M.H. El-Lakany
M. Hosny El-Lakany is professor of forestry and director of the Desert Development Center at the American University in Cairo, Egypt.
This article examines the current characteristics and the place of the forest in Near Eastern societies and dwells on the changes taking place in the sector. Envisaged institutional adjustments to deal with the emerging role and importance of forests in the region are discussed.
Under the regional structure of FAO, the Near East region comprises 26 countries and covers an area of 17.5 million km2, stretching from Afghanistan and Pakistan in the east to Morocco and Mauritania in the west, and from Turkey in the north to Somalia in the south. The total population of the region is estimated to be 466 million, with an annual increase of some 3.1 percent, one of the highest in the world. Nearly 75 percent of the region's total area is desert, while another 15 percent is arid or semi-arid and cold mountains; thus, aridity is the dominant feature of the region, with the exception of a few high - precipitation areas. The physical characteristics of the region stem from the combined effects of climate and topography, with maritime influences playing an important role. These characteristics are the major determinants of land use, although patterns of land use over the centuries have shaped the physical framework at the local level. Being one of the oldest inhabited regions of the world, it exemplifies the mutual impacts and interactions of humans, environment and natural resources.
Overall, the region is characterized by limited forest resources which, over time, have been degraded by overuse and misuse resulting from high human and animal pressures coupled with harsh environmental conditions. In spite of substantial investment in expanding irrigated agriculture, productivity has not grown proportionally. Consequently, shifting and permanent cultivation is expanding into drier marginal lands anal or into the forests, with consequent ecological and economic problems. The processes of land degradation - manifested by the destruction of vegetative cover (particularly trees and woodlands), the loss of biodiversity, soil erosion, the loss of soil fertility and moving sand dunes - have rendered this region one of the most desertification - prone areas of the world. Nevertheless, potential for forest development and the sound management of forest resources does exist in the region, provided that proper policies are drawn up and implemented though a revitalized institutional structure.
Windbreaks (In the background) protect an orchard in a desert agroforestry system in Egypt
The total forested area of the Near East is estimated to be some 82 million ha, while other wooded areas cover an additional 190 million ha (FAO, 1993a). The largest forest area in the region is found in the Sudan (47 million ha), followed by Somalia and Turkey (some 9 million ha each), the Islamic Republic of Iran and Morocco (4 million ha each), Pakistan (2.6 million ha), Algeria (2 million ha) and Afghanistan (1 million ha). However, Near Eastern forests in the typical classification applied to temperate and high rainfall zones are confined to limited areas of the Atlas Mountains; the highlands of Cyprus, Turkey and the Caspian Sea; and Pakistan and the southern Sudan. The majority of forest resources in the Near East region comprise savannah and open woodlands, scattered trees and xerophytic shrubs as well as some plantations established as woodlots or shelterbelts.
As in most other parts of the world, the forests of the Near East have traditionally been used as a source of timber and other wood materials. The production, harvesting, processing and marketing of wood products have been in operation for centuries. Fuelwood remains the most important source of rural energy in the Near East in spite of the fact that the region is a net producer and exporter of oil.
Throughout the region, forest products other than wood are being used for a variety of purposes. While gum arable. cork, tannin and resin are used in industry and marketed, a large number of other products are consumed at home or fed to animals, without entering into national statistics. Such products include wild meat and fish, edible mushrooms, bee's honey and wax, nuts, seeds, fruits, shoots, leaves, roots and tubers, aromatic plants and pharmaceuticals. These products are closely tied to the livelihood systems of the rural communities. The collection and primary processing of non-wood forest products provide employment opportunities and cash income which, although small, may be critical to the household economy. Moreover, the bulk of the employment is seasonal and thus fits in well with the agricultural cycles.
Although the total forest area is relatively low compared with other regions in the world, several Near Eastern countries have natural forest resources sufficient to sustain certain types of wood industries. For example, the Maghreb countries, Turkey, Iran and Pakistan produce and process paper pulp and related products, while sawnwood and panels are produced in these countries and Cyprus as well. There are other countries with currently limited forest resources, but with climatic and edaphic conditions that would permit the establishment of plantations of fast-growing industrial species. Considering that wood imports to the region in 1990 amounted to more than US$ 3000 million, there are good social, economic and financial reasons to justify the creation of appropriate forest industries. It would be possible to invest and generate employment in the sector through the tending, management, harvesting and utilization of forest resources and the establishment of new plantations (FAO, 1990).
Generally speaking, the forests of the Near East are state-owned; however, there is considerable diversity among countries regarding ownership criteria. Irrespective of legal ownership, the rights of forest usage vary substantially among the Near Eastern countries. Over the centuries, people have had rights to collect fuelwood and food or to hunt forest fauna. However, many countries have enacted laws to regulate forest usage by local populations, with varying effectiveness of implementation. Wherever laws have failed to recognize historical, political, economic, social and religious factors, conflicts have exerted more pressure on the forest, rendering its systematic management a difficult task.
The marginality of forest lands in terms of commercial wood production has resulted in forestry being relegated to a position of low priority in government plans and policies for development, notwithstanding their enormous importance for the subsistence of millions of people in the region. More recently, however, the role of the forest in securing food and protecting the environment has gained popular and official support in the Near East, and many new political, social and economic developments have taken place. Three major trends are modifying the role of forestry in Near Eastern society: the expansion of cropping and grazing into the forest; increasing concern over forest conservation for environmental protection and recreation; and overall socio-economic changes.
Expansion of cropping and grazing into the forest
One of the greatest threats to the Near Eastern forests is the intrusion of shifting agriculture and the introduction of domestic animals into the forests. The rapidly growing population and resulting increase in the need for food has forced the expansion of farming into the forests in many Near Eastern countries. The consequences of such practices are very serious, if proper management and control are not exercised by the state and the people. Many examples of soil degradation and deterioration of watersheds, often beyond restoration, can be seen in Pakistan, Afghanistan, Turkey, Iran, Iraq, the Syrian Arab Republic, Jordan, the Sudan, Somalia and the countries of North Africa. While it is unavoidable that people will have to crop parts of the forests to meet increasing needs for food, the state in general and forestry administrations in particular must devise and implement regulatory measures. Since forest extension plays a vital role in this regard, proper training of foresters is needed. Equally important is the coordination among foresters, agriculturists, watershed managers and socio-economists. This is particularly relevant to Pakistan and Iran in the east and Morocco in the west.
Casuarina sp. shelterbelts for protection and timber along a road in Egypt
Increasing concern over forest conservation for environmental protection and recreation
Forest conservation has long been an important element in many forest policies and management plans throughout the Near East. There have been achievements in forest ecosystem restoration such as sand dune stabilization (Iran, Tunisia, the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Morocco), improving the carrying capacity of rangeland (Jordan, the Syrian Arab Republic, Algeria, Tunisia, Somalia), and improving the efficiency of charcoal - making and use (the Sudan). These efforts, although commendable, have been far from sufficient in terms of the magnitude of the problem. A key constraint has been inadequate or even the complete absence of local people's involvement in forest conservation. Populations living in or near the forests seldom have any input in shaping conservation plans and are not encouraged to participate in their implementation, except as hired labourers.
Gradually, however, there has been a growing recognition of the importance of direct involvement of local people through the development of effective communal silvopastoral organizations through which people can be encouraged to conserve and manage woody vegetation and to grow and protect trees themselves. Some efforts to this end have produced positive results in the Syrian Arab Republic. Forest policies need seriously to address such fundamental elements when new economic systems are introduced.
Generally, there is a strong movement towards the conservation of nature and protection of the environment in the Near East. The forestry or environmental policies of several countries in the region provide for the conservation of nature, the sustainable management of wildlife and the establishment of protected areas. Some countries (Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Pakistan, Jordan, Tunisia and Morocco) have designated natural reserves and enacted laws to protect flora and fauna. Many citizen's groups, professional societies and non-governmental organizations also are actively engaged in such efforts.
Meanwhile, governments are responding to public pressure exerted by the blessed and deprived alike for recreational facilities. As a result of financial prosperity and improved working conditions in some Near Eastern countries (for example, Saudi Arabia and the other Persian Gulf states), and financial constraints, lack of employment and deplorable living conditions in others (e.g. Pakistan, Iraq, the Syrian Arab Republic, Lebanon, Egypt, the Sudan and Yemen), people are demanding facilities for recreation and leisure. Many Near Eastern governments have responded by developing forests for recreational purposes, which constitutes a new development in Near Eastern sociopolitical ethics.
Another important trend in terms of environmental protection is the development of national environmental action plans, with a strong focus on forestry. This has become one of the major prerequisites for international technical assistance and aid applications, in addition to satisfying the needs of concerned environmental groups. Turkey, Cyprus, Pakistan, Oman, Jordan, Egypt, Tunisia and Morocco have already devised such plans, while the rest of the countries in the region are in the process of doing so. Foresters must assume a leading role in drawing up such plans in order to ensure that forestry issues receive due attention.
Socio-economic changes
The social structure of Near Eastern countries is also undergoing a number of important changes at present which the forestry profession needs to understand and recognize if it is to carry out its tasks adequately. In fact, the role of the forester will ultimately be defined by the way the profession responds to the challenge presented by the growing reliance on the regions forests to produce more food and fodder, higher incomes and greater employment opportunities through appropriate forest industries, more fuelwood production and the improvement of environmental stability (FAO, 1990).
