I want to thank the following persons who went to the trouble of compiling data from their respective areas: Agnes Ajana, Nigerian Institute for Oceanography and Marine Research, Lagos, Nigeria; José Albizurez, Peace Corps, Guatemala; Nancy Blanks, Joint PVO/University Rural Development Center, Western Carolina University, Cullowhee, North Carolina; Juan Coward, Peace Corps, Costa Rica; Donatella Crosetti, Rome, Italy; Kevin Doyle, Peace Corps, Sierra Leone; Edeltraud Drewes, Bay of Bengal Project, India; Richard Edwards, Peace Corps, Philippines; Sally Hoh, Peace Corps, Honduras; Narayan Kutty, FAO Team Leader, ARAC, Port Harcourt, Nigeria; Nola Mignott, US AID, Jamaica; Kim Norgren, Auburn University, Alabama; Brian Nerrie, Auburn University, Alabama; Chris Nugent, FAO, Côte d'Ivoire; Ron Phelps, Auburn University, Alabama; Richard Pretto Malca, National Aquaculture Director, Santiago de Veraguas, Panama; Jorgrenne Primavera, SEAFDEC, Philippines; Diana Putman, US AID, Indonesia; David Rouse, Auburn University, Alabama; Harry Rhea, Peace Corps, Washington; Brian Steinwand, Peace Corps, Zaire; Constantino Tapias, Regional Fisheries Officer, FAO, Santiago, Chile; Francois Vallet, FAO/UNDP, Kisuma, Kenya; Karen Veverika, Auburn University, Alabama, and Stella Williams, University of Ife, Ife, Nigeria;