Background to the
Project
Certain species of the Piperaceae family, indigenous to the humid forests of Central America and Greater Amazonia, contain safrole-rich essential oils in their leaves and are prospective, alternative sources of 'sassafras oil'.
The sassafras oil of commerce is manufactured by the steam distillation of the trunkwood of certain species of the Lauraceae family: Ocotea pretiosa (Nees) Mez. in the Mata Atlantica region of Brazil and varieties of Cinnamomum camphora in southern China and Vietnam. In each case, the industry is based on the destructive harvesting of wild forest trees. Concern exists, therefore, over sustainability and conservation issues in all three of the producer countries and over the long-term availability of sassafras oil by consumers.
The Piper project was formulated to assess the potential for the sustainable economic production of new sassafras-type oils. If demonstrated as feasible and financially attractive. it is envisaged that these species might find application in the rehabilitation of degraded forest land and as components, providing an early cash flow, of mixed agroforestry cropping systems.
Uses
The principal use of safrole today is as a feedstock by the chemical industries for the synthesis of heliotropine and piperonyl butoxide (PBO). Although synthetic safrole has been developed. production of heliotropine and PBO is currently based on the use of natural sassafras oil.
PBO is employed as an ingredient of 'soft', ie biodegradable insecticides based on natural and synthetic pyrethroids. The inclusion of PBO in natural pyrethrum insecticides is critical for their efficiency and economic competitiveness with synthetic alternatives; the PBO acts as a synergist and greatly enhances the 'kill' rate. PBO pyrethroid formulations are widely used in domestic and veterinary products, such as mosquito coils, aerosols and flea sprays for animals. However, the most important outlet lies in pest control in food stores in developed countries where they are the sole permitted insecticides in this application.
More recently, a new use for PBO has been developed in the agricultural insecticide sector. Addition of PBO to conventional field insecticides has been found to greatly extend the time taken for insect pests to evolve resistant strains. PBO has been employed in this context in the United States and Australia on a limited scale. Considerable interest exists worldwide in employing these formulations but PBO supplies are presently inadequate.
Market demand
Excluding China, for which consumption levels are not known, usage of natural safrole in the form of sassafras oil is estimated at 2 000 t per annum, valued at US$ 8 million (1993 prices of US$ 4/kg, fob). Some 90 per cent of consumption outside China is for PBO and heliotropine manufacture with each of these outlets taking roughly equal quantities.
The most important import markets are Japan, Italy and USA. The PBO market is dominated by a few companies, both in manufacturing and compounding. The largest PBO producer is based in Italy and has close links with a smaller producer in Brazil. Japan is next in importance as a PBO manufacturer while there are smaller scale operations in the United States. The largest PBO compounding companies are based in the United States, the United Kingdom and France. Worldwide, PBO production is currently of the order of 1 700 t annually, much below the estimated installed processing capacity of 2 500 t per annum.
Heliotropine production is similarly dominated by a few companies. The largest manufacturer is based in Japan (and also produces PBO). A Spanish company, which has processing plants in Spain and Brazil. falls in to the second rank. Production is undertaken also, but on a smaller scale, in the United States.
Brazil has plants for the manufacture of PBO (near Porto Allegre) and for heliotropine (in Parana). Their combined installed processing capacity is estimated to equate to 500-600 t of sassafras oil as feedstock annually. Neither operation has been able to secure sufficient domestically produced sassafras oil for several years and the heliotropine operation has taken to importing the Chinese oil.
Both companies serve the domestic and international markets and their operations should be viewed in the context of the world market into which they are well integrated. They have close links with European manufacturers of PBO and heliotropine in exporting activities and, also, with multinationals in the fragrance and insecticide sectors which are based in Brazil and supply the South American market as a whole.
The major current outlet for PBO in Brazil and the region lies in domestic insecticide products, such as mosquito coils, and this has shown a growth trend. Usage of PBO in the Bazilian agricultural insecticide sector is presently of the order of 40 t annually and, as elsewhere, it has a potential for growth but this is constrained by a supply shortage of the feedstock, sassafras oil.