One important example is the move by several countries of the region (Turkey, Cyprus, Morocco, Tunisia, Egypt, Jordan and Pakistan) towards market economies, and the privatization of industry and farming is growing at a fast rate. Since forests, and to a large extent forest industries, are state-owned in many Near Eastern countries, the traditional role of the state will have to change from being mainly protective to legislative and will have to advise on new policies for management and intervention. Consequently, the role of the forester must evolve from that of "forest guard" to a broader mandate including both technical aspects and the promotion of a wider understanding of the role of trees and forests in national social and economic development.
Both maintaining the traditional forestry activities related to protection and rehabilitation of existing forests and establishing new plantations, as well as dealing with the emerging role of forests in the Near East will need sufficient financial resources and well-developed human resources. More important, strategies for action that are endorsed by the public and decision-makers, need proper institutional support. Areas that require institutional changes and support in the Near East are policy, strategic planning and administration, research and education and training.
Policy, strategic planning and administration
As the analysis presented above shows, there is a need to improve the existing forest policies or to develop new ones for the Near Eastern countries that lack such policies. The main objective of all forest policies in the region should be to cater for the present as well as future needs and issues. The aspects relevant to the improvement of national forest policies, as far as an institutional framework for forest sector development is concerned, were well-summarized by Schmithüsen and de Montalembert (1991):
"Determination of a clear institutional focal point in government for forest - related issues and strengthening of the responsible public administration; revision of forest laws and other legislation material to the protection, development and conservation of forests; preparation of national forest development and conservation plans; implementation of such plans through specific forest programmes and projects' monitoring and regulatory authorities on the situation of the forest resources; support to human resources development and forest research."
Agenda 21, approved in 1992 at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, has called for "national plans or strategies" for sustainable development, and many countries in the region, notably Pakistan, Turkey, Cyprus, Jordan, the Persian Gulf states, Egypt, Tunisia and Morocco, have taken this matter seriously. Some have already produced "national plans for sustainable development", while others are in an incipient stage of the planning process. In all cases, the role of forestry in sustainable development is recognized. Unfortunately, in a number of countries, an undue rush to produce a "document" as a product rather than as a vehicle for achieving specific objectives is frustrating the process and preventing it from being truly country-driven. National strategies of developing countries, including some in the Near East, should not slavishly follow the models produced in industrialized countries. As far as forestry is concerned, the plans or strategies should be flexible in substance and in format to respond to the changing needs of Near Eastern societies. They should address all aspects of development so as to achieve sectoral, crosscutting and macroeconomic objectives. Mechanisms must be created to work towards compatibility between forestry and other sectors; this will require political will among policy - makers and concerted efforts by public and private stakeholders.
Tamarix aphylia used for sand dune stabilization in Morocco
The effective integration of forestry planning with national development planning in the Near East has yet to be improved. Forestry planning in the past has tended to be isolated from other sectors of the national economy, and this should be remedied. The forestry sector must receive clear guidelines from the central planning authority on how to translate primary national objectives into secondary-level objectives for forestry as well as into definable and attainable targets. policies and action programmes. Furthermore, the forestry sector needs to be reviewed critically and central planners must be provided with alternative policies, strategies and advice on the range of options available at any given time. Such information must be based on the results of sector analyses which should establish a quantitative basis for assessing feasible goals and the framework to identify policies, projects and activities. Forest administrations must undergo necessary restructuring to cope with new activities. Some of them may need additional staff specialized in new topics such as agroforestry, environmental protection, recreation and extension.
Research
Ongoing activities of the forestry sector of many Near Eastern countries lack a solid research base. An informal consultation of experts convened by FAO in Rome in 1989 characterized the state of forestry research in the Near East and Mediterranean as follows:
i)
political commitment to forestry research was lacking in most countries;
ii) most countries had institutions for forestry research but, in the majority of cases, these were weak and needed strengthening;
iii) the quality of research was rated low, especially in terms of methodology and technological innovation;
iv) the communication of research results for application in practice was generally poor;
v) the planning of research programmes, particularly in applied research, required strengthening and support;
vi) the funding of research programmes, with very few exceptions, was inadequate;
vii) forestry research programmes were seldom integrated or harmonized with the overall national development plans and programmes at the country level.
Weak communication and interaction between forestry researchers and practitioners is common, but not unique, to many Near Eastern countries. There is a lot of discrimination in prestige and salaries, and this affects the efficiency of both groups. Other constraints, such as those related to information, human resources, institutions and financial resources, were discussed in detail in a Meeting of Experts on Forestry Research, held at FAO in October 1992 (El-Lakany in FAO, 1993b). At this meeting, two research areas were recommended for priority in the Near East.
