Country compass

BANGLADESH

A detailed study of the NWFPs of Bangladesh was made in 1992 as part of the Forestry Master Plan exercise.

The NWFPs contribute an estimated 12.3 billion take annually (US$1 = 40 take approx.). They provide employment for over 550000 people. Women play a significant role since they form a large part of the labour employed.

Economically, fish, prawns and shells from mangroves contribute the most (Tk670 million annually at market value), followed by bamboo and rattan (Tk350 million), medicinal plants, catechu (Acacia catechu) and lac, Tk106, 77 and 50 million, respectively. Bamboo and rattan rank first in terms of generating employment with 150000 people. NWFPs chiefly serve the rural unorganized economy, the bulk of the national population. As such, their true value fails to register properly in the formal economy. Nevertheless, NWFPs are important since they provide basic and useful materials for rural people, particularly the poor sections of the population.

Bamboo, rattan and hogla (Typha elephantina) provide inexpensive furniture and housing materials or utensils. All three materials are important in the handicraft and small cottage industry sector. Golpatta (Nipa fruticans), hantal (Phoenix paludosa), sungrass (Imperata cylindrica) and bamboo are important rural house construction materials. Bamboo is also an important raw material for pulp production and in the construction sector.

Medicinal plants and honey provide the bulk of the traditional medicinal ingredients. Murta (Schumannianthus dichotoma) and hogla provide materials for woven utensils and mats. Lac is used in the surface coating industry, while lali and catechu are important constituents in condiments and dyes.

ESTIMATED ECONOMIC VALUE OF NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS IN BANGLADESH

The development of NWFPs in Bangladesh faces a number of hurdles, mainly institutional in nature. Indiscriminate and overexploitive harvesting of the resource plus the absence of a programme to replenish and sustain production are resulting in resources becoming quickly depleted.

If properly managed, expanded and developed in an integrated fashion, the NWFP-based industries are ideal vehicles to attack rural poverty, to promote effective people's participation in forestry programmes and to offer socio-economic benefits to the rural population. (Source: Non-Wood Forest Products. Forestry Master Plan. Government of Bangladesh, Ministry of Environment and Forests. Asian Development Bank [TA No. 1355-BAN], UNDP/FAO BGD 88/025, 1992.)

BHUTAN

Mushroom cultivation has been given special attention in Bhutan since 1982 through UNDP and FAO support to the Bhutan forestry sector. Bhutan's climate, humidity and extensive forests favour the cultivation of a variety of mushrooms. This type of activity is labour-intensive with low capital requirements which is well suited to the economic conditions of the country.

An important issue addressed was the need to balance the use of logs for mushroom cultivation with sustainable forest management. Mushroom cultivation which uses only branches does not lead to tree felling and, therefore, does not damage the forest habitat. A survey of mushroom species of potential economic importance was also undertaken and the oak or shiitake mushroom was found to be the most economically viable. Seventy percent of mushroom production is accounted for by this species. The National Mushroom Centre in Simtokha has become the central point for the diffusion of technologies and information related to mushroom farming. Bhutan is known to have over 350 varieties of mushroom and it is necessary to carry out further surveys and an analysis of mushroom production potential in order to promote mushroom cultivation as an important economic activity in Bhutan. (Source: FOPN files.)

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BRAZIL

There are several economically valuable, multipurpose species in the Brazilian Amazon. They include: assai (Euterpe oleracea), buriti (Mauritia flexuosa), pataua (Jessenia bataua), pejibaye (Bactris gasipaes), piquia (Caryocar villosum), Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa), pendula nut (Couepia longipendula), bacuri (Platonia insignia), camu-camu (Myrciaria dubia), cupassu (Theobroma grandiflorum), copa�ba (Copaifera multijuga), jatob� (Hymenaea courbaril), andiroba (Carapa guianensis), babassu (Orbignya phalerata), ucuhuba (Virola surinamensis), cumaru (Dipteryx odorata), rosewood (Aniba duckei), sacaca (Croton cajucara) and tagua (Phytelephas aequatorialis). Some of these grow in high densities in certain parts of the forests. It has been suggested in some research studies that the long-term financial return from proper management of NWFPs found in a hectare of Amazon rain forest would outweigh the net benefits of timber production or agricultural conversion of the area. Apart from providing products for subsistence of the communities, NWFPs can help to generate an attractive income in suitable situations.