Little information is available on China's consumption of domestically produced sassafras oil other than that it is employed for the manufacture of heliotropine, and on occasion there have been conflicts of interest between this industry and the oil-exporting sector over allocations. The fragrance industry in China displays the fastest growth rate in the world and the chemical industry is seeking the technology to manufacture PBO for the domestic market. Demand within China for sassafras oil, therefore, will progressively increase and could attain major proportions in relation to the world market.
Global trends in demand for safrole, natural and synthetic
The demand for safrole is intertwined with those of heliotropine and PBO which have differing demand trends and feedstock options.
Heliotropine consumption in developed countries might increase modestly rather than markedly upwards in the future since the market may be defined as mature. A greater growth potential for heliotropine may be expected in developing countries, Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States. Increasing usage is already evident in some Asian markets.
If either supplies of sassafras oil become inadequate or its price rises markedly, then the demand requirement for heliotropine could be met by production of the synthetic material for which the technology already exists. At present, the economics of total synthesis of heliotropine are not as favourable as via the sassafras route and, moreover, the characteristics of the synthetic product are regarded as blander in some applications. However, the competitiveness and market acceptability of the synthetic would change if the price of sassafras oil exceeded US$ 5/kg for a protracted period.
In the case of PBO, demand is growing in developed countries in its conventional applications as a 'soft' insecticide and a potentially large new outlet as an additive to agricultural insecticides is evident. Also, a growth in PBO usage has been reported in India and certain South-East Asian countries where effective bans are now being placed in some applications on DDT and other synthetic insecticides which pose residue problems. However, expansion of PBO output is constrained by the availability of natural safrole.
Synthetic routes to PBO have been developed but these are much less economic than conversion of natural sassafras oil. More importantly, regulations applying to insecticides in developed countries would define a synthetic PBO as a new product which must be subjected to exhaustive and costly toxicological testing before approval is secured for use.
An additional important constraint on use of a synthetic PBO is that it would not have the 'natural' or 'green' image which is presently associated with the sassafras-derived product. This would reduce its attractiveness and competitiveness in some sectors of the market in developed countries. (The destructive, 'non-green' method of producing sassafras oil is also of great concern to PBO manufacturers and compounders but this has not yet caught the attention of the general public.)
In its conventional application as a synergist for natural pyrethrum and synthetic pyrethroids, the level of usage of PBO is dependent upon its price since it is possible to adjust the ratio of the ingredients and still attain the same 'kill' rate. Formulations normally employ 20 per cent PBO but the total cost is dominated by the pyrethrum or pyrethroid ingredient content. General price levels are set by the most widely used and inexpensive pyrethroid, tetramethrin. Using this as a barometer of price, the threshold price of sassafras oil is about US$ 5/kg, fob; above this the content of PBO used in formulations falls below 20 per cent.
Supply of Sassafrass oil
Sassafras oil production originated during the nineteenth century in the Appalachian Mountains of the United States and was based on the distillation of the roots of Sassafras albidum (Nuts) Nees. The US industry declined in the early 1900s upon the entrance to the market by Japan, whose industry was developed principally on C. campohora in its province of Formosa. The cessation of trade with the Far East during World War II stimulated the creation of a new industry, based on wild O. pretiosa in the Brazilian State of Santa Catarina and this source dominated the market until the 1970s. Thereafter, China captured the lead role and around 1990 Vietnam entered the market as a new source.
China
More than 50 per cent of sassafras entering world trade (about 1 100 t per annum) originates from China, while its total output is higher since there is consumption by the domestic chemical industry.
Production is based on the felling of wild forest trees in the southern provinces but reliable information on the industry is not available. More recent publications in Chinese journals cite C. camphora as the major species exploited. Additionally, expressions of concern over sustainability have been voiced by some Chinese foresters.
Chinese sassafras oil is obtained as one fraction of the oil distilled from C. camphora; the major fraction consists of camphor. Foreign visitors to China have reported that many of the distilleries remain old and primitive.
In former years, exports were conducted solely through a national corporation but today some factories engage in direct exports and there are close trade links with Hong Kong. Japan is the largest individual Importer of Chinese sassafras oil.