A protected area in southern Saudi Arabia
Forest restoration, including:
i)
rehabilitation of catchments: upstream and downstream interrelationships, biological and engineering measures to halt or reduce soil erosion;
ii) reforestation and afforestation: production and trial of genetically improved material, tree performance under stress (stress physiology), use of degraded land and use of low-quality (waste and saline) water for irrigation, microbial symbiosis, natural stands and plantation management and utilization, sand dune stabilization, and use of stabilized areas; and
iii) conservation of biodiversity.
Sustainable multiple-use forestry, including:
i)
sustainable forms of integration between forest trees and agriculture (field crops, fodder crops, horticulture, windbreaks and shelterbelts);
ii) forest and rangeland management and improvement; including management and marketing of non-wood forest products and non-wood range products;
iii) socio-economics of multiple-use forests.
Near Eastern forest research institutions must undergo structural changes to be able to respond more effectively to the new demands being placed on them. Current research strategies should also be modified or redrawn to accommodate the changing role of forestry and to be ready to deal with expected multidimensional problems. Policymakers will turn to re searchers for guidance and leadership, thus institutions should promote multidisciplinary research and integration among forestry and agriculture, soils and water, sociology and economics, inter alia. Consequently, there will be only limited opportunities for traditional, narrowly specialized forest researchers. It will be up to the researchers in different disciplines of forestry to approach other researchers and plan their strategies in coordination with other fields. So far, forestry research institutions in Near Eastern countries, perhaps with the exception of Turkey, Cyprus, Pakistan and Tunisia, have failed to incorporate rural sociologists, economists, agronomists, natural resource managers and environmental protection specialists in their programmes. Research methodology must change accordingly, while field stations, experimental forests, instrumentation and supporting facilities should be modified. Substantial technical and financial support is clearly needed in this regard.
Education and training
Although forestry educational institutions exist in many Near Eastern countries, it is the general opinion that their numbers are not enough to satisfy all needs at secondary, technical and university levels. The material taught is not always up to the desired standards and tends to address "traditional" forestry subjects. An FAO ad hoc working group, which analysed the results of a survey of university forestry education in the Near East and North Africa in 1989, concluded that the present need is no longer to train silviculturists or managers of forest lands, but to produce multidisciplinary professionals able to deal with all the facets of new socioeconomic developments.
Severe wind and water erosion in Pakistan
Institutional support is needed to develop new forestry curricula at the different levels. While country-specific topics must be addressed, the curricula must encompass basic physical sciences and humanities with applied (traditional) forest sciences. Other disciplines to be included may cover, inter alia, agriculture, rural sociology, range management, recreation and public relations. Several universities in the region have introduced forestry education systems which comprise two years of agriculture and/or environmental sciences followed by two years of forest sciences. In some cases, students are required to spend one year of apprenticeship in forestry practice before graduation.
Such systems merit further development and adoption by other countries in the region. In all cases, however, the faculty and supporting staff need training in the new subjects added to forestry curricula.
Continuing education is very important to the future of forestry in the Near East. While serving foresters are not to be blamed for not dealing with socio-economics, agriculture or environmental issues in the past, they need to be trained to address such issues in the future. New intensive programmes need to be designed to match the planned gradual transformation of the tasks and functions of the foresters.
Near Eastern departments of forestry, both educational and administrative, should re-examine their policies regarding the sponsorship of postgraduate missions to the "West". They must ensure that such training meets their own needs rather than merely satisfying the requirements of scientific degrees. It is important that study programmes pertain to their real requirements and that the instructors have practical experience in the region.
As the role of forestry continues to evolve in the Near East, the modification and strengthening of forestry and forestry-related institutions will be a key factor in ensuring that forestry makes the maximum contribution to overall development. As evidenced in this article, areas for a particular strategic focus include:
· the integration of forestry development into national development; the strengthening of public forestry administrations and related government agencies;· institutional support geared to participation of local people and the private sector;
· support to forestry research infrastructures;
· the improvement of human capabilities through professional and technical education and training, extension and demonstration.
Woodland degradation from overgrazing in Jordan
FAO. 1989. Role of forestry in combating desertification. FAO Forestry Paper No. 21. Rome.
FAO. 1990. Strategic orientations for forestry development in the region. In Report off FAO Near East Forestry Commission Eleventh Session. Ankara, Turkey. Rome.
FAO. 1993a. Statistical country profile. Rome.
FAO. 1993b. Support for forestry research in the Near East: needs and prospects. In Proc. Meeting of Experts on Forestry Research, p. 179-185. Forestry Paper No. 110. Rome.
Schmithüsen, F. & de Montalembert, M.R 1991. Current trends in forest policies. In Proc. 10th World Forestry Congress. Paris, 17-22 September. Nancy, France, ENGREF.
