1. Abbiw, D. 1987. Personal communication. Director of the herbarium, Department of Botany, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana.
Discussed the value and use of NTFPs in Ghana. Had extensive discussions about NTFPs of both cultural and economic importance. Discussed the production and trade of dugout canoes, medicinal plants, fruits and leaves, and building materials.
2. Abbiw, D. 1989. Useful plants of Ghana. University of Ghana, Legon, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, London, England.
An extensive book recording the uses (both past and present) of plants. Examines the products derived from forests and other uncultivated areas. Draws on historic information as well as current field research (interviews and oral histories). The material is arranged by use and includes descriptions of the plants, who uses them and whether they are earmarked for use. Abbiw describes plants used as food, medicines, sources of drinking water, salt substitutes, famine foods, poles and construction materials, furniture, fuelwood, timber, tools (e.g. Celtis sp. for pestles), poisons; those exploited for latex, resin, copal, gum, tannin, dye, and essential oils. And those used in craft enterprises such as basketry, carving, matting, canoe building (primarily undertaken at the site of the felled tree), agricultural implement making (e.g. axes from Burkea africana, hoes of Baphia nitida), musical instrument construction, and soap production. It is not possible to distinguish between current and historic uses, but the extent of descriptive accounts indicates the importance of the resources in peoples’ daily lives.Abbiw, for example, describes 62 wild fruit species (17 of which are marketed), 70 species used as chewing sticks and 20 species used as binding materials. He includes a chapter on plant-derived medicines (identifies 73 species) describing the plant, the parts of the plant that are used and the methods of use. Treatments of more than 85 ailments are discussed (e.g. hepatitis, earaches ...). The medicinal plants which are exploited for the export (or industrial) market (e.g. Griffonia sp.) are also discussed. In some cases trees valued for their medicinal products are protected by local customs or taboos. For example, Stereospermum kunthianum, a valued medicine tree, is not allowed to be cut, and if it is burned, it is believed to induce leprosy.
3. Abbiw, D. (in progress). Plants and tradition in West Africa. Department of Botany, University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana.
A study on the traditional use (cultural, mystical, symbolic and magical) of plants throughout West Africa. The study relays both historic information and updates from current field research (based on interviews and oral histories). The material is arranged by function rather than plant species. For example, the heading “Death and dying” includes plants which are associated with death, plants used to send or receive messages from the dead, plants associated with burial rites and ceremonies; “Marriage” includes plants believed to protect marriages, plants believed to improve marriages (e.g. a charm of Datura metel is believed to give the patience to tolerate one’s spouse). There are over 50 subject areas described. The material contains a great deal of information on possible “conservation practices” such as the protection of sacred groves and protective taboos.
4. Abosede, A.O. and Akesode F. 1986. Self-medication with Agbo-Jedi in Lagos, Nigeria. Journal of Research on Ethnomedicine 1(1).
This study illustrates how traditional cures are still commonly used even by those attending modern health care clinics. The piece examines use of Agbo-Jedi, a herbal cure for infant dysentery. Abosede and Akesode surveyed 200 mothers attending a Lagos health clinic and found that 80% of them gave the concoction to their children. Seventy-four percent said they were ministering it to treat dysentery. Forty-seven percent fed it into their children daily as a preventive measure. Agbo-Jedi consists generally of water extracts of leaves, bark and roots (among the common ingredients are camphor, Khaya ivorensis, Pseudocedrela kotschyi, Detarium microcarpum, Lophira lanceolata).
5. Addey, J. 1982. Wood carving activities in Kumasi ‘and its suburbs. Thesis (BSc), Institute of Renewable Natural Resources, University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana (unpublished).
There is a considerable wood craft industry in the Kumasi region. This study examines the production, economic costs and income-earning potential of this industry. One surveyed village (Ahwia) specialises in wood craft production, all village men are involved in this activity to some extent. It is especially known for its stool carvings. Carvers earn a good living, but production is irregular (about 1300 cedis/month). Thirteen different tree species are carved (67 species are of minor importance). Cedrela odorata is now most commonly used because other preferred species have become difficult to find. Most wood comes from non-forest reserve land (includes an account of the costs for felling and transporting trees from these “stool” lands). The biggest problem is transportation of raw materials (wood), as desired trees are no longer close to the carving centers. Carvers produce religious/ceremonial artifacts as well as general domestic wares (pestles, bowls, utensils).
6. Addo Ashong, F.W. 1987. Personal communication. Director, Forest Products Research Institute, University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana.
Discusses research on the use of non-timber forest products in Ghana. Work is being carried out on tannins and adhesives extracted from mangrove species Rhizophora sp. The extracted essential oils of a few species (e.g. Pycnanthus sp.) are used to make soap. The Institute is also conducting research on the woods that were traditionally used to make grain storage containers and ways of treating wood for better pest protection.
7. Adekunle, A.O. 1971. The non-timber forest resources of the high forest areas of Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Forestry 1(1): 12-16.
This general descriptive paper evaluates the potential for forest management in production of non-timber forest products. It provides illustrative examples of the myriad of products derived from forests and mangroves of the region. The importance of wildlife, particularily bushmeat, is also discussed. The article includes some quantitative information on the use and production of palm oil and palm wine.
8. Adeola, M.O. and Decker, E. 1987. Wildlife utilization in rural Nigeria. Paper presented at the international Symposium of Wildlife Management in Sub-Saharan Africa, Sponsored by FAD and the International Council for Game and Wildlife Conservation, 6-13 October 1987, Harare, Zimbabwe, pp. 512-521.
Nigerian farmers depend on bushmeat (including birds, reptiles and amphibians) for both food and cash income. This paper presents the results of a comparative study of bushmeat utilisation in three different ecological zones (rainforest, deciduous forest and savannah). The study distinguishes between hunters (full-time) and farmers (those who hunt as well as cultivate food or cash crops) and estimates the amounts of bushmeat (by species) they catch in different seasons. It does not distinguish between what is consumed and what is sold in the markets.An estimated total of 1,320,000 metric tonnes of bushmeat are hunted in the three zones (the larger portion in the savannah region). Of the larger mammals, duiker and bushbuck are most common in the forest zone; a farmer averages 5 per month in the rainy season. Of the smaller game, squirrels, cane and giant rats, bats and porcupines are most common (averaging about 40 animals per month per farmer in the rainy season). Francolins, guinea fowl, lizards and snakes are also fairly common foods.
9. Adewumni, C.O. and Adesogam, E.K. 1983. Anthraquinones and oruwacin isolated from Morinda lucida as possible agents in tascioliasis and schystosomiasis control. In Essien, E. et al (eds.). Proceedings of VISOMP - Fifth International Symposium on Medicinal Plants. Drug Research and Production Unit, University of Ife and Organization of African Unity Ife-Ife, Nigeria, pp. 61-64.
10. Adeyokunnu, T.O. 1981. Women and agriculture in Nigeria. Research Series, U.N.E.C.A. Ibadan, Nigeria (unpublished).
Includes a discussion of the types of containers and packaging materials used for marketing agricultural products in different regions of Nigeria. In the West bags and baskets are most common (accounting for 80% of what is used), in the East baskets are most prevalent (43%), followed by bags and bowls. In the North calabashes are most prevalent. Most baskets and some bags are manufactured locally from palm products. Calabash containers are the fruit of the calabash tree. These data serve to illustrate the “service” function of forest derived products.
11. Adjanohoun, E. and Ake Assi, M.L. 1979. Contribution au recensement des plantes médicinales de Côte d’Ivoire. Centre National Floristique, Université d’Abidjan, Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire.
More than 300 plant species are identified with a description of their geographic distribution, and their use by different ethnic groups. Includes an index by disease/treatment of 135 ailments. For example, Rhaphiostylis beninensis is used as a mosquito repellant, Calpocalyx aubrevillei is used as a salt, Opilia celtidifolia is used as a fish toxin, Ricinodendron heudelotii is used as a condiment. Also includes descriptions of the mystical and magical uses for these plants (e.g. to bring stability, give strength, protect against fate and evil, ensure beauty in children).
12. Adjanohoun, E. et al. 1984. Contribution aux études ethnobotaniques et floristiques au Gabon. Agence de Coopération Culturelle et Technique, Paris, France.