Vietnam
Production and exports by Vietnam commenced around 1990 and increased rapidly, particularly during the 'shortage' period discussed below. Current exports of sassafras oil are around 500 t per annum. The industry is based on the purchase from farmers of the roots of wild C. camphora trees which have been felled for sawwood. The international essential trade hold the view that production levels cannot be sustained and exports might be negligible within ten years.
Brazil
The Brazilian industry attained its peak production and export of sassafras oil. about 2 000 t per annum, in the 1960s. At that time it was the major world source. A decline in production commenced thereafter as a result of the depletion of the natural resource, wild Ocotea pretiosa trees in the Mata Atlantica region; no replanting has ever been practiced by the industry.
A more dramatic decline in production occurred after the mid-1980s when restrictions were imposed on felling following international pressure and donor conditionality. Production in 1993 is estimated as 300-400 t of oil, of which a proportion is believed to arise from illegal tree felling.
In recent years, the oil output has been exported, principally to Japan and Italy, and sold to the domestic chemical industries. A proportion of the output of the latter in the form of PBO and heliotropine is exported also, mainly to the USA.
Production of oil at a significant 'level is considered unsustainable in the long-term owing to a progressive loss of trees rather than from declining profitability. All processing equipment is old with investment costs written off and much of the tree harvesting is interlinked with other logging operations.
Supply and demand balance
Supply shortages have been experienced on only two occasions in the past twenty years, in 1983 and during 1991-92. On the first occasion, the shortage was real and resulted from severe flooding in Santa Catarina, the major producing area of Brazil, which disrupted production operations for much of that year. The more recent shortage period is alleged by buyers as artificial, created by speculative stock-piling in China and by other traders in the Far East.
Release of these stocks in late 199:2 led to a temporary oversupply to the market. By the end of 1993, the trade regarded supply and demand as back in balance at the level of around 2 000 t per annum.
Since production of sassafras oil in all three sources is based on the unsustainable felling of wild forest trees and domestic consumption in China is expected to increase, a progressive decline in supply levels to the international market appears inevitable.
Unless alternative sources of natural safrole are developed, the present situation of a constraint on marketing new PBO formulations might transform in the longer-term to threaten maintenance of production levels of existing established formulations. The position of heliotropine manufacture is less serious owing to the alternative of its total synthesis.
Prices for Sassafras Oil
Between 1970 and 1990, sassafras oil prices largely ranged between US$ 4-5/kg, fob. Brazilian oil prices during most of the more recent period have been higher than those of China.
During the 'shortage' period in 1991/92, spot prices for sassafras oil rose to around US$ 12/kg for a brief period. The subsequent release of stocks from the Far East resulted in a glut and a fall in the price of Chinese oil to below US$ 3.5/kg in the early part of 1993. In the third quarter of 1993, demand and supply came into balance and prices for Chinese oil were firming towards US$ 4/kg, fob.
Oil qualities
Brazilian sassafras oil has been traditionally traded with a specified minimum safrole content of 84 per cent but shipments now rarely exceed 86 per cent. Chinese oil is usually sold at a 90 per cent safrole content, this higher level being attainable through control of the fractionation process for the crude oil of C. camphora.
For processing to PBO and heliotropine, a minimum safrole content of 86 per cent is preferred and the abundance of other reactive aromatic compounds, such as methyl eugenol, should be low.
Conclusions on opportunities for new suppliers
The supply and demand situation discussed above suggests a promising outlook for a sustainable new source of natural safrole which meets the quality requirements of processors.
If a reliable new source can be developed at competitive prices, the PBO sector is likely in the medium-term to adjust by marketing new product lines (which are presently in abeyance through inadequate sassafras oil supply levels). Additionally, there is already evident a growing demand for conventional PBO-based 'soft' insecticide formulations in both developed and certain developing countries; the latter also display promise of increasing heliotropine consumption along with population and income-related growth.
However, the PBO sector's short-run response to new supplies of natural safrole is likely to be scepticism regarding its reliability, and inelastic demand, given the time lag required for product line development and marketing. Confidence in continuity of supply is critical even in committing the existing surplus installed PBO manufacturing capacity. Initial increases in world supply of natural safrole through a new source are therefore likely to face falling prices. Given the disincentive effect of this on new producers, companies wishing to assure a long-term safrole supply may wish to contract growers or processors at pre-agreed prices.
In the medium term, once demand stabilises at new higher levels, the supply of safrole will rest with the most competitive producers. This suggests that production could be highly competitive with buyers going to the cheapest and most reliable sources.
Piper hispidinervium research
This species has shown the greatest promise in the trials conducted in Brazil by the Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi and the Centre for Agroforestry Research, Acre.
Prior to commencement of the project, the only recent documented occurrence of P. hispidinervium was on a single site in the vicinity of the CPAF station at Rio Branco, Acre. However, surveys conducted by CPAF have revealed that this species occurs in the majority of settled areas throughout the state and its range is believed now to extend across the borders into Amazonas state, Peru and Bolivia.
P. hispidinervium is most frequently found on degraded forest or farm land where it occurs as a colonizing 'weed', either as a pure stand or along with other Piper species. The latter can be distinguished by the aroma and morphology of the leaf.
Plants on the natural sites develop initially into bushes. As the plants age, they become more tree-like and lose secondary shoots. Stands of 'trees' up to 10 m in height may be found.
Trials conducted over the past three years have led to the following conclusions:
1. Plant multiplication can be readily achieved through striking cuttings and, more importantly, by use of seed.
2. Coppicing for leaf biomass can be initiated at around six months of age and sequential coppicing may be possible for three years or more.
3. Unselected planting stock provides a leaf oil with a good marketable potential (83 per cent safrole) and the genetic variability within the wild population in Acre should allow improvement of both oil yields and composition through selective breeding.
4. The species should show a wide adaptation range across Amazonia, and may prove suitable for degraded forest land.
5. The crop displays a potential for remunerative cultivation and processing in a range of farm situations and might be particularly useful where there are no alternative cash crop options.
6. The highest returns from cultivation may be expected with small farmers who have land which is presently unused and adequate labour resources within the family. However, raising capital for investment in distillation equipment: could prove a constraint for this group and research on low cost equipment is required.
Plans are
presently being formulated to mount a second phase, adaptive
research project in 1995. This is aimed at evaluating the real
economic potential of the crop in a range of socio-economic
situations and in differing ecozones. The programme will involve
farmer participatory research, production of oil in commercial
quantities and the active support of the principal consumers of
sassafras oil.
This paper has dealt with a
number of specific NWFPs and has sought to indicate their
individual opportunities or constraints for sustainable
development. These examples highlight the fact that each
commodity has a very high degree of individuality and decisions
on investment of research and scarce development funds must not
be based simply on enthusiasm or ideological attitudes. For all
NWFP cash crops, it is imperative that decisions are founded on a
sound understanding of the market. Furthermore, it is important
that research and development work is undertaken by
multi-disciplinary teams. Neither the technician nor the
economist can achieve success in isolation and in view of the
often complex situation pertaining in many areas of Amazonia a
social development specialist can make a valuable contribution.
Finally,
the authors of this paper wish to acknowledge ODA for funding the
work and also the contributions made by my colleagues in Brazil
to the case studies. With the rosewood and Piper projects,
we have taken the liberty of summarising the technical research
which has been undertaken by FCAP. MPEG and CPAF (Acre). This has
been done not only to provide a rounded presentation but also to
facilitate wider dissemination of their important work.
Development and
conservation issues
ANDERSON, A.B. (1990) Extraction or agroforestry? International Agricultural Development, 10(5): 13- 15.
CLAY, J. and CLEMENT, C., eds. (1993) Selected Species and Strategies to Enhance Income Generation from Amazonian Forests. Report by Cultural Survival for Forestry Department of FAO. With acknowledgements to Eulensen, P. and Mulkeen, M.
LESCURE, J.P. and CASTRO, A. (1990) L'extractivisme en Amazonie centrale. Aperçu des aspects économiques et botaniques. Paper presented at UNESCO-IUFRO-FAO Workshop "L'Amenagement et la Conservation de l'Ecosystème Forestier Tropical Humide", Cayenne. 10-19 May.
MENEZES, M.A. (1992) The role of extractive reserves in the defense of the Amazon. Presented at Forest '92.