The scope for developing NWFPs in the Amazon forests of Brazil is enormous. At present, under the Brazil-UK programme, indigenous flora in the Brazilian Amazon are being screened for aromatic plants as a source of essential oils.

A study by the Institute for Amazonian Studies in Xapuri, Brazil, has indicated that local communities involved in the extraction of rubber and nuts earned an average annual income equivalent of US$960 per family. Some 1.5 million people in the Brazilian Amazon still derive a significant portion of their income from extractive forests. (Source: FOPN files.)

CHINA

China and Chinese farmers have a long tradition of collecting, processing and marketing NWFPs. In recent years special efforts have been made to increase local processing not only to meet domestic demand but also to earn foreign exchange. Total foreign exchange earnings from NWFPs reached US$340 million in 1990.

The forests of China harbour over 1900 species of woody plants. Of these over 340 species are aromatic plants, 120 are edible plants, 400 are species of medicinal value, over 100 are species of economic importance and 80 species yield nectar. There are also over 500 species of wildlife.

Non-wood forest products in China are classified in seven distinct groups. These are woody food and oil; woody fat, lacquer and wax; forest perfume products; forest drinks; edible fungus and mountain-grown edible wild herbs; Chinese medicinal material and forest-based forage. The most important species within the woody food and oil group are Castanea sp., Juglans sp., Zizyphus spp., Ginkgo, Camellia oleifera and Xanthoceras sp. This group accounts for one-fourth of the total output value of forestry in China. The woody fat, lacquer and wax group includes non-wood products such as Sapium sebiferum, Aleurites fordii and the leaf lacquer of Toxicodendron vernicifluum as well as rosin and turpentine. The forest perfumes consist of fragrant plants as materials to produce essential oils such as Litsea cubeba and Eucalyptus spp.

The most promising materials for forest drinks are Hippophae rhamnoides (sea buckthorn), Actinidia chinensis and Vaccinium vitis-idaea. The edible fungus and mountain-grown edible wild herbs group consists of several hundred species of edible fungi and wild herb resources. The most valuable mushrooms are Dictyophora duplicate, Hericium erinaceus, Pleurotus citrinopiletus, Boletus, Morchela esculenta, Auricularia, Ganoderma lucidum, Grifola umbellata and Cordyceps sinensis. The Chinese medicinal material includes Panax ginseng, P. quinquefolius and pilose antler. (Source: L�ger, C., FAO Regional Expert Consultation on NWFPs for Asia and the Pacific, November 1991)

CONGO

Au Congo, les produits forestiers non ligneux vent classifi�s en trots groupes: les plantes alimentaires, les plantes � usages techniques et les plantes m�dicinales. Les plantes alimentaires regroupent les esp�ces � feuilles-l�gumes, les tiges et tubercules comestibles, les huiles et ol�agineux, les fruits, les condiments, les s�ves et vins ainsi que les sels v�g�taux.

Parmi les plantes alimentaires, celles produisant des feuilles-l�gumes qui sont les plus cueillies, les plus transport�es et les plus consomm�es sont Gnetum africanum et Trilepisium madagascariense. Les tiges rampantes les plus populaires sont Dioscorea liebrechtsiana, D. praehensiis, D. preussii. Concernant les tubercules, ceux les plus utilis�s sont Dioscorea baya var. baya et D. preussii.

Les huiles et mati�res ol�agineuses sont principalement fournies par le palmier � huile (Elaeis guineensis). Les autres esp�ces ol�agineuses utilis�es par les villageois sont Allanblackia floribunda, Baillonella toxisperma, Desplatsia dewevrie, Klainedoxa gabonensis, Pentaclethra macrophylla et plusieurs esp�ces de Raphia.

Les fruits, tr�s nombreux en for�t congolaise, constituent un apport nutritif essentiel notamment en vitamines et couvrent une large gamme de produits et de go�ts. Les principales esp�ces sont Aframomum, Gambeya africana, Grewia coriacea, Heinsia crinita, Mammea africana, les esp�ces du genre Trichoscypha et Apocynaceae (Landolphia) ainsi que Allanblackia klaineana, Chytranthus spp., Coula edulis, Dacryodes spp.

Les plantes � usage technique sont les esp�ces satisfaisant les besoins imm�diats des habitants des r�gions foresti�res. Les villageois des communaut�s rurales utilisent environ 176 esp�ces pour satisfaire leurs besoins techniques imm�diats et celles-ci contribuent �galement pour des r�alisations plus complexes et plus durables comme les habitations, les meubles, les ponts de lianes, etc. Un inventaire des diff�rentes utilisations indique que le bois, sous forme de poteaux et de piquets, est l'utilisation la plus importante, suivi par les feuilles, les tiges de faibles diam�tres, les �corces, les fibres, les gommes et r�sines, les fruits, les arbres comme haies ou balises.

Les plantes m�dicinales, tr�s nombreuses au Congo, participent toujours �la vie quotidienne des habitants ruraux ou des citadins. Les traitements recouvrent l'ensemble des affections simples, principalement les troubles gastro-intestinaux, les algies, les parasitoses et celles relevant de la sexualit�. Un inventaire a relev� 463 esp�ces � usage m�dicinal et 1040 indications th�rapeutiques. Les plantes m�dicinales ont un grand potentiel de d�veloppement et leur cueillette commence � poser de graves probl�mes aux formations v�g�tales p�riurbaines. (Tir� du Plan d'action forestier tropical du Congo, Ressources v�g�tales non ligneuses des for�ts du Congo, Brazzaville, mars 1993.)

GAMBIA

In the Gambia NWFPs are as important as or more important than wood for supporting the livelihood of the rural people. Wild food (bushmeat, tubers, fruits), medicinal plants, wild palm oil, palm wine, honey, brooms and brushes, thatching materials and other products are sold in local markets. They provide income to the rural families and support subsistence.

Non-commercial collection, for bona fide use, is allowed free from forest parks and other government land. Commercial collections are charged, based on a rate fixed by the government from time to time. There are no established processing centres for NWFPs. Resources such as neem seeds and tan barks of mangroves and other plants are not being utilized, partly because of lack of information about their uses. With appropriate extension measures related to management, production and utilization of NWFPs, it will be possible to enhance the role of NWFPs in the Gambia. (Source: C. Chandrasekharan, Travel report, September 1993.)

GHANA

The importance of NWFPs in Ghana is virtually unknown. The most important NWFPs are bushmeat, medicinal plants, palm and wrapping leaves, rattan and chewsticks. A recent study revealed that approximately 75 percent of the population of Ghana eat bushmeat while a World Bank appraisal report revealed that in 1985, bushmeat worth US$202000.00 was sold in a single market day in Accra.

The rural population relies on fibre and construction materials from forests to build shelters or houses. According to a study, 65 percent of the houses are built with mud and wattle using sapling-size trees for poles and raphia or bamboo for the lattice structure, tied together with rattan. Approximately 36 plant species are utilized as building materials in rural Ghana but raphia palm leaves and bamboo are the most common for roofing while rattan provides the best binding material for the building structure.

In Ghana, rattan is primarily used for basket-making, furniture, roof ties, fish traps, storage containers and crop drying mats. Leaves of wild plants are regularly used to wrap vegetables, fish, cola nuts, soap and salt as well as cooked foods such as rice, yam, beans, kenkey (fermented maize dough) and fried plantain. The leaves are much valued for their strength, durability, impermeability and heat resistance.

Chewsticks are highly valued for dental care and about 90 percent of the people in southern Ghana use them. Chewsticks are made from the split stems of small-size forest trees of Garcinia epunctata and G. kola. The raw materials are generally collected from the southwestern regions of Ghana and are brought to Kumasi or Accra for processing purposes. Women work full-time to process the raw materials into chewsticks and each woman can sell around 300 bundles of chewsticks a day. The resource, however, is under increasing pressure and almost all the gatherers claim that the trees are becoming increasingly scarce. It is necessary for the NWFP resource that forms the invisible prop to Ghana's economy to be properly conserved and managed. (Contributed by Anacleto C. Duldulao, UTF/GHA/025/GHA.)

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HAITI

Haiti finds itself in a desperate ecological situation, aggravated by other problems. The forestry project HAI/89/017 is trying to stimulate the management and use of NWFPs in order to provide incentives for non-felling and protection of the very last forest stands. There are no local institutions involved in the planning, management and development of NWFPs. Therefore, information and statistical data on NWFPs are non-existent.