An ethnobotanic work arranged by plant families. Includes a botanical description, information on ecological distribution, and the medicinal uses for forest plants in Gabon. For example, Plagiostyles africana leaves (a humid forest-tree species) are taken for hepatitis, its crushed bark is used in medico-magical treatments against evil spirits. The book includes a second section with the material arranged by illness. It lists treatments for biological systems (e.g. cardiovascular), symptoms (e.g. anaemia) and magical/mystical approaches. Includes an index on vegetative formations and ecological zones.
13. Adjanohoun, E. et al. 1986. Contribution aux études ethnobotaniques et floristiques au Togo. Agence de Coopération Culturelle et Technique, Paris, France.
Describes 348 medicinal plant species used to treat more than 200 illnesses. Material is arranged by plant species, illness, and symptom.
14. Adu-Tutu, M., Afful, Y., Asante-Appiah, K., Lieberman, D., Hall, J.B., and Elvin-Lewis, M. 1979. Chewing stick usage in southern Ghana. Economic Botany 33(3): 320-328.
Notes that 107 species of woody plants are used as chewing sticks. However, these researchers estimate that four species account for 85% of the total consumption in the southern region of Ghana. In this region, chewing sticks are used for dental hygiene by most people. The most common species are Garcinia afzelii and G. epunctata. Several pharmacological studies have shown that these preferred species have anti-bacterial properties which make them effective for fighting cavities.Chewing sticks are sold regularly in local and urban markets. The study includes a quantitative assessment of the market and consumer preferences for different types of chewing sticks. Compares the extent of purchasing versus home production. This study asserts that chewing stick selection depends primarily on species availability. There are some differences in the preferences of rural and urban consumers, different ethnic groups and different age groups (older people tend to prefer softer products).
15. Agbelusi, E.A. and Afolayan, T.A. 1987. The role of wildlife in the Nigerian economy, in Proceedings of the 17th Annual Conference of the Forestry Association of Nigeria, Ikeja, Nigeria (unpublished).
Includes a discussion of the medicinal and mystical uses of wildlife. For example, the horn of a rhino is used to prepare a concoction for treating barrenness in women; the head and legs of the duiker are used in witchcraft to assure a safe childbirth; the head of the giant rat is used to win the love of a woman.
16. Agbor, L.O.N. 1986. Economic assessment of Irvingia gabonensis in Cross River State, Nigeria. MSc. Thesis, Department of Forest Resource Management, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria (unpublished).
Examines the uses and markets for Irvingia gabonensis (agbo) whose wood is used to make mortars and pestles and whose fruit and seeds are widely consumed in southern Nigeria. Irvingia seeds are used in soups, adding a desired slimy consistency. The fruits of the sweet variety are consumed raw. This paper examines seasonal consumption (which is higher in the rainy season) and prices (which are lower in the rainy season). People often consume 15-20 fruit at one time. Provides information on the nutritional content of its edible parts.Discusses the production and marketing of Irvingia sp. products and compares prices in different regions, in different seasons (the bitter variety is more expensive than the sweet). Irvingia may provide an important source of income for many farmers. Though Agbor finds great variation in the density of irvingia trees in different districts, ranging from an average 87 trees per farmer in Ogoja district to an average two trees per farmer in Ikono district, trees are almost always found on compound farms or on boundary land. Finally, this article discusses the productivity of these fruit trees over time (i.e. number of fruit/year at different tree ages).
17. Ahmed, A.I., Kolo, A.I., Okeke, R., Raid, P.R., and Kinako, P.K.S. 1971. Working Group on the development of other forest products. Report for the Federal Department of Forestry, Ibadan, Nigeria (unpublished).
A general discussion of the importance of non-timber forest products (especifically economically important ones, e.g. gums and tannins) and their potential for development. Notes that for many households, local production facilities provide the main source for products and a source of income. Includes a list of commonly used species and their uses.
18. Ajayi, S.S. 1971. Wildlife as a source of protein in Nigeria: some priorities for development. Nigerian Field 36(3): 115-120.
A general discussion of bushmeat’s role in Nigerians’ diets. Estimates that bushmeat supplies an average 20% of the animal protein consumed in rural Nigeria (extracted from the 1967 rural economic survey). Eighty percent of the population in the South consumes bushmeat. In 1969, the bushmeat trade in southern Nigeria was valued at 9 million pounds sterling (compared with 11 million for domestic meat). Snails are the most popular “meats” consumed. Their consumption is widespread throughout the southern region. Includes a brief discussion of the management for cane rat, guinea fowl and fish.
19. Ajayi, S.S. 1978. Pattern of bushmeat production, preservation and marketing in West Africa. Nigerian Journal of Forestry 8(1): 48-52.
Describes the traditional and modern hunting techniques employed in the West African region: trapping, snaring, individual hunting with guns, community hunting for commercial purposes, communal hunting for traditional festivals and hunting by urban dwellers.Examines the structure of the bushmeat market. Most bushmeat hunters (producers) live in rural areas. They either sell the meat fresh, locally, or they give it to their wives to preserve (smoke dry) and sell to village collectors who in turn sell the produce to urban retail traders. In some cases rural producers sell their meat fresh to urban consumers or at the roadside. In light of the ever-increasing exploitation of wildlife the author suggests some possible conservation strategies geared towards meeting the demand for bushmeat; he suggests that the development of farmland wildlife management techniques could help supply farmers with adequate bushmeat and a source of income.
20. Ajayi, S.S. 1979. Utilization of forest wildlife in West Africa. Paper prepared for the FAO Forestry Department. FO:Misc./79/26 (unpublished).
An excellent review of the uses of wildlife throughout West Africa. Includes information on the animals used for food and other products (e.g. skins); the patterns of bushmeat production and marketing; the importance of bushmeat to regional and national economies; and the wild animal resources throughout the region. Includes data on the nutrient composition of different wild animal meats. Also discusses management techniques for bushmeat production.
21. Ajayi, S.S. and Olawoye, O.O. 1974. Some indications of the social acceptance of the African giant rat (Crycetomys gambianus) in southern Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Forestry 4(1): 36-41.
Presents the results of a questionnaire survey conducted in the southern region of Nigeria. Finds that 72% of a wide cross section of the study communities (both urban and rural) consume giant rat. It is more commonly accepted among the poor. This may be a reflection of availability (of rat meat) rather than preference as those in the lower income brackets reside in rural areas. Statistically analyses results.
22. Ajayi, S.S. and Tewe, O. 1983. A quantitative assessment of wildlife and their nutritive value as a source of food in Nigeria. In Akinyele, L., and Atinmo, T., (eds.) Nutrition and Food Policy in Nigeria. National institute for Policy and Strategic Studies (NIPSS), Ibadan, Nigeria, pp. 138-148.
Reviews past research on the consumption of bushmeat in Nigeria. Presents quantitative data on bushmeat consumption: on average consumption has increased from 10.1 g per capita in 1968 (223,300 MT/year) to 13.2 g per capita in 1980 (421,000 MT/year), compared with 9.1 g/capita of beef in 1968 and 13.1 g/capita in 1980. Consumption of fish has remained considerably higher than that of meat (approximately four times more than bushmeat consumption).Palm wine and palm oil are also major foods: in 1968 consumption of palm wine was 59.4 g/capita and in 1980 it was 66.5 g/capita (1,124,000 MT/year); in 1968 consumption of palm oil was 23.4 g/capita while in 1980 it was 26.1 g/capita (or 832,000 MT/year).
23. Ajayi, S.S., Tewe, O., Moriarty, C. and Awesu, M.O.A. 1978. Observations on the biology, and nutritive value of the African giant snail (Archachatina marginata). East African Wildlife Journal 16:85-95.
Discusses the giant snail’s biology and its potential for domestication. Includes a discussion of its feeding and breeding habits. Snails are as nutritious as other meats; they are a good source of protein, low in fat, and exceptionally high in iron (12.2 mg/100 g) and calcium.
24. Akande, M. 1979. Bushfowl (Francolinus bical carratus) as a pest and a potential source of meat in Nigeria. Thesis, Department of Forest Resource Management, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria (unpublished).
Study conducted in southwestern Nigeria where bushfowl is popular and often considered a delicacy (93% of those surveyed like it). It can be found in many rural markets. Cooked, it contains 13% protein and 65% fat. The study discusses the potential for bushfowl management.
25. Ake Assi, M.L. 1980. Les plantes et la thérapie de la stérilité des femmes en Côte d’Ivoire. Miscellaneous Paper No. 19, Landbouwhogeschool, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
Traditional treatments for women’s sterility (it is always the women who are treated for this affliction) are still popular even in educated urban areas of Côte d’Ivoire. This paper provides botanical descriptions of some of the species used in traditional healers’ treatments: Annona senegalensis, Ficus glumosa, Crosspteryx febrifuga, Clerodendrum umbellatum, and Microdesmis puberula.
26. Ake Assi, M.L. 1982. Médecine traditionnelle et pharmacopée: contribution aux études ethnobotaniques et floristiques en République Centrafricaine. Agence de Coopération Culturelle et Technique (ACCT), Paris, France.
Describes 90 plant species used for healing 85 different illnesses. Includes botanic description, geographic location, a list of the plants’ uses, and an index arranged by illness. For example, Irvingia grandifolia is a large, moist forest tree species whose crushed bark is used in the treatment of gastroenteritis.
27. Ake Assi, M.L. 1983. Quelques vertus médicinale de Cassia occidentalis en basse Côte d’Ivoire. Bothalia 14 (3 and 4):617-620.
Describes 11 medicinal recipes using Cassia occidentalis in the forest zone of Côte d’Ivoire. Decoctions of leaves and roots are used as diuretics, laxatives, tonics and abortificants. They are also used in treatments for asthma, cataracts, jaundice and kwashiorkor. Describes other plant species used in conjunction with cassia. For example, an extract of the seeds of Xylopia aethiopica and Cassia leaves is used as an eye bath for treating cataracts.
28. Ake Assi, M.L. 1984. Flore de la Côte d’Ivoire: étude descriptive et biogéographique avec quelques notes ethnobotaniques. PhD. Thesis, Faculté des Sciences, Université d’Abidjan, Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire. (TO be published by Nouvelle Edition Africaine, Paris, France.)
A large work of six volumes organised by plant families. Each entry contains a botanic description, a biogeographic description and notes on plants’ traditional and current uses. Describes plants used in medicinal treatments (e.g. asthma is treated with Pouzolzia guineensis and Anthonotha macrophylla), as foods, for ceremonial and religious practices, to make household items, and in agricultural, fishing and artisanal activities. Contains many useful annexes including a list of species arranged according to their medicinal uses, a list of diseases and their associated plant remedies, and a list of species (114 species) used as foods including a description of the plant parts consumed. Many of the entries include information on the cultural and social uses of plant resources. Information on traditional beliefs associated with specific plants is also included. Species used in religious practices and on social occasions are described. For example, a musical instrument of the Boualé is made with the fruit of Oncoba spinosa and Glyphaea brevis as well as the seed of Entada pursaetha. Cordia platythyrsa is used for making tam-tams. The use of traditional plant dyes is also described. Provides an excellent bibliography. This study provides a wealth of information despite the fact that it is not possible to assess the extent to which the plants are used.
29. Ake Assi, M.L. 1985. Le bananier plantain: son utilisation dans la médecine traditionnelle en Côte d’Ivoire. Proceedings of the third meeting of the International Association for Research on Plantains and Bananas. Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire (unpublished).
Describes the use of plantains in traditional medical treatments. For example, its crushed roots, when mixed with water, are taken as a mouthwash against cavities; an extract of fresh roots mixed with salt is used in the treatment of cataracts; the juice of cooked green bananas are taken for incontinence. The fresh leaves of Bidens pilosa, when mixed with the charcoal of the plantain skin are administered to treat dysentery. The ash from the peel, mixed with water and filtered, is used in many medicinal recipes, as well as many traditional sauces.
30. Akinyele, L. and Atinmo, T. (eds.). 1983. Nutrition and food policy in Nigeria. National Institute for Policy and Strategic Studies (INPSS), Ibadan, Nigeria.
A collection of papers on the food and nutrition situation in Nigeria. Includes papers on the importance and nutritional contribution of bushmeat, as well as chapters on the role of forestry in food supply and national nutrition problems. Notes that bushmeat is an important food for many Nigerians, however, as the demand for bushmeat continues to increase, supplies are dwindling.
31. Amat, B. and Cortadellas, T. 1972. Ngovayaangui: un village du sud Caméroun. Contribution à une étude de la santé en Afrique. Thesis, Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Paris, France (unpublished).
A thorough village level study in a cocoa producing area, which includes information on traditional hunting and fishing practices, medicines, artisan activities and diet and common collected foods. The piece notes that the most commonly trapped and consumed species are small mammals. Includes a list of species. Commonly collected foods include snails, caterpillars and other insects, palm rats, pangolins, snakes, duikers, palm nuts, Irvingia gabonensis nuts, Dacryodes edulis, mushrooms, Pachylobus edulis fruit, honey and palm wine. Traditional food customs provide most of the meat to the elder men, leaving little animal protein for women and children.Describes some of the equipment used in off-farm activities such as hunting, fishing and artisanry. Traps and snares are commonly used for hunting in the rainy season. Fishing, which is primarily a woman’s activity, is done using rattan traps, nets, dams, and lines (which men employ). Artisanry which is also done on a part-time basis, informally, is also described as an important source of off-farm income. Production of many items is specialised by family and is passed through generations, with clearly gender-defined production practices.
Describes the traditional values ascribed to particular trees. These are generally associated with healing or magical qualities (see Sections 1.3.2,3). For example, the oven tree, Didelotia africana, is a powerful tree which can only be approached for help with difficult problems (e.g. unemployment, broken marriages); traditional sorcery healing sessions are held in the forest under the tree Disthamonanthus benthamianus. Describes 25 common plant remedies. The crushed bark of Enantia chlorantha is used to stop hemorrhaging, the bark is boiled and used against jaundice; the crushed leaves of Afromomum meleguetta mixed with yam leaves are used to treat toothaches.
32. Amponsah, S. 1978. Survey into the chewstick industry at Kejetia Lorry Station. Thesis (BSc), Institute of Renewable Natural Resources, university of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana (unpublished).
A study of the chewing stick trade at one market near Kumasi which reveals that the most common chewing stick species are Garcinia cola and G. afzelii. Chewing stick production involves collectors/fellers (often paid by wholesalers), wholesalers (responsible for transport), and retailers. Generally, men control the wholesale trade of Garcinia afzelii while both women and men are involved in G. cola trade. Women dominate the retail trade for all varieties. Presents quantitative data on the average income earned by different actors (cash earned by retailers compares favourably with the wages earned by unskilled wage labourers). Transport is the main cost in the industry. Products gathered from Forest Reserve land are far cheaper (6 cedis to Forest Service for permit) than those gathered outside reserves (55 cedis paid to stools (communal chiefs) and alcohol to chiefs).
33. Amponsah Agyemang, G. 1980. The use of plants in traditional medical practice in an Ashante village. Thesis (BSc.) Institute of Renewable Natural Resources, University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana (unpublished).
This study identifies 105 species of plants that are used medicinally. It describes the plants, the methods and treatments in which they are used. The piece stresses that traditional medicines continue to be important. Half of this Ashante village is Christian, there is no fetish priest in the village, and yet all the villagers who were interviewed, regularly employ traditional plant medicines. In this village most species are used to treat more than one disease. There are generally several treatments for the same disease.
34. Ancey, G. 1967. La zone rurale de Brobo (Côte d’Ivoire) vue à travers son marché hebdomadaire. ORSTOM, Division Science Humaine and Ministère d’Agriculture, Côte d’Ivoire (mimeograph), Paris, France. (Published as L’économie de l’espace rurale de la région Bouaké: un exemple de fonctionnement de marché rurale approximité d’une agglomération urbaine: le cas Brobo 1974. ORSTOM, Travaux et Documents 38:183-201, Paris, France.)
This geographic study of a regional market in southern Côte d’Ivoire includes information on the returns garnered from some important marketed products including: palm wine, palm fruit, wood and fruits and leaves. Palm wine is only marketed by those villagers living within an 8 km radius of the market; 22% of the villages surrounding Brobo produce palm wine for this urban market.Artisanal products such as baskets and carriers are also sold. The artisanal production tends to be concentrated in certain villages.
35. Andoh, A.K. 1986. The science and romance of selected herbs used in medicine and religious ceremonies. North Scale Institute, San Francisco, USA, 324 pp.
A collection of information on the medicinal and ceremonial use of wild plants by different groups of people around the world. Includes many examples from the Ashante region of Ghana. For example, Chlorophora excelsa is a sacred tree in many regions of southern Ghana and Nigeria. It is thought to house the souls of the newborn. The household gods of the Ibo (s. Nigeria) are always carved with its wood and its bark is used in some medicinal treatments.
36. Annan, J.L. 1980. The indigenous vegetable dyeing industries in Kumasi and its surrounding area. Thesis (BSc.) Institute of Renewable Natural Resources, University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana (unpublished).
Natural dyes are still commonly used for making traditional cloths in the Ashante region of Ghana. They are especially valued for festival and ceremonial occasions. Dyes extracted from the bark of forest and savannah trees provide particular ingredients for traditional cloths. For example, an extraction from the bark of Bridelia ferruginea is used to dye Adinkra cloth. The bark, roots and stems of Lannea kerstingii are used for dying the funeral cloth Kuntunkun. Other important dyes are derived from Entandrophragma angolense, Bombax buonopozense, and Terminalia ivorensis. Included in this paper is a list of other dye species, their habitat, dye colour and plant parts collected. Naturally dyed cloths are more expensive, but as they serve ceremonial functions they are still sought after. The production of cloth is widespread. One village on the outskirts of Kumasi accounts for 50% of the cloth production. There, the industry is highly specialised, involving bark collectors, transporters, dye extractors or processors, dye traders, and cloth dyers. Traditionally only men could dye the ceremonial cloths. However, women are now involved in all but Adinkra cloth dying. The search for dye material has become more competitive (in some cases material is harder to find), collectors are now obliged to obtain the permission of town chiefs before gathering bark. Economic aspects of this small-scale industry are also discussed.
37. Annegers, J. F. 1973. Seasonal food shortages in West Africa. Ecology of Food and Nutrition 2:251-257.
In the southern regions of West Africa diets are generally based on tuberous crops which are typically low in protein. There is also a higher incidence of protein-calorie malnutrition in the southern areas. This consumption study, with its corresponding nutrient composition data, provides some interesting information. For instance, on average, insects provide 1-2 g of protein per capita per day in the region.
38. Ansa, E. 1986. A study of women in forestry in Ghana. (BSc.) Thesis, Institute of Renewable and Natural Resources. University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana (unpublished).
The retail trade of non-timber forest products in Ghana is dominated by women. Women are, ‘however, only minimally involved in timber trade. This paper presents the results of a study of the traders at Makola market. In this market women dominate the trade of: chewing sticks, wooden pestles and mortars, bushmeat, raw canes, cane baskets, charcoal, fuelwood, wooden ladles, kitchen stools and chop boxes. The trade of these products involves 166 retail traders, an indicator of the local importance of these products and forest-based rural industries.
39. Anyiwo, C.E. et al. 1986. The anti-bacterial effect of essential oil of Ocimum gratissimum. Journal of Research in Ethno-medicine 1(1):4-8.
Ocimum gratissimum is used in traditional treatments to stop bleeding wounds and nose infections. The chemical analysis of its oil reveals that it has antibacterial properties similar to other antibiotics, and is especially effective against salmonella and E. coli (causes sinusitus). The authors concluded that it could be an effective treatment against wound infections.
40. Ardayfio, E. 1983. Household energy utilization in selected settlements in Nigeria. Bulletin of the Ghana Geographic Association New Series Vol. 1.
A study of household fuelwood use and preferences in the forest and savanna areas of southwestern Nigeria which indicates that a wide variety of species and qualities of wood are used. Eleven species are commonly exploited in the forest zone. The desired wood qualities include high caloric value producing a long lasting steady burn. Fuelwood is gathered from the immediate surrounding area. While women have species preferences, proximity is the key factor determining what they actually use for fuelwood. The preferred species in the forest zone villages include: Ficus asperifolia, Celtis zenkeri, Cola acuminata, Funtumia elastica, and Ricinodendron heudelotii. Data on the quantity of fuelwood consumed per household and per individual is presented: people consume from 1.9 kg to 4 kg a day per capita (depending primarily on household size). Ardayfio finds no significant relationship between the ecological zones and fuelwood consumption.
41. Ardayfio, E. 1985. Women and urban marketing in Ghana. In Gallin, R.S. and Spring, A. (eds.). 1985. Women creating wealth: transforming economic development. Association for Women in Development Conference, 25-27 April, Washington D.C., USA.
Examines the position of women in the economy with respect to trade in particular: 84% of the people involved in Ghanaian trade are women. Fifty-one percent of wholesalers, who control the market for products transported over long distances from their production sites, derive their capital from personal savings, as banks do not support women. The paper also includes a discussion of the major markets for certain products.
42. Ardayfio, E. 1986. The rural energy crisis in Ghana: its implications for women’s work and household survival. World Employment Program, Working paper 39, International Labour Organization (ILO), Geneva, Switzerland.
This study examines the impact of the energy crisis on women and household well-being. It compares information in three villages from different regions in Ghana. It explores the energy situation in Ghana; the impact of modernisation on rural households; rural energy use and requirements; the relationship between the rural energy crisis and women’s work; and the relationship between rural energy, household nutrition and health.In some cases fuelwood scarcity may force households to purchase fuelwood at the expense of food purchases (in one village household fuelwood expenditures rose from 1% to 16.3% of total expenditures within a few months). It may reduce cooking time, which in some cases results in changes in the types of foods consumed. The added time spent fuelwood collecting may increase the negative health effects of gathering (e.g. headaches and backaches). In addition, income earning activities which require a large input of fuelwood may have to be curtailed as the “operating” expenses become prohibitive. A description of common food dishes, their ingredients and the time required to cook them is included.
43. Asamoah, R.K.F. 1985. Uses of fallow trees and farm practices in Bo forest district (Ghana). Thesis, Institute of Renewable Natural Resources, University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana (unpublished).
Includes a survey of the trees found in fallow and fanned fields. Describes the reasons certain species are left in farm fields, and explores the different uses for the more common fallow tree species (which include Terminalia glaucescens, Faidherbia albida (syn. Acacia albida), Phyllanthus sp., Anogeissus leiocarpus, Chlorophora excelsa, Alstonia boonei, Ceiba pentandra). Approximately 75% of the fallow species serve as medicines, 92% have soil improvement qualities, 92% have domestic uses. The paper includes detailed information on the various uses of these different species. For example, the wood of Anogaissus leiocarpus is used for farm implements, especially hoe handles. The wood of Garienia ternifolia is used for knife handles. The leaves of Chlorophora excelsa are used as sandpaper; its gum is used as a bird trap; its wood is used for mortars. The wood of Funtumia elastica is used for household utensils and agricultural tools. The wood of Cola gigantea is used for fencing and farm implements, its bark is used for treating sores.Ceiba pentandra’s fruits are used in medicines, domestically for pillow making and commercially sold to help plug holes in canoes; the seeds’ oil is taken against rheumatism, sold commercially for soap-making, and used to ignite fires; the leaves are consumed in soups and also provide fodder to goats, their ash provides a good mulch; the bark and stem are used in a medicine and a mouthwash; the roots are used in a treatment for leprosy. A favoured mushroom grows at the base of their stems. They are also a good honey fodder tree. Finally, they are a sacred tree, the leaves and bark are believed to expel evil spirits.
Asamoah also finds that half of these fallow and farm land trees have cultural or customary importance. Ceiba pentandra and Chlorophora excelsa for example, are both considered sacred trees.
44. Asedam, J.J. 1982. Nutritive value of some Ghanaian mushrooms. Thesis, Department of Nutrition and Food Science, University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana (unpublished).
Examines the nutrition composition of some commonly consumed mushrooms (e.g. Termitomyces sp. and Volvoreillea sp.). Includes a general discussion on their consumption; they are highly valued foods, but are only available in the early rainy season. They are good sources of minerals and, in some cases, protein.
45. Asibey, E.O.A. 1965. Utilization of wildlife in Ghana. Ghana Farmer 9:91-93.
This article discusses the role of bushmeat in the diets of rural people. It presents data on the increasing price of bushmeat in regional markets (increase of 25% in the seven years from 1956 to 1963) and it notes that bushmeat prices are higher than domestic meat prices. The piece includes a discussion of the most frequently traded species and the profits earned by bushmeat traders. High exploitation has led to a reduction in large game species; nonetheless, the range of species that are sold appears to be far greater than current accounts of the bushmeat market in Ghana (see Asibey’s later work).
46. Asibey, E.O.A. 1974. Wildlife as a source of protein in Africa south of the Sahara. Biological Conservation 6(1): 32-39.
Reviews studies conducted on the consumption of wild meat in Africa. Results are presented from the bushmeat market survey in Ghana. A broader range of animals are now consumed compared to what was eaten in the past. Wildlife resources have been so degraded that the choice of bushmeat species has become less selective. Asibey notes that small game and insects are the most important food species. He emphasises that conservation efforts must help maintain the supply of subsistence foods such as wild animals.
47. Asibey, E.O.A. 1977. Expected effects of land-use patterns on future supplies of bushmeat in Africa south of the Sahara. Environmental Conservation 4(1): 43-49.
Reviews information on the food uses of wildlife in African countries. Notes that where it is available, West Africans consume bushmeat. In fact, there is a growing demand for bushmeat which has been driven by the continued growth of urban and industrial centers. Asibey argues that current land-use planning does not reflect the demand for bushmeat production. He presents data from bushmeat markets and “chop” bars. At one chop bar in Sunyani, (Ghana) approximately 400 people consume bushmeat daily. Asibey notes that wild animals provide a supplementary source of income for many farmers: in one area of Ghana 80 farmers earned approximately 3850 cedis from a month’s hunting (or 48 cedis each). And in other study, Asibey reveals that one farmer earned an average 1,700 cedis a year from bushmeat sales.
48. Asibey, E.O.A. 1986. Wildlife and food security. Paper prepared for the Forestry Department, FAO, Rome, Italy (unpublished).
A good paper reviewing the contribution of wildlife meat to the diets and economies of both rural and urban communities. Includes information on the price of bushmeat in rural and urban markets in several countries. Generally bushmeat sells for more than domestic meat. Asibey notes that the nutritional quality of bushmeat is comparable, and in some cases superior to that of domestic meat.Detailed information on the economics of bushmeat trade are also provided. For many, it can be a major source of income: a hare hunter in Argentina can earn the equivalent of US$ 1,350 a month, compared with a farm labourer’s US$ 100. An interview with a Ghanaian reveals that hunting provides him with more income than farming; farming is valued for the variety of foods and insurance it provides (crops, unlike wild game, may be pledged for loans).
Asibey reviews what is known about habitat management and game ranching and explores the possibility of managing agricultural areas and pest control activities to foster wild meat production. The appendices provide a summary of research by country, as well as data from selected countries on bushmeat markets. Excellent bibliography.
49. Asibey, E.O.A. 1987a. The grasscutter. Forestry Commission, Accra, Ghana. Prepared for FAO Regional Office, Accra, Ghana.
Description of the ecology of the grasscutter (Thryonomys swinderianus). Presents information on the consumption and trade of grasscutter in Ghana. Data from one market survey in Accra shows that over 61,900 grasscutters were sold over 6 years. The price of grasscutter has increased from an average 84 cedis/kg in 1980 to 685 cedis/kg in 1986 (compared to 272 cedis/kg for beef). This paper also presents information on the domestication of this species.
50. Asibey, E.O.A. 1987b. Wildlife issues in sub-saharan Africa. Paper presented at the International Symposium and Conference: Wildlife Management in Sub-Saharan Africa, 6-12 October. Sponsored by FAO and the International Council for Game and Wildlife Conservation, Harare, Zimbabwe, pp. 32-50.
A general discussion of the importance of wildlife as a source of food and income for many people in both urban and rural Africa. In some areas bushmeat has become so valuable that rural dwellers sell what they catch to urbanites rather than consuming it themselves. Discusses different strategies for restoration of wildlife, including: domestication, game ranching, forest habitat management, conservation, and agricultural pest control geared to consumption or sale of pests as bushmeat.
51. Atsu, S.Y. and Owusu, P. 1982. Food production and resource use in the traditional food farms in the eastern region of Ghana. Technical Publication Series No. 41. Institute of Statistical, Social, and Economic Research, University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana.
A detailed farm level study examining the socioeconomic situation and farming practices of two households. Includes interesting information on farming assets, marketing and “investment” practices.Describes farming equipment; one of the studied households owned 13 cane baskets, 3 cutlasses, and 2 hoes, investing (the following season) in 2 new baskets, 2 cutlasses, and 2 hoes. The second household (with far fewer resources) owned 2 cutlasses, 2 cane baskets, 5 jute sacks and 1 mattock.
52. Awesu, M.O. 1980. The biology and management of the African giant snail Archachatina marginata. Thesis, Department of Forest Resource Management, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria (unpublished).
Giant snails are an important food in the southern regions of Nigeria. They are a good source of protein and vitamin B1. This article focuses on the potential for domestication of the giant snail.
53. Ayeni, J.S.O. 1980. The biology and utilization of the helmet guinea fowl (Numida meleagris galeata) in Nigeria. Thesis, Department of Forest Resource Management, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria (unpublished).
Reviews available information on the importance of bushmeat consumption in Nigeria. Reports that guinea fowl is an accepted food in all Nigerian States. Seventy-nine percent of those interviewed had consumed guinea fowl. It is generally found in the wild, but is domesticated. Guinea fowl eggs are considered a delicacy and are preferred to chicken eggs.
54. Ayeni, J.S.O., Aire, T.A., Olomu, J.M. (eds.). 1983. The helmet guinea fowl in Nigeria. Papers from a workshop on the grey breasted guinea fowl (Numida Maleagris Galeata), Lagos, Nigeria. Sponsored by FAO.
Estimates that there are 44 million semi-domesticated guinea fowl in Nigeria (25% of all poultry). The population of the southern species - the crested guinea fowl - is decreasing because of habitat (forest) destruction. This paper presents information on their nutritional value as well as people’s preferences for bushfowl over chicken (45%).
55. Ayensu, E.S. 1978. The medicinal plants of West Africa. Reference Publications Inc., Algonac, Michigan, USA.
Describes 187 plant species used (with references for each use described) in medical treatments in different regions of West Africa. Includes an index by ailment and species.
56. Ayo Odunfa, S. 1981. Micro-organisms associated with fermentation of African locust bean (Parkia filicoidea) during Iru preparation. Journal of Plant Foods 3:245-250.
Iru is the most important food condiment in Nigeria and other countries of West Africa. It is a fermented vegetable protein prepared from the seeds of the African locust bean (Parkia filicoidea). Locust beans are not extensively used for food in their natural state, since they contain protease inhibitors such as trypsin which reduce the digestibility of protein. Fermentation counteracts these inhibitors, increases their digestibility and thus permits the use of the beans as food. The vitamin content of the parkia seeds is also found to increase during fermentation.
57. Bahuchet, S. 1972. Etude écologique d’un campement de pygmées Babinga (Région Lobaye, Centre Afrique). Journal d’Agriculture Tropicale et Botanique Appliquée 19(12): 510-599.
An ethnographic study of the Babinga pygmies. Discusses the foods most frequently gathered by the pygmies. Among the most frequent are the fruit of Irvingia gabonensis, leaves of Gnetum spp., roots, and mushrooms. Discusses the seasonal variations in gathering and consumption of forest foods. Babinga pygmies consume large numbers and a great variety of insects. Discusses hunting techniques and the forest products used for making traps, nets and other hunting equipment. Traps are designed to catch small animals (e.g. rats, porcupines, mice, duikers, and civets). Notes that hunting is a seasonal activity. Finally, discusses food consumption practices. Examines food consumed during meals at one camp of 20 days. Notes that snack food are commonly eaten throughout the day. Discusses the difference in food consumption between seasons and in forest versus village camps.
58. Bahuchet, S. 1978. Les contraintes écologiques en forêt tropicale humide: l’exemple des pygmées Aka de la Lobaye (Centre Afrique). Journal d’Agriculture Tropicale et Botanique Appliquée 25 (4): 257-285.
An anthropological study which examines the relationship between the hunter-gatherer pygmies and their forest environment. Includes a great deal of detailed information on the food plants and animals that are exploited. Although this is an equatorial climate, most foods have distinct seasonalities. The, forest areas are extremely heterogeneous in their resources, both spatially and in time. For example, most tubers are available only in the dry season. Similarly, honey is also a dry season product. The main trade product is bushmeat though honey, wild fruits and leaves, ivory, skins, and mushrooms are also traded. Hunting techniques vary by season, as do the species being hunted. Includes a map illustrating different forest types, and a list of commonly and occasionally consumed forest plants and animals.
59. Balinga, V.S. 1977. Competitive uses of wildlife: a Cameroon wildlife officer tells how policy turned to practical management. Unasylva 29(116): 22-25.
A general discussion of the role of wildlife at the national and local levels. Wildlife is an important source of meat for many Cameroonians, especially in the southern regions. This article estimates that 2,000 tonnes of bushmeat are consumed annually in the country. It discusses the incentives for hunting in respect to national laws. And notes that wild game is often killed for medicinal and ritual purposes. A list of commonly consumed game in different ecological regions is provided.
60. Baptist, R. and Mensah, G. 1986. Bénin et L’Afrique de l’Ouest: l’aucolade-animal l’élevage promotteur. World Animal Review 60:2-6.
This article reviews the research that has been conducted on bushmeat consumption throughout West Africa. It notes that bushmeat is preferred over domestic meat in Benin and is commonly sold in markets. It also discusses the potential for domestication of grasscutters.
61. Barbier, J.C. and Tissandier, J. 1980. “Nbandjok” ou les promesses d’une ville liée a un complexe agro-industriels sucrier au Caméroun. In Complexes Agroindustriels au Caméroun. Travaux Documents, ORSTOM No. 118 Paris. France.
This study includes data on the market products from Mbandjok, Cameroon. The value of marketed goods on four market days is recorded. Information on termites, bushmeat, oil palm kernels and fruit is included.
62. Béguin, J-P. 1952. L’habitat au Caméroun. ORSTOM, Paris, France.
A descriptive and pictoral account of different housing styles and construction techniques (including information on raw materials) that are used in different regions of Cameroon. Also describes structures built for storage and drying of different agricultural and cash crops.
63. Belisle, M. 1987. Le territoire forestier Camérounais: les ressources, les intervenants, les politiques d’utilisation. Paper prepared for the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry Division, and International Institute for Environment and Development, Washington D.C., USA (unpublished).
This paper reviews the forest resource and policy situation in Cameroon. It notes that forest areas support an important wildlife population that provides food to many Cameroonians, especially in the southern region. On average, people consume an estimated 2.5/kg/capita/year (and fish consumption of an average 9/kg/year/capita). In the southern region wild game provides the main source of animal protein.
64. Benneh, G. 1973. Small-scale farming systems in Ghana. Africa (Journal of the international African Institute) 43(2): 134-146 (April).
This article includes a discussion of the judicial role of trees in the Huza bush fallow system. The tree Pycnocoma cornuta is planted to mark the boundaries of farm strips. Land is purchased in groups which are sub-divided into individual strips. The piece also discusses the tree species left in cocoa farms. The most common species are: Ceiba pentandra, Chlorophora excelsa, and Ficus asperifolia.
65. Bergeret, A. 1986. Fonctionne alimentaire des arbres et arbustes et quelques plantes herbacées de Sali, Sénégal. Communication au VII Séminaire d’Economie et Sociologie Rurale, Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France. 15-19 September. Sponsored by Centre Internationale Rurale Agriculture et Développement (CIRAD). (Findings published in Botanique Appliquée 33:91-130.)
This study is included despite the fact that it is not in the Humid Zone because it provides a good example of how information on forests, agriculture and nutrition can be integrated in order to examine the role forest products play in the day to day lives of rural populations. It examines the nutritional contribution of trees and other wild plant foods to the diets of three ethnic groups living in the Sine-Saloum region. These groups consume (collectively) more than 110 species of wild plants (the parts consumed and species are listed). Provides information on the seasons in which foods are collected and consumed. An analysis of the nutritional value (linked to physiological function) of different foods is also included. The study reviews the conditions of the forest resource base and discusses the current shortage of forest foods. The study integrates information on seasonal patterns in the agricultural cycle, forest food use, the nutritional value of different foods and inventory data on different food resources.
66. Bergeret, B. 1957. Note préliminaire a l’étude du vin de palme au Caméroun. Médecine Tropicale 17(6): 901-904.
Discusses the nutritional value of palm wine which is consumed in large quantities in southern Cameroon. He notes that it is an especially good source of vitamins B1, B2 and C.
67. Berron, H. 1980. Tradition et modernisme en pays lagunaires de Basse Côte d’Ivoire. Editions Ophrys, Paris. France.
Discusses the economic production activities, processing and trade of the region neighbouring Abidjan. Includes details of the different forest products that support these small industries. Discusses fish-smoking activities including estimates of the costs of production (fish, labour, and cost of fuelwood). Notes that most of the fish produced for the local market are caught and processed by small-scale enterprises (artisans) as opposed to large fishing companies. The short smoke technique is used by women who are near markets. The long smoke method is necessary when fish are to be transported over long distances.Fish processing can be a lucrative enterprise increasing the value of the fish two or threefold. Attieke (manioc flour) production is another food processing enterprise which depends on fuelwood as well as the leaves of Thaumatococcus daniellii which are needed to wrap, cook and sell attieke. These leaves are gathered in forest areas and sold in local markets for 10 F a packet of 60. Discusses the prices of fuelwood and charcoal in Abidjan and surrounding markets.
68. Bicchierri, M. 1972. Hunters and gatherers today: socioeconomic study of eleven such cultures in the twentieth century. Holt, Rhinehart and Winston, N.Y., USA.
This book is a collection of anthropological studies on contemporary hunter-gatherer societies. Several studies focus on the wild plants and animals that are used for daily subsistence. The book provides information on seasonality in the use of various plants. The symbolic and cultural value of the natural surroundings is also discussed.
69. Biffot, L. 1977. Contribution a la connaissance et compréhension de la population rurale de Nord-Est Gabon. Collection Science Humaine Gabonaise, Centre National de la Recherche Science et Technologie. Ministère de la Recherche Scientifique Charge de l’Environnement et de la Protection de la Nature, Gabon.
This study of the rural environment in northeast Gabon looks at the lives and cultivation practices of two village communities examining the historical and current farming systems. The study classifies plants by their uses: food, industrial, medicinal, and euphoristic. The sections on medicinal and euphoristic plants contain some information on the social traditions associated with each plant’s use. The report also examines rural housing (and construction material), explores commercialisation patterns, road infrastructure, and rural villagers attitudes towards urbanites.Finally, the use of village and farm tree products is discussed. It notes, for example, that the fruits of Pachylobus edulis and Persea gratissima are used as meat substitutes while the seeds of Ceiba pentandra are mainly exploited for their “cotton”.
70. Binet, J. 1974. Drogue et mystique: le Bwiti de Fangs (Cameroon). Diogéne 86:34-57.
Explores the symbolic and mystical uses of certain forest species valued by the Fangs of southern Cameroon. The Nzimba (temple - location of initiation ceremonies and other rites) is always located at the base of a large forest tree, where certain medicinal plants are cultivated and maintained. The tree symbolises the forest which houses the body of God. It is the source of people’s food. The root bark of the species Tabernantha iboga (a hallucinogen) must be consumed by all initiates, so that they can see God. Iboga is the vehicle which allows man to see God. The species is always planted near the Nzimba. The article also discusses the ritual use of other drug species.
71. Biyiti, L. et al. 1983. A preliminary study of the in vitro anti-bacterial activity of a Cameroonian medicinal plant, Tabernaemontana crassa. Review of Science and Technology. Health Science Series, Cameroon, Volume 11:3-4.
Presents the results of a chemical analysis of this species’ bark, which is traditionally used against common infections. The results show that this species is extremely effective against some bacterial strains.
72. Blanc-Pamard, C. 1979. Un jeu écologique différentiel: Les communautés rurales du contact forêts-savanes au fond du “V Baoulé” (Côte d’Ivoire). Travaux Documents, ORSTOM No. 107, Paris, France.
This study provides an in-depth examination of natural resource use in three village communities in the forest-savannah region. This analysis describes each village’s agricultural and other economic and subsistence activities. It examines the time required to produce and process a variety of products (analysis of labour) in different seasons, and the budget and expenditures of several case study households. It evaluates markets, housing and food supply and consumption.The study villages differ in their agricultural practices and economic activities. (In one village production was primarily cocoa and coffee cash crops, while in other villages staple crops (especially yams) dominated cultivation activities.) The degree to which different products are marketed in this region depends upon the need for cash, the accessibility of markets, product availability and the time available for collection and sale. The resources that are available are more diverse than in other regions, as they span two major ecological zones.
Gathering from the forest areas is reported to be an important activity in all villages, especially the one least dependent on cocoa/coffee. Some of the important products that are gathered from the forest include: cola nuts (for trade), palm products (oil, wine, fruit, leaves for construction, and raw materials for basketry and other artisanal activities), wild fruits and other foods (especially during the hunger season and during field work), fuelwood (especially in the villages close to regional markets), poles for house construction, snails, insects and mushrooms.
The study also includes a table of 68 medicinal plants gathered from the different environments, describing their habitat and uses. Information comes from interviews with traditional healers in the three study villages. For example, the leaves and fruit of Trema guineensis are crushed and used to treat toothaches. The leaves are eaten by women who are trying to have children. A decoction of the roots of Ricinodendron africanum are taken for stomachaches. The leaves of Euphorbia hirta are taken as a purgative. Young leaves are also used to treat conjunctivitis. The latex sap is used on wounds.
Hunting is still an important activity in one region (where production is not focused on cash crops). The forest/savannah is a good region for hunting, as animals from both environments can be caught. Dry season hunting is carried out in groups in the savannah areas where bush fires are set to flush out the game. Grasscutters, rats and other rodents are the main species that are hunted. Hunting is conducted throughout the year in the forest areas, usually by individuals who set traps around plantations or along paths. Some hunt with guns. Larger game is found in the forest region, mainly duikers and other antelopes, porcupines and squirrels. Children often catch (and consume) small animals (birds and small rodents).
Bushmeat provides an important source of animal protein and in some cases cash income. In predominantly cocoa/coffee areas, hunting is less common. In all regions insects and snails are much sought after. The prevalence of hunting appears to be a function of the supply of game (rather than time or accessibility of markets).
73. Blanc-Pamard, C. 1980. De l’utilisation de trois espèces de palmiers dans le sud du “V Boualé” (Côte d’Ivoire). Série Sciences Humaine, Cahiers d’ORSTOM 17(3-4): 247-257, Paris, France.
This article provides a discussion of the Baoulé population’s current and historic use of palm products. Three species are common in the region (a transition zone between the humid forest and savanna). The palms and spines are used for basket-making, mats, cage-carriers (for chickens), and fences. Borassus aethiopium (palmyra) is most extensively exploited for its sap; it is used to make palm wine. The fruits are consumed in season, while the head (terminal bud) is eaten in famine periods. Elaeis guineensis is exploited for its fruit/kernel oil as well as its wine. The mushrooms growing on the felled stems of the oil palm are collected during the rainy season. Raphia palm (Phoenix reclinata) is less common in the region. It is most prized for house construction, providing the material for the walls and roofs. The leaves are also used for finer mats (for sleeping), coffee dryers, and sacks. Its wine is considered better than that of the other two palms, but is only tapped for special ceremonies. Some data on the marketing of palm wine is included in the study. The author concludes that the region’s palms are important in the people’s material and spiritual worlds.
74. Boamah, A.A. 1986. A study of indigenous tenures relating to trees and forests in some parts of Ghana. Thesis (BSc), Institute of Renewable Natural Resources, University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana (unpublished).
A study of different land and tree tenure regulations and practices in Ghana. The study differentiates between the user rights for trees of different species, trees on different types of land (e.g. lineage fallow land versus temporarily granted land), and trees that are valued for different uses. The rules govern rights to medicinal products, fruit from the tree, fruit from under the tree, fuelwood and timber. They also distinguish between trees that are planted and those that are naturally occurring. Usuary rights vary by tree species; rights regarding species with a cash value are more restrictive (e.g. Cola sp.). Some tree products such as medicines may be used by all people, no matter what the land and tree ownership, while the use of other products, especially marketable goods (fruits), is controlled by established user regulations. The study suggests that medicines, fallen fruit and, in some cases, fuelwood, are considered “basic” products which cannot be denied to those in need. In addition, the use of commercially valuable trees for subsistence consumption is generally allowed.
75. Boni, D. 1982. L’économie de plantation en Côte d’Ivoire forestière. Thesis Doctorat de l’Etat, Institute of Tropical Geography, University of Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire (unpublished).
This detailed analysis of oil palm plantations in the forest zone of Côte d’Ivoire includes a discussion of the “other” uses of palms. Generally these trees are not planted, but selectively protected and encouraged. Palm hearts are occasionally eaten, and wine tapping is very common. Palm fronds are used for house construction as roofs, in basketry and other artisanal activities. Newborns are bathed in palm kernel oil. And oil palm roots are used in several different medicinal treatments.
76. Bouet, C. 1980. La Saga de l’Okoumé au Gabon. Cahiers d’ORSTOM, Série Sciences Humaines, 17(3-4): 269-273.
This paper discusses the traditional and economic importance of several forest trees from Gabon: Aucoumea klaineana, Pachylobus edulis, P. buttreri and Pycnanthus angolensis. Their mystical value (e.g. medicines, sacred groves) and practical uses (e.g. canoes, implements and utensils) are both reviewed. Their commercial timber value is also assessed.
77. Bouquet, A. 1969. Féticheurs et médecines traditionnelles du Congo. Mémoire d’ORSTOM No. 36, Paris, France.
A descriptive account of over 1,000 plant species having symbolic, medicinal, or ritual importance. For each species the common name, botanical description, uses and methods of use are provided. Bouquet notes that wild plants and their uses are very familiar to those living in rural areas. He adds that collected forest plants are essential supplements (especially what is consumed between meals) to the region’s protein and vitamin poor diet. The piece also provides information on sacred trees (among the more common sacred species are Ficus thonningii and Anonidium mannii).
78. Boutillier, J.H. and Dupire, M. 1958. Le pays Adioukrou et sa palmeraie (Côte d’Ivoire): etude socio-économique. ORSTOM, Paris, France.
This socioeconomic analysis examines palm oil processing enterprises in rural household. The division of revenue from palm tapping, fruit harvesting, and oil processing is also examined. For example, in one case 42% of the revenue went to the palm climber (harvest), 38% went to the wife of the climber and her assistants (oil processing), and 20% went to the owner of the palm tree.
79. Boye G. (no date). Traditional medicine - the Ghanaian approach. Centre for Scientific Research into Plant Medicine, Mampong-Akwapim, Ghana (unpublished).
A general paper on traditional medical practices in Ghana. Describes the role of institutions (the Ghana psychic and traditional healers association) in organising traditional medicine practitioners. Notes that traditional practitioners treat the majority of rural Ghanaians. In 1978, there were 3,363 registered, practising traditional healers in Ghana. Discusses the role of the Centre for Scientific Research into Plant Medicines in developing means of synthesising traditional and modern medical care.
80. Burkhill, H.M. 1985 (2nd edition). Useful plants of tropical West Africa. Royal Botanical Garden, Kew, London, Great Britain.
A revised and updated version of Dalziel’s work, this book includes information published since 1937. Arranged by plant family, each species’ entry includes a botanical description giving the plant’s ecological distribution, and a listing of local uses and local names. There is a subject index arranged by usage. Volume I is completed (A-D). Though the information is descriptive, the immense number of plant uses that are listed serve to illustrate their value to the local population.
81. Busson, F. 1961. Plantes alimentaires de l’Ouest Afrique: étude biologique, botanique et chimique. Leconte, Ed. Marseille, France.
This book analyses regional foods gathered from the wild. It provides a description of the botany, chemistry and food uses of the region’s indigenous plants.
82. Calame-Griaule, G. (ed.). 1969. Le thème de l’arbre dans les contes Africains I (The tree in African stories). Société d’Etude Linguistiques et Anthropologiques de France No. 16, Paris, France.
This collection of essays examines the symbolic importance of the tree in African oral tradition. In Africa, the tree features in many myths and tales, reflecting the permanence of a few important symbolic images; the tree stands between heaven and earth (cosmic tree); it is a protector and nurse (maternal), a phallic symbol (paternal and ancestral), and the ambiguous image of death and rebirth. Also, the tree often features in beliefs and rites. It can be a provider of goods (food, medicines etc.), or symbolise human fecundity. Deciduousness (death and rebirth) is seen as an indication of the trees power to give life, rebirth, and also death.
83. Calame-Griaule, G. (ed.). 1970. Le thème de l’arbre dans les contes Africains II. Société d’Etude Linguistiques et Anthropologiques de France No. 20, Paris, France.
This collection of three essays surveys the symbolic role of trees in African stories: the tree as a justice, the tree and marriage, and the tree and ancestors. In folk stories the tree plays either an active (e.g. tree marries a person, gives life or death) or instrumental role (e.g. as intermediary in the marriage of a couple, as a link between ancestors and the living).
84. Calame-Griaule, G. (ed.). 1974. Le thème de l’arbre dans les contes III. Société d’Etude Linguistiques et Anthropologiques de France No. 42-43, Paris. France.
This collection of essays further assesses the role of trees in African (and other) stories. It gathers together plant themes from Tenda, Samo and Dogon stories. The references to different plants are analysed in light of ethnobotanical information on the specific uses and value of particular plants.
85. Calame-Griaule, G. 1980. L’arbre et l’imaginaire. Cahiers d’ORSTOM, Série Sciences Humaines 17(3-4): 315-321.
This article is, essentially, an essay on the symbolic and mythical role of trees in African folklore. Trees are portrayed as ‘cosmic’ linking the underworld with the sky; protectors; providers of essential goods, foods, knowledge and fecundity; paternal; and as symbols of the dialectic between life and death.
86. Campbell, B.M. 1986. The importance of wild fruits for peasant households in Zimbabwe. Food and Nutrition 12(1): 38-44.
An interesting study on the use of wild fruits in rural Zimbabwe which finds that three species are especially favoured: Diospyros mespiliformis, Strychnos cocaloides and Azanza garckeana. The study notes that preference for and use of these three favoured fruit species seems not to have been affected by deforestation. Fruits are consumed most frequently as snacks; in the survey only 23% of those collecting fruit reported saying they would use them for their meals.
87. Campbell-Platt, G. 1980. African locust bean (Parkia sp.) and its fermented food product Dawadawa. Ecology of Food and Nutrition 9(2): 123-132.
This is an excellent study containing a great deal of detailed information on the role, frequency and consumption of Parkia sp. (african locust bean). This important tree food is a legume whose seed pods are a commonly food in West Africa. The pods are fermented to make Dawadawa (a common soup and sauce ingredient). The pericarp is also eaten fresh. The seeds are rich in protein, lysine, fat and riboflavin. They provide a valuable food during the hungry season, especially for the poor. Parkia sp. is consumed in 50% of all meals in Ghana’s Upper Region, and 10% of all meals in the northern region. It was eaten on 90 out of the 100 days of study by the Calbrais of northern Togo. And in northern Nigeria it is the second cheapest protein source after groundnuts.
88. Cashman, K. 1987. Women’s activities and the potential of alley farming in southwestern Nigeria. Report prepared for The Ford Foundation. International Livestock Center for Africa, Humid Zone Programme, Ibadan, Nigeria (unpublished).
An interesting socioeconomic study on women’s activities in the region. Explores women’s income-earning activities, the most important of which is palm oil processing. Cashman compares the profits earned in different activities (e.g. oil processing, food sale, fish sale, maize processing, cola nut sales, locust bean processing, soap-making), and the labour and initial capital investment required for these varied activities. Oil processing and sales of cola nuts bring the highest profits, but the initial investment required for cola trading is comparatively high, while the labour required in palm oil processing is great. Nonetheless, oil processing is the greatest source of income for most of the women who were interviewed. In this area women earn the majority of household’s cash income. Farm produce is valued for its regular returns, while the income that is earned from oil-processing is used for “bulk” expenses such as school fees. Women often “fix” their earnings in livestock to avoid giving the income to their husbands. Most trees and their products are owned by men (e.g. cola, oil palms and parkias); women pay tree owners and harvesters (climbers) a percentage of produce or profits from the sale of processed products.
89. Chambers, R. and Leach, M. 1986. Trees to meet contingencies: a strategy for the rural poor? Institute of Development Studies (IDS), University of Sussex, Sussex, Great Britain.
An interesting analysis which explores the role trees may play as insurance against unexpected death, illness, or drought. Trees provide growing economic banks whose products may be sold or used in emergencies.
90. Chambers, R. and Longhurst, R. 1986. Trees, seasons and the poor. IDS Bulletin 17(3): 44-50, Institute of Development Studies (IDS), University of Sussex, Sussex, Great Britain.
In this essay, the authors illustrate the seasonal importance of trees to the poor; trees dampen the impacts of seasonal fluctuations in climate, food supply, labour and other hardships. Four distinct roles are identified: ameliorating microclimate effects, providing slack and lean season food and fodder, providing employment thus smoothing fluctuations in income generating activities, and meeting seasonal contingencies. Trees may provide food during the lean period, or during peak agricultural periods when there is little time for food preparation. The income that is generated from processing, gathering, and trade of forest products can be an important part of many poor peoples’ survival strategy (e.g. charcoal production and sale may increase in poor harvest years). Finally trees may provide insurance (i.e. standing timber) against unforeseen hardships (e.g. deaths, sickness, marriages).
91. Champaud, J. 1983. Ville et campagnes du Caméroun de l’ouest. Mémoires ORSTOM 98, ORSTOM, Paris, France.
This geographic study on the relationship between urban and rural areas in Cameroon includes information on 3 urban markets: Narjo, Bangargté and Foumbot. It includes data on the numbers of retail traders of palm wine, cola nuts, palm oil, traditional medicines and artisan products. The study focuses on the dynamics of the cola trade in western Cameroon.
92. Charter, J.R. 1973. The economic value of wildlife in Nigeria. Research Paper No. 19. Federal Forestry Department, Nigeria.
This report estimates the economic value of wild animal meat in three areas of southern Nigeria. Bushmeat contributes approximately 19% of the overall meat consumed in the study areas (while fish contributes 60% and livestock 21%). In areas with high population density and no forest reserves such as Onitsha, bushmeat contributes 7% of the total animal meat consumed, whereas in areas near large forests, bushmeat provides the majority of meat consumed: 82% in Benin and 84% in Oyo.
93. Chong, P. 1987. Alleviation of fuelwood supply shortages in the western area, Sierra Leone. FAO Consultant Report, Forestry Department (unpublished).
This report provides an analysis of people’s use of mangrove forest resources. Mangroves provide fuel (firewood and charcoal), food (oil, condiments, sweetmeats, vegetables, and alcohol), fodder, tannins and dyes, honey, fish, bushmeat and material for construction (for boats, docks, houses, and furniture).Wood from mangrove areas is used for making fish traps, smoking ovens, shelters designed to attract fish, for fishing poles and boats. Tannins are extracted from the mangrove species and are used to preserve nets and lines. Firewood is used for fish smoking, cooking, and salt production. The fish smoking industry in Sierra Leone is entirely dependent on mangroves as their source of fuel; salt preservation provides the only alternative to smoking. Includes information on income earned per day by firewood cutters.
94. Chuta, E. 1978. The economy of the Gara cloth industry in Sierra Leone. Working paper No. 25, African Rural Economy Program, Michigan State and Njala College, Sierra Leone.
Three hundred and sixty small-scale private Gara dyeing establishments are economically analysed in this study. Traditionally, the indigo dye of Gara cloth is derived from the leaves of woody climber Lonchocarpus cyanescens. The leaves are collected, pounded, dried, and then sold to Gara cloth dyers (in 1974, a forty pound sack of dried leaves sold for 12 Leones). The Gara processing enterprises are predominantly owned (80%) and operated by women. Most of the labour in these enterprises is carried out by the proprietor and her family. Synthetic dyes have replaced the natural indigo dyes in some cases, however the traditional cloth fetches a much higher market price. This paper also describes other natural dye products.
95. Cline, E. 1985. Anti-bacterial properties of plants used medicinally in Gloucester village, Sierra Leone. Thesis, Department of Botany, University of Sierra Leone, Fourah Bay College, Freetown, Sierra Leone (unpublished).
Presents the results of chemical analyses of commonly used medicinal plants to determine their anti-bacterial properties.
96. Clottey, J.A. 1969. Wildlife as a source of protein in Ghana. Paper presented at the Working Party on Wildlife Management, African Forestry Commission, Lome, Togo. Reprinted in Food and Nutrition in Africa 9:7-11(1971).
Clottey discusses the factors influencing the prominence of bushmeat in the diets of many Ghanaians. He notes that there is an increasing demand for bushmeat in urban areas and estimates that Ghanaians consume an average 1.8 g of bushmeat daily (similar to meat consumption). The commercial trading of bushmeat developed in the crisis years of 1964-66, with specialised processing centers scattered throughout the country to service urban demand. Included in this analysis are tables on the annual availability of animal protein, and a consumer price index for the meat market in Accra.
97. Coleman, A. 1983. La production artisanale dans le développement de la Côte d’Ivoire: le cas des travailleurs de Rotin sur la route de Bassam. Thesis Institut d’ethno-sociologie, Université de Côte d’Ivoire, Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire (unpublished).
A sociological study of the rattan enterprises in the Bassam area. Provides detailed information on the sources of raw materials, the costs of production, the economic situation of rattan workers, the production methods employed, as well as a description of final products (most of this information is based on interviews with workers at 24 different workshops). Discusses the costs (of material and labour) of specific rattan objects and their selling prices. Notes that the supply of rattan can be a problem, depending on the time of year. Certain regions (e.g. Anyama) