K. D. Thelen
Kyran D. Thelen is FAO Regional Forestry Officer, based at the FAO Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean in Santiago de Chile.
Although individual countries in Latin America have made significant progress in confronting the challenges related to wildland and wildlife management, until recently, intercountry collaboration among institutions and specialists responsible for the management of these resources has been limited. This article examines a mechanism that FAO has helped to establish to promote the exchange of information, experience and specialists in the search for solutions to common problems in the development of wildland and wildlife programmes.
Today nearly all countries in Latin America and the Caribbean have systems of protected areas, and the management of wildlife is viewed as a legitimate land use. Government policies in most countries now reflect a conviction that protected wildland areas and wildlife can contribute to overall socio-economic development. The conservation of biological diversity and the provision of a wide range of products and services from wildlife are generally accepted as desirable national goals. The questions now facing policy-makers and managers of protected wildlands in the region are not whether they will have protected areas but rather how many, of what size and where they will be established; who will manage and protect them; how much they are going to cost; and how can adjacent communities better benefit from them. With wildlife, the question is not whether species should be conserved but how they can be better managed to provide products and services on a sustainable basis, particularly for rural populations.
Technical cooperation networks
For many years the countries of Latin America and the Caribbean have received technical assistance as well as bilateral and multilateral financial assistance from developed countries. Recently, however, the countries of the region have become aware that, despite the benefits of this assistance, imported technology often does not completely meet local requirements and realities. Dependence on foreign assistance can also lead to inconsistent progress: in times of economic recession or in the face of political disagreements, external aid can dry up, leaving the developing country with half-achieved goals.
This concern, combined with the need to circulate the knowledge and experience that had been accumulated within the developing countries more widely, led to the establishment of a collaborative concept called Technical Cooperation among Developing Countries (TCDC). The principles of this cooperation were established by the 138 nations represented at the United Nations Conference on Technical Cooperation among Developing Countries held in Buenos Aires in September 1978.
As defined by the Conference, TCDC is "the deliberate and voluntary sharing of experience between two or more developing countries for their mutual development".
The participants at Buenos Aires stressed that TCDC activities, to the greatest extent possible, should be initiated, organized, managed and financed by the partner developing countries themselves. However, they also recognized that developed countries, and particularly international organizations, could and should provide assistance in getting specific programmes. off the ground.
In this context, the governments of the countries of the Latin American region called upon FAO to assist in the application of this new mode of cooperation. In 1979, with the assistance of the Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, they began to establish technical cooperation networks in a number of priority areas. Since then, some 20 TCDC networks have been established in the region. Within the forestry sector, networks have been established in watershed management, agroforestry, protected areas and wildlife and in dendro-energy.
The TCDC networks enable national institutions to exchange experiences and knowledge using their own human, financial and technical resources. Through this mechanism they can act in a coordinated manner on research and development of technologies to solve problems of common interest. They can complement each other's technical capabilities, thus enabling a more efficient utilization of resources and avoiding unnecessary duplication. The TCDC networks also allow countries with more experience to share their knowledge with countries less advanced in a particular technical area.
The networks work through such activities as technical meetings, round tables and workshops; study trips, observations and technical exchange; training courses, seminars and other forms of group and individual training; exchange of information, publications, audiovisual material, etc.; and cooperation in the identification and design of pilot and demonstration programmes.
Programme development and implementation generally consist of a thorough study by the national institutions of the situation in each country concerned with the subject, followed by a workshop of specialists from the countries to analyse as a group the situation in the context of the region or subregion. At the workshop, the participants reach collective conclusions, suggest viable solutions and establish a work programme for collaborative action among the countries.
The Latin American Technical Cooperation Network on National Parks, other Protected Areas and Wildlife
In response to a clear need to improve the conservation and development of wildland areas and wildlife in the region, and the confidence of governments that this could be accomplished most effectively through the sharing of combined technical skills and experience, a round-table meeting was convened in June 1983 at the FAO Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean in Santiago, Chile, with the participation of representatives from eight countries. Following an analysis of common problems related to wildlands and wildlife management in the region, the participants agreed to establish the Latin American Technical Cooperation Network on National Parks, other Protected Areas and Wildlife. Each country designated a national coordinating institution and a regional coordinator was elected. The Regional Office of FAO was asked to assist in organizing the network and to serve as technical secretariat.
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The capybara The capybara (Hydrochoerus sp.) is the world's largest living rodent. When fully grown it may reach a length of 1.3 m and weigh up to 50 kg. Semi-aquatic in nature, the capybara frequents the banks of lakes and rivers in Latin America from Panama to northern Argentina, feeding on water plants and tree bark. In fact, the word capybara means "master of the grasses". The excellent nutritional qualities, good flavour, smell and texture of capybara meat, combined with the gentle, easily domesticated nature of the animal, has given the capybara a high value among local communities. Capybara leather is tanned for a number of local uses; it is also used commercially in the production of bags and gloves. The fat of the animal is used in the preparation of medicinal products because of its high iodine content. The wide distribution of capybara throughout the region, as well as its large size and ease of capture and breeding in captivity, favour its sustained use as a source of food and income for rural people over a large part of Latin America. |
The general objectives of the network are to collaborate in the effective management of protected areas and wildlife; to facilitate the establishment of a regional data base on biotic resources; to collaborate in protecting an adequate representation of biologic diversity; to improve personnel training for the management of protected areas and wildlife; and to cooperate in improving the contribution of protected areas and wildlife to better socio-economic conditions.
To ensure a fluid interchange of information among the countries, the network has developed a communications programme that includes the preparation, publication and distribution of technical documents; the editing of a technical bulletin and circular newsletter; a computerized registry of specialists and institutions; the exchange of national technical papers; and the exchange of specialists, both on study visits and to provide technical assistance.
The priority programme areas of the network are national systems of protected wildlands, intercountry programmes on protected areas and wildlife in major biogeographic regions, border protected areas, research in wildlife and protected areas, in situ conservation of genetic resources, local participation in management of protected areas, environmental interpretation and the management of wildlife for rural development.
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The cayman The cayman (Caiman crocodilus) is the Latin American representative of the crocodiles. Reaching an average length of some 2 m, these semi-aquatic reptiles can be found in almost all water-rich environments of Latin America, from the swamp-grasslands of Colombia and Venezuela, to the humid tropics of the Amazon. Legislation aimed at species conservation currently bans the hunting or sale of cayman in almost all countries of the region but, nonetheless, an estimated one million cayman skins find their way into the international market each year. Unfortunately, in addition to seriously reducing the resource, this illegal trade brings only a minimal income to indigenous hunters; most of the profits are enjoyed by go-betweens and manufacturers of finished products. The rational utilization of this resource could have significant benefits for a large portion of the rural population. A fair share of the value of the skins could bring needed income, and the meat could provide much needed dietary supplies of protein. In addition to its socio-economic value, the cayman also plays an important role in maintaining the ecological balance of the water systems where it is found. For example, it is instrumental in keeping down the population of Serrasalmus sp. (piranhas) which otherwise would decimate other aquatic species. |
Within the area of wildlife, among the various options available, a decision was made to concentrate efforts on the utilization of wildlife for rural development.
Wildlife for rural development
In spite of the traditional importance of wildlife as a source of nutrition and income in Latin America, until quite recently the management of wildlife for sustained production, particularly for the benefit of rural populations, has not received sufficient attention. With some notable exceptions, for example the vicuña in Peru, efforts at wildlife management for local utilization have been modest undertakings covering a limited number of species. Most management efforts have been directed to commercial, scientific and sport hunting and capture of live animals for sale.
Furthermore, the limited amount of expertise that does exist at the national level has not been exchanged or made available among the concerned institutions in the region.
In spite of the lack of experience, however, many countries have recognized the need to increase the sustained productivity from wildlife and have initiated programmes. to manage wildlife for conservation and utilization under both natural and semi-captive conditions.
Following an analysis of the opportunities and limitations facing wildlife management in the region, particularly in those sectors that were receiving least attention, the participants in the TCDC network decided to develop a special action programme to promote wildlife management for rural development.
Species for priority action
To make the greatest contribution with the available resources, it was decided that work should be initiated with a limited number of species that had demonstrated the greatest potential for sustained-yield management and could provide an additional source of food and income for rural communities.
A survey of national wildlife management projects and programmes was conducted as a first step. Second criteria were developed to ensure that species selected could withstand sustained utilization, and were or could be of long-term socioeconomic importance to the rural community.
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River turtles The eggs, meat and oil of river turtles of the genus Podocnemis are important sources of food for rural populations along the Amazon, Orinoco and Essequibo rivers in Latin America. In addition, the river turtle plays an important ecological function in the food chain, as it feeds primarily on decaying forest fruits and seeds floating in the rivers and streams. Once abundant in number, uncontrolled exploitation of the river turtle for food and also for commercial use in cosmetics, soaps, creams and skin treatments; as well as the destruction of its nesting areas has led to the near extinction of several species in many areas. RIVER TURTLE (Podocnemis genus) Although captive breeding has not been proved to be economically viable, protection of nesting sites could quickly restore populations to levels adequate for sustainable use, as turtles lay annual clutches that often number more than 100 eggs, depending on the species. As in the case of crocodiles (see article on p. 21), eggs and young are particularly vulnerable, but as adults the turtles have very few natural enemies, except for human beings. |
Criteria were that the species:
· be distributed in at least two countries of the region;· be present in abundant numbers, or show evident signs of recovery in the case of previously overexploited species;
· be a source of products for which there is a high present or potential demand;
· be valued highly by local people, particularly as a food source;
· reflect some degree of management experience;
· be of importance within the ecosystem in which it is found;
· represent a potential source of international trade;
· have the ability to adapt to change in habitat; and
· have the possibility of providing work opportunities for the rural population.
Current information was collected from management institutions and experts in each country. This information covered species for which significant studies and projects were under way for sustained-yield production under either natural or semi-captive conditions. From this, a preliminary selection of key species (genera, in some cases) was made.
Subsequently, in October 1985, the network organized a workshop of experts from the participating countries. The workshop participants reviewed the information available, formally approved species selection, and began formulation of management guidelines. In the spirit of TCDC, the workshop was hosted by the National Council of Science and Technology and the National Agrarian University, at La Molina, Peru.
The workshop participants selected cayman, capybara, coypu, guanaco, iguanas, river turtles and vicuña as the seven species or groups that best met all criteria. However, in view of the limited resources available, they recommended that initial work be concentrated on capybara. As many of the countries with capybara resources were also concerned with the management of cayman and river turtles, and several institutions were working on all three, it was decided that it would be most efficient and effective to direct activities to the three species. Each has a long history of traditional use, especially by rural populations and all are important sources of animal protein and of products for which there is significant demand in national and international markets (see Boxes for brief descriptions.
International workshop
To develop specific management guidelines for the three species, a workshop was organized in December 1987 that brought together more than 50 of the most knowledgeable and experienced specialists in the Latin American region. Because of its experience in the management of capybara, the University of Sao Paulo, in Brazil, was selected as national organizer and venue of the workshop. The FAO Regional Office provided technical and financial backstopping through the FAO/UNEP Project on Wildland, Wildlife and Protected Areas in Latin America.
At the workshop, the selected species were discussed with respect to the knowledge of such varied aspects as biology (feeding, reproduction and sanitation); commercialization (values of meat, skins and other products); social, economic and cultural implications; legal status; conservation considerations including the role of protected areas; priorities for research; and institutional aspects including the need for training in management and conservation. Generalized management guidelines were drawn up for each species, and numerous technical aspects requiring follow-up action through the network were agreed upon.
The case of cayman
For example, the workshop noted that specific legislation would be needed by most countries to regulate cayman utilization. The network is now facilitating the exchange of information related to policies and regulations regarding cayman and other crocodilians, and is providing for exchanges of specialists to assist in development of appropriate national legislation.
A basic consideration in the management of cayman (and other crocodilians) is whether to engage in extensive, i.e. in situ, or intensive, i.e. captive breeding schemes. At present, most of the countries in the region are experimenting with some form of captive rearing, either with eggs and young collected in the wild, or with captive breeding animals. As the only country with a legalized system of extensive utilization, Venezuela is sharing its experience with the other nations.
Cuba, on the other hand, has considerable experience in captive breeding of crocodiles, and has prepared, with support from the network, a project to establish a regional centre to train technicians in the management of this important resource.
The workshop also established research priorities for each of the species. For example, for cayman managed under natural conditions, research is needed regarding the taxonomic problems of the species and subspecies; the range and distribution of the species; efficient methodologies for counting wild populations; and the influence of territoriality on management. Based on these priorities, research activities have been divided among the member countries according to the expertise available; the resulting information will be distributed throughout the region.
For each of the three key species, the management guidelines and background information collected at the workshop are at present being compiled into regional "state-of-the-art" manuals. When completed, they are expected to be the cornerstone of new management efforts for these species.
An exciting outcome of the network has been the acceleration of direct technical exchanges between countries of the region. For example, Brazil has hosted experts from several countries for study tours on captive breeding of capybara. On the other hand, an expert from Venezuela has trained a series of Argentinian experts in sustained-yield management of capybara under natural conditions.
Technical assistance exchanges are also being provided in other aspects of wildlife management. Some of these are very specific in focus; for example, an expert from Costa Rica helped Chile with a plan for the management of a rare humming bird on Juan Fernández Island; and Argentina provided assistance to Chile in the identification of river otter habitats. Others are much more general; a specialist from the University of Valdivia in Chile was sent to assist the Government of Uruguay in the development of a plan for a system of parks and protected areas.
Areas protected for their cultural importance are also receiving attention. For example, Colombia has assisted Costa Rica in the planning of a historical monument. Many other activities, in a wide range of fields, such as tourism in protected areas, exchanges of wildlife, and park ranger training exchanges are being considered for the future.
The opportunities that countries are offering to one another regarding participation in national training courses are also of significance. For example, Argentina has hosted trainees from several countries at its park-ranger training school in Bariloche. On the other hand, Chile and Peru have provided instructors for courses held in Argentina when technical skills were not available locally. Similarly, Brazilian experts have taught wildlife conservation courses in Peru.
These exchanges of personnel are carried out under a formula that requires relatively small amounts of funding, particularly in terms of scarce foreign exchange reserves. Normally the country providing the specialist maintains the specialist's salary while he or she is assisting another country, and the recipient country provides living accommodation and other in-country expenses. Travel expenses are often covered through the network secretariat at the FAO Regional Office.
Funding is also being sought from other sources. For example based on the success of the TCDC network to date, the Government of Spain is considering a programme to provide funds to cover increased training in the region.
While exchange of personnel is important in addressing critical problems, it is the exchange of publications and documents on a regular and continuing basis that provides the greatest volume of information flow among the countries of the region. Research results, management plans and technical reports provide valuable information and, for the first time, national experts are able to find solutions based on the experience of their colleagues from other countries.
Conclusions
The Latin American Technical Cooperation Network on National Parks, other Protected Areas and Wildlife is proving to be an effective mechanism for finding solutions to common problems. The work described above in relation to sustainable utilization of wildlife is only one facet of the total effort. Similar activities are being implemented for the other programme areas of the network. A high level of interest and enthusiasm has been generated and today all the Latin American countries are actively participating in one or another of the activities of the network.
The TCDC networks are not without their shortcomings, particularly in the area of financial resources, and should be considered as complementary to and not a substitution for more traditional forms of technical assistance. As one delegate to the 1978 Buenos Aires Conference put it, "TCDC should build bridges across the South, not close bridges to the North". However, the TCDC network's potential in supporting and binding together the institutions and specialists of Latin America in their quest to find solutions to the many national and regional challenges in the management of protected wildlands and wildlife should not be undervalued.