However, there is potential for the development of some NWFPs in Haiti. Further research and development are required to evaluate their technical, environmental and socioeconomic feasibility and contribution to rural communities. The list of potential plant species, which could yield interesting products, includes: pods of Prosopis juliflora, naturalized in Haiti, which can be processed as flour and then used as a component in chicken feed; Quassia glauca or Simaruba glauca, a naturally occurring species, the fruits of which are used for the extraction of edible oil; and Azadirachta indica, the fruit of which is used for pesticide production. (Contributed by F.J. Ohler, CTA, HAI/89/017.)

INDIA

The concept of participatory forest management on an usufruct sharing basis has been gaining ground as an effective means for regenerating degraded forests. Enlisting people's involvement in the development of fuelwood, fodder, small timber and NWFPs for the rural and tribal population and creating a massive people's movement with the involvement of women are some of the basic objectives of India's National Forest Policy of 1988.

In India, NWFPs are derived from over 3000 plant species. These NWFPs include medicinal plants, edible plants, resins, gums, oils and fats, essential oils, tannins, dyes, bamboos, canes, fibres, flosses and grasses, bidi leaves and animal products such as lac, silk, horns and honey. Some of these are industrial raw materials of great economic value. They also provide employment to tribal communities and to villagers living in and around the forests.

In economic terms fodder grasses constitute the most important NWFPs; it is estimated that about 200 million tonnes of fodder valued at about US$3000 million are removed from the forests annually to feed about 115 million cattle that graze in these areas. Bamboo is another important NWFP obtained from India's forests. Bamboo is an important source of raw material for the paper industries; large quantities of bamboo are also used in house building, agricultural implements and handicrafts. The country has extensive bamboo-bearing areas (1000281 km2) with a potential availability of 4.31 million tonnes annually.

EXPORTS OF SOME NWFPs FROM INDIA

Source: Basic Chemicals, Pharmaceuticals and Cosmetics Export Promotion Council. Trend of exports, 1990-1991, 1991-92 and 1992-93. Bombay, India. October 1993.

Note: US$1 = Rs30 approx.

Tendu (Diospyros melanoxylon) leaves, which are used as wrappers for cigarettes (bidi), constitute an NWFP of considerable economic importance. It is estimated that tendu leaves worth about US$200 million are collected annually from the forests of India. (Source: Country Progress Report 1990-92 to the 15th Session of the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 9-13 August 1993.)

INDONESIA

Rattan is Indonesia's most important NWFP. During 1992-93 production amounted to 116000 tonnes. Restriction on the export of semi-processed rattan took effect in mid-1988 to encourage local processing, the development of rattan plantations and proper management and conservation of rattan in natural forests. Less significant in terms of trade volume and value, but very important socially and economically at the local level are other NWFPs such as resins, tannin, bamboo, essential oils, sago, sandalwood, nuts, honey and native medicines. (Source: Country Progress Report, 1990-92, to the 15th Session of the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 9-13 August 1993.)

JAPAN

Various kinds of non-wood forest products are produced in Japan. Among these, the production of food items such as shiitake mushroom has been increasing. Production of all non-wood products in value terms was about 389 billion yen in 1991 (about US$3.6 billion at the current exchange rate). These products play a significant role in the development and stabilization of rural communities where few opportunities for industries other than forestry and agriculture are available, and the construction of communal facilities for production, processing and distribution are supported by the government to contribute to rural development. (Source: Country Progress Report, 1990-92, to the 15th Session of the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 9-13 August 1993.)

JORDAN

NWFPs available in Jordan are yet to be identified, tested and recorded as to their kind and quantity. NWFPs include, besides bamboos, all vegetable, animal and mineral products other than timber and fuelwood of forest origin. Large amounts of NWFPs reportedly come from forests in Jordan and are used by households without any licence.

The main NWFPs include edible seeds: stone fruits (Pinus pinea, P. halepensis), almond (Amygdalus communis), Pistacia spp. and Rhus coriaria; edible fruits: carob (Ceratonia siliqua), oak (Quercus spp.), Olea europea, common hawthorn (Crataegus azarolus), nettle tree (Celtis australis) and Ziziphus spinachristi and Pyrus pashia; leaves: laurel (Laurus nobilis) and other wild grasses; mushrooms; food from wild animals; seeds and plant material for propagation: Pinus halepensis, Cupressus sempervirens, Pistacia spp., Pyrus syriaca, Salvadora persica, Ceratonia siliqua, Juniperus phoneina; handicrafts and decoration items: baskets made from reeds (Phragmites communis), pine cones of different types, wild grasses, dried plants; soil, sand, stones, rocks and minerals; and humus (there is a great potential for the production of humus through the fermentation of sawdust, chipped wood, bark, twigs and leaves - the material could be used for the improvement of nurseries, plantations and the surplus sold to the market). Finally, in-depth surveys and studies are needed to record the various NWFPs in use in the different regions of Jordan. (Contributed by M.M. Pant, CTA, Project JOR/92/004.)

REPUBLIC OF KOREA

The main NWFPs are chestnuts, pine nuts, jujube, mushrooms and pine mushrooms. In order to promote the production of forest by-products, various efforts are being made. First, specialized local projects are being fostered through vital management of main producing sites, to increase productivity and quality of forest byproducts by preferentially supporting financial aid and technical assistance to producers, and to establish marketing systems combined with storage, processing and distribution. Second, it is important to discover new profit-making species, strengthen the extension of forestry techniques and increase cultivation/production combined with harvesting mountain vegetables and medicinal plants that are indigenous to mountains. Third, new processed foods suited to consumer taste need to be developed through collaboration between research institutes and processing companies, and continuous public campaigns strengthened for the promotion of consumption. Fourth, benefits to consumers and producers need to be protected by establishing marketing systems for forest byproducts at the Forest Association level through the reduction of middle-distribution channels. (Source: Country Progress Report, 1990-92, to the 15th Session of the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 9-13 August 1993.)

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PRODUCTION OF FOREST BY-PRODUCTS IN THE REPUBLIC OF KOREA

Source: Country Progress Report, 1990-92, to the 15th Session of the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 9-13 August 1993.

LESOTHO

A number of non-wood forest products are used by rural populations, i.e. fodder, fruits, nuts, berries, wild spinach, honey, game meat, birds, insects, medicinal plants, tannin and ornamental trees. The major bottlenecks in the development of NWFPs include inadequate legislation and national policy on forest conservation, lack of awareness, lack of technical information available to the people and lack of statistical information for planning.

Plans of action required to reduce these constraints include those to raise awareness among foresters and policy-makers as to the full value of NWFPs, to involve rural populations in all activities concerning the development and promotion of NWFPs, and to establish village nurseries on suitable sites to supply seedlings of plants providing NWFPs. (Source: T.M. Maliehe, Pilot Country Study presented at the Regional Expert Consultation on NWFPs, Arusha, United Republic of Tanzania, 17-22 October 1993.)

MALAWI

Non-wood forest products abound in the country but are not properly managed. Limited information exists as to their quantity and value. The exploitation of NWFPs varies with type, time and location. Commercially, bee products, mushrooms, caterpillars and medicinal plants are important. Game products seem to attract illegal practice despite the stringent effort of the Government to regulate their use.

The management and utilization of NWFPs, on a sustainable basis, are needed in Malawi Relevant policies and legislation need to be revised and improved. The Government, NGOs and international development agencies should coordinate their efforts in order to draw up viable sustainable development strategies. (Source: R.W.S. Nyirenda, Pilot Country Study presented at the Regional Expert Consultation on NWFPs, Arusha, United Republic of Tanzania, 17-22 October 1993.)

TRADE IN CRUDE HERBS IN NEPAL

Source: Herbs Production and Processing Company Ltd., Kathamandu, Nepal.

MALAYSIA

Rattan and bamboo are two important NWFPs in peninsular Malaysia. Rattan, by far the most important of the two, is utilized mainly for furniture-making, baskets and cordage-making. Bamboo is used in the manufacture of baskets, chopsticks, poultry cages, incense sticks and handicrafts. Currently rattan is harvested mainly from natural forest. Efforts to cultivate rattan on a large scale are being undertaken mainly in logged-over forests. Malaysia's export of rattan furniture is expanding and registered a 66-percent increase from 1989 to 1991. (Source: Country Progress Report, 1990-92, to the 15th Session of the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 9-13 August 1993.)

MALI

Les produits forestiers non ligneux (PFNL) donnent aux populations rurales de Kabo�la (Mali) la possibilit� de satisfaire leurs besoins alimentaires, sanitaires ainsi que mon�taires. Les principaux PFNL de Kabo�la vent les fruits, les graines, les gommes, les fleurs, les feuilles, les fibres et les racines. Les activit�s de cueillette les plus importantes et qui font l'objet d'une r�glementation villageoise demeurent celles des fruits et amandes de Vitellaria paradoxa (karit�) et les fruits de Parkia biglobosa.

Les autres produits, moins importants du point de vue �conomique mais aussi importants pour l'alimentation et pour la pharmacop�e traditionnelle, vent le Tamarindus indica (tamarinier) et l'Andansonia digitata (baobab), bien que ce dernier soit moins fr�quent dans la partie m�ridionale de la r�gion. (Contribution de M. Stigliano, CTP, GCP/RAF/276/lTA.)

PACIFIC ISLAND COUNTRIES

Piper methysticum, known as sakau, kava or ava, is an agroforestry product processed for a psychoactive ceremonial drink. In recent years it has been commercialized and is widely planted in forest clearings. Materials for leis and floral arrangements are gathered in some countries and there is also an ongoing trade in these products in the Pacific Islands. There is concern that these are unsustainably harvested. (Source: Country Progress Report, 1990-92, to the 15th Session of the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 9-13 August 1993.)

PAKISTAN

The three main non-wood forest products are resin, mazri and ephedra. For increasing production of resin, new methods of resin extraction are being introduced. These methods include the application of chemicals to stimulate the resin flow. To increase the supply of mazri and ephedra, steps are being taken to improve their regeneration and regulate exploitation. (Source: Country Progress Report, 1990-92, to the 15th Session of the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 9-13 August 1993.)

PHILIPPINES

The most common non-wood forest products are rattan, nipa shingle, bamboo and almaciga resin. The average annual production during 1990-1992 was 21000 linear metres for rattan, 12000 pieces of nipa shingles, 699000 pieces of bamboo and 729000 kg of almaciga resin. To increase the resource base of these products incentives are being granted by the Government for the establishment of plantations. (Source: Country Progress Report, 1990-92, to the 15th Session of the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 9-13 August 1993.)

SIERRA LEONE

The people of Sierra Leone use a large number of NWFPs and several (such as crude palm oil, rattan wares, medicinal plants, wild fruits and tubers, palm products, baskets and bushmeat) are locally traded. However, there are no programmes for their scientific management and development. Some research is being undertaken on the medicinal uses of plants at the University of Freetown. Collection of NWFPs is allowed, on payment of a fee, in the Government forest, and no limits are imposed. The revenue obtained is however very low. Growing wood, fuelwood and non-wood products together in rural areas under agroforestry and similar systems is seen as a means of improving land and natural resources management (Source: C. Chandrasekharan, Travel report, September 1993.)

SOLOMON ISLANDS

In the Solomon Islands, NWFPs already play a large part in people's lives but their as potential even greater contributors towards the development of local and national economies cannot be overemphasized. Among the numerous NWFPs being utilized by the Solomon Islanders, the following provide important economic contributions to the country: thatching materials, rattan, honey, edible nuts, herbal medicines, toxins, birds and reptiles, insects and craft products. (Source: Forestry Division, Ministry of Natural Resources. Paper prepared for the 1993 Heads of Forestry Meeting, Nadi, Fiji, 20-23 September 1993.)

SOUTH AFRICA

The indigenous people have a multiplicity of uses for NWFPs, i.e. fruits, nuts, spinach, fungi, honey, construction materials, medicine, forage, poison for arrows, tannin, fibre, raw materials for basketry, handicrafts, ornamental articles, wild meat and fish. Legislation in South Africa is currently punitive. Research and institutions are adequately developed, but rural dwellers have had no real benefits because of lack of extension. NGOs and national institutions could adopt a community participatory approach for the sustainable development and management of forest resources. (Source: T.M. Maliehe, Pilot Country Study presented at the Regional Expert Consultation on NWFPs, Arusha, United Republic of Tanzania, 17-22 October 1993.)

SRI LANKA

The main non-wood forest products are rattan, bamboo and resin. Others include fruits, honey, medicinal plants and nuts. The rattan industry is supplied mainly by local rattans that are harvested exclusively from wild stocks. The industry suffers from a shortage of raw materials. Permits are issued for the collection and transport of rattan by the Forest Department on payment of royalties. Bamboos are widely used in the construction and handicraft industries. The major problem affecting the bamboo industry is again the shortage of raw materials.

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The tapping of pine trees for oleoresins has been an economical industry during the recent past. There are about 10000 ha of state-owned Pinus caribaea plantations that are over ten years of age and suitable for tapping. They are leased out for tapping to the private sector on competitive bidding. The current resin production potential is around 3000-4000 tonnes a year. Domestic demand for resin production is so small that it is necessary to find export markets. (Source: Country Progress Report, 1990-92, to the 15th Session of the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 9-13 August 1993.)

UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA

The forests of Tanzania, like those in other tropical countries, provide rural communities with many NWFPs such as food, fuel, fodder, housing materials and medicine. These provide the rural population with income, yet little research has been done into improving the protection and management of such products. Far less is known about their role in conservation or about market shares. With the exception of chincona bark, wildlife-based products, honey and beeswax, no grading usually takes place. In general, there is little processing, and quality-control requirements are not being enforced for NWFPs. Most NWFPs are traded in raw form. The majority of the rural population live in and around the forests and are greatly dependent upon NWFPs for their subsistence. Production figures for NWFPs in Tanzania are mostly based on estimates. However, with appropriate assessment methods, it would be possible to determine the sustainable rate of extraction with minimum impact on the environment. The importance of NWFPs in Tanzania extends beyond local subsistence economy. In 1991, for example, the value of wildlife-based craft activities exceeded US$1.3 million, wildlife-based tourism contributed about US$94 million, honey and beeswax contributed about US$2.5 million, while gum arabic contributed US$0.9 million. The value of NWFPs lies not so much as indicated in the above figures, but in that so many people in rural Tanzania rely on these products for their survival.

Thus the challenge is to marry the concepts of the natural and social sciences in order to design methods that would allow the people living in and around the forests to manage and maintain the forest resources on a sustainable basis. (Source: A.W. Chihongo, Pilot Country Study presented at the Regional Expert Consultation on NWFPs, Arusha, Tanzania, 17-22 October 1993.)

TURKEY

Recently attention has turned to improving the production of NWFPs in order to enable forest villagers to obtain better social and economic conditions, and therefore to help limit further degradation of forests in Turkey. A very wide range of NWFPs can be produced from Turkish forests. NWFPs include bay leaves, herbs such as sage and oregano, bulbs from ornamental plants, mushrooms, chestnuts, hazelnuts, pine nuts, pine resin, honey, berries and fruits as well as medicinal and aromatic plants. The country has a rich resource of medicinal and aromatic plants with an estimated number of 9000 species, of which some 3000 are endemic. Other "services" derived from forest lands include water, grazing, tourism and fish production.

The economic value of NWFPs in Turkey is very hard to calculate, partly because much of the production is unreported or under-reported, but there is evidence that it could be extremely significant. For example, from 1983 to 1988 there was a reported average annual value of about US$35 million of exports of NWFPs, which could exceed the annual export value of conventional forest products. In 1990, about 850 tonnes of bay leaves were produced, although exporters contend that the real figure might have been as much as 2500 tonnes. The Ministry of Forests gets a small amount of revenue from licence and export fees.

As part of the project GCP/TUR/045/SWI "Development of appropriate methods for community forestry", a set of activities related to the use and development of NWFPs has been taken up in a small section of forest villages in the northern and eastern Anatolian regions. These include: development of pasture and fodder; propagation and promotion of fruit trees; mushroom cultivation; provision of bee-fodder and production of honey; and promotion of agroforestry. In this regard the project is working closely with an NGO, the Development Foundation of Turkey. The purpose of these activities is to help improve the economic condition of some 9 million forest villagers living in some 17500 forest villages.

In 1993 the project also started three research studies on NWFPs, in which three Turkish universities were involved. These studies consist of 1) a preliminary survey of aromatic and medicinal plants; 2) commercial feasibility of developing NWFPs other than aromatic and medicinal species; and 3) case-study of a factory run by a village cooperative producing juice concentrates, instant tea and other products from raw materials gathered from natural stands in northeastern Anatolia.

The work so far clearly indicates a need to develop a policy framework for the sustainable development of the NWFP sector in Turkey. The primary role of the private sector and village enterprises needs to be recognized, as well as demonstrating a need for strategic governmental intervention to encourage and direct private investment for the benefit of forest villagers and the national economy. The policy framework should include consideration of property rights; co-management strategies; sustained utilization; farmers' rights; fiscal strategies that reward rather than penalize sustained management; cooperative organizations; administrative issues; research; sales and marketing; exporting; coordination of forestry and agricultural policies and programmes; and integration of NWFP activities with community forestry projects. (Source: contributed by P. R. Stevens, CTA and R.E. Donmez, National Project Director, GCP/TUR/045/SWI.)

UGANDA

Rural communities in Uganda rely on a multiplicity of NWFPs for their livelihood, ranging from leaves, stems, roots and fruits to bamboo and wild mammals. Local people are also involved in beekeeping activities that provide a food supplement and additional income. A large number of plants with medicinal properties are to be found in the forests of Uganda, and rural communities rely on traditional medicines for the treatment of a variety of diseases.

Further research, scientific investigations, studies and surveys are required in order to assess Uganda's biological diversity and its development potential. It is also necessary to design and implement an awareness campaign about the importance of biological diversity and NWFPs in natural resource management. (Source: F.W. Kigenifi, Pilot Country Study presented at the Regional Expert Consultation on NWFPs, Arusha, United Republic of Tanzania, 17-22 October 1993.)

YEMEN

Specifically, there are five special trees and shrubs of particular importance to the farmers and the rural community of the Tihama plain of Yemen for their multipurpose uses other than timber and fuelwood. The Tihama plain is a land strip about 30 km wide lying between the Red Sea and the first mountainous escarpments. Oriented north-south, it stretches from Harad, near Saudi Arabia, to Bab Al Mandeb. Salvadora persica is extremely useful and highly appreciated by the community for its wide range of uses such as sand-dune fixation (because of its salt tolerance), provision of forage, bee-fodder, edible fruits and toothsticks. Leptadenia pyrotechnica is also used for sand-dune fixation and forage.

Balanites aegyptiaca is extremely common in the Tihama landscape, and particularly around homesteads. The primary uses of this plant species are for fruit and forage as well as for amenity purposes (shade, shelter and enhancement of the panorama). Tamarix nilotica is used for sand-dune fixation and forage as well as for windbreak purposes, especially in the external row of a three-row windbreak. Prosopis juliflora is the most efficient species for sand-dune fixation in Tihama. It is salt-tolerant, drought-tolerant and extends over the sand in a robust fashion to stabilize it. Other uses are for forage, live fences, windbreaks and for amenity purposes. (Contributed by Dr M. Ellatifi, Forestry Nurseries and Agroforestry Expert, GCP/YEM/015/SWI.)

ZAMBIA

The formal assessment of the economic role played by forests often overlooks the importance of non-wood forest products in the daily lives of the people who live in and around forests. This is often the result of a biased idea that the major benefits derived from forests are in the form of wood products. But in reality forests provide food in the form of fruits, leaves, roots and mushrooms. They also provide building and construction materials in the form of fibres, bamboo and rattan.

For most rural people, medicinal plants from the forest are the only form of medicines they receive throughout their lives. The collection of these items provides people with employment and their sale supplements their incomes. Of the different NWFPs in Zambia, the ones that are highly promoted and developed are those connected with beekeeping activities and basket- and mat-making. Baskets and mats are made from bamboo, reeds or rattan. The income from these activities goes a long way to assist the rural populations. Statistical information on NWFPs is scarce or non-existent because the harvesting, processing and marketing of these products are done by individuals who keep no records or belong to small-scale informal units.

A number of constraints that hinder the development of NWFPs have been identified: shortage of qualified labour, inadequate funding, poor infrastructure and underdeveloped economic structure. (Source: F.C. Njovu, Pilot Country Study prepared for the Regional Expert Consultation on NWFPs, Arusha, United Republic of Tanzania, 17-22 October 1993.)

ZIMBABWE

The importance of NWFPs is recognized in the forest-based operations of large- and small-scale sectors, commercial farm lands, forest lands, wildlife estates and tourism and hunting farms. Handicrafts, forest litter for farm manure and medicinal plants are worthy contributors. Apart from organized tourism and game hunting, there are no institutions covering the full range of NWFPs. Extension, education and data systems on NWFPs are still lacking. Legislation is restrictive and tends to favour outsiders as opposed to local entrepreneurs. (Source: B. Campbell, Pilot Country Study presented at the Regional Expert Consultation on NWFPs, Arusha, United Republic of Tanzania, 17-22 October 1993.)

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