PRANCE, G.T. (1990) The relationship between taxonomy, economic botany and conservation of the flora. Academia Nacional de Ciencias Exactas Fisicas y Naturales (Buenos Aires), Monografia 5: 115-133.
WILLIAMS,, L. (1961) Natural wealth of tropical American forests. Economic Botany, 15: 223-236.
The Rainforest Harvest Conference - Sustainable Strategies for Saving Tropical Forests (1990) Various speakers, Royal Geographical Society, London, 17-18 May.
Various authors (1989) Extrativismo vegetal e reserves extrativistas. Pará Desenvolvimento, No. 25. Belém: IDESP.
Tree exudates
ALENCAR, J.C. (1981) Estudos silviculturais de uma população natural de Copaifera multijuga Hayne, na Amazônia Central. 1. Germinação. Acta Amazonica, 11(1): 3-11.
ALENCAR, J.C. (1982) Estudos silviculturais de uma população natural de Copaifera multijuga Hayne, na Amazônia Central. 2. Produção de óleoresina. Acta Amazonica, 12(1): 75-89.
ALENCAR, J.C. (1984) Estudos silviculturais de uma população natural de Copaifera multijuga Hayne, na Amazônia Central. 3. Distribuição especial da regeneração natural pre-existente. Acta Amazonica, 14(12): 255-279.
CALVIN, C. (1983) New sources for fuel and materials. Science, 219: 24-26.
GUENTHER, E. (1952) Oil of balsam copaiba. Pp 203-211. In The Essential Oils, Volume 5. New York/London: D. Van Nostrand.
LOPES, J.R. (1970) Contribuição ao Estudo da Exploração da Balata na Região Amazonica. 8pp. Ministerio da Agricultura no Pará.
MORS. W.B. and RIZZINI, C.T. (1966) Latex-yielding plants. Pp. 1-12. In Useful Plants of Brazil. San Francisco/ London: Holden-Day.
MORS. W.B. and RIZZINI, C.T. (1966) Trees with trunk exudates. Pp. 42-48. In Useful Plants of Brazil. San Francisco/London: Holden-Day.
OLIVEIRA, F.A., MARQUES, L.C.T. and FERREIRA, C.A.P. (1992) Produtos não Madeireiros da Floresta Nacional do Tapajos, Santarem, Para, Brasil. Preliminary report TCP/BRA/0154/FAO for IBAMA. 20 pp.
WILLIAMS, L. (1962) Laticiferous plants of economic importance. I. Sources of balata, chicle, guttapercha and allied guttas. Economic Botany, 16: 17-24.
WILLIAMS, L. (1962) Laticiferous plants of economic importance. III. Couma species. Economic Botany, 16: 251-263.
Insecticides
BUSHWAY, R.L., YANG, A. and AL-YAMANY, A. (1988) Analysis of rotenone in cube and derris root powders and formulations by liquid chromatography. Journal of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists, 71: 323-324.
CHACON, J.O. (1973) O timbo (rotenona) usado como inseticida e toxico pare peixes. B. Tec., Departamento Nacional de Obras Contra as Secas (Fortaleza), 31(2): 123-129.
DA COSTA. N.A. et al (1986) Uso do Timbó Urucu no Controle do Piolho em Bubalinos. Boletim de Pesquisa No. 78. 16pp. Belém: EMBRAPA-CPATU.
GERRITS, R. and VAN LATUM, E.B.J. (1988) Plant-Derived Pesticides in Developing Countries. Report of Netherlands Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environment.
HIGBEE, E.C. (1947) Lonchocarpus - A fish poison insecticide. Economic Botany, 1: 427-436.
LIMA, R.R. (1987) Informaçães Sobre Duas Espécies de Timbó Derris Urucu e Derris Nicou como Plantas Inseticidas. 23 pp. Belém: EMBRAPA-CPATU.
Rosewood
OHASHI, S.T., ROSA, L., OLIVERA, F., SANTANA, J.A. and SIMONS, A. (In press). A strategy for collection, conservation and utilization of genetic resources of Aniba rosaeodora. Forest Ecology Management.
Safrole
MAIA, J.G.,
GREEN, C.L. and MILCHARD, M.J. (1993) New sources of natural
safrole. Perfumer and Flavorist, 18 (March/April): 19-22.
Limitantes presentes al uso racional integrado del monte por fines de ganadería bovina en el chaco Tarijeño
Objetivos del programa de manejo silvopastoril
Modus operandi (cadena cronólogica de las actividades a implementar)
Implementación del programa, por zona y clase de finca
Henri Servoz Roch,
Asesor Técnico Principal, Proyecto GCP/BOL/016/NOR/FAO/CODETAR,
Restauración Forestal y Rehabilitación de Tierras, Tarija,
Bolivia
Es de conocimiento que las
especies de ramoneo constituyen el componente principal de
alimentación del ganado bovino de corte en la llanura chaqueña,
parte del piedemonte y los valles subandinos secos. Sin embargo,
el aumento de las cargas animales y el impacto negativo de la
presencia de los pequeños rumiantes se han traducidos en los
últimos años por una regresión ecológica sin precedente de
este importante recurso silvopastoril. Este fenómeno es
particularmente perceptible en los alrededores de aguadas y
bebederos, y, en forma general, a nivel central de finca.
Normas y lineamientos de uso adecuado del monte, en un contexto de aprovechamiento sostenido que enfoque la preservación del recurso forestal y del equilibrio de los ecosistemas chaqueños, han sido definidos por FAO y la Corporación de Desarrollo de Tarija. No obstante, la aplicación óptima de las metas definidas se ve obstaculizada por los siguientes elementos negativos:
- Carencia de un proceso efectivo de capacitación / transferencia de tecnología que permita al productor emprender e implementar un programa coherente de desarrollo y manejo de recursos naturales por fines de forestería y ganadería bovina semi intensiva, en base los paquetes tecnológicos preconizados.
- Falta de recursos financieros por lo que se refiere a la construcción o mejoramiento de la red de alambradas divisionales, atajados y bebederos, con el fin de mejor relacionar los recursos de ramoneo disponibles a los requerimientos estacionales de las varias categorías del hato bovino.
- Ausencia muy frecuente de títulos de tierra, lo que impide la construcción de infraestructuras durables de manejo del hato y de aprovechamiento adecuado de los recursos silvopastoriles forestales.
Paralelamente, no se están aplicando en el Chaco Boliviano sistemas de producción ganadera que enfoquen la disposición segura de ramoneo para su uso diferido en invierno - primavera, favoreciendo al mismo tiempo la recuperación del monte y reposición del recurso forestal a través de una dinámica positiva de la vegetación.
Sin
embargo, el propósito de emprender acciones de mejoramiento en
el monte no es solamente de lograr la intensificación de la
producción cualitativa y cuantitativa de carne bovina, sino
también garantizar a mediano plazo la estabilidad de los
frágiles ecosistemas del Chaco, única forma de mantener el
aprovechamiento integral sustentable de los recursos
silvopastoriles. Tal política no solamente permite limitar las
áreas de desmonte total con el subsiguiente conocido proceso de
erosión y degradación de tierras, pero lleva igualmente consigo
la posibilidad de limitar las inversiones de arranque y producir
en forma más racional, integrando el monte mejorado con otros
componentes forrajeros, como se observará más adelante.
1. Habilitar o rehabilitar superficies importantes del monte, con el fin de que este componente forrajero cubra una parte o la totalidad de los requerimientos animales bovinos de invierno - primavera (120 -150 días) y de verano - otoño, a mediano plazo.
2. Garantizar la perennidad del mejoramiento forrajero logrado, con miras al mantenimiento, año tras año, de la producción estacional de ramoneo y del estrateo herbáceo instalado en el monte Chaqueño.
3. Asegurar la reposición / mejoramiento del recurso forestal mediante prácticas adecuadas de manejo del ganado, con el fin de lograr la propagación natural de las especies silvopastoriles.
4. Establecer una cadena forrajera sencilla y económica, combinando el aporte estacional del monte mejorado con el banco forrajero y/o con las praderas artificiales.
5. Facilitar el manejo del hato bovino (reproductivo y global) por categoría sin incrementar los costos recurrentes de producción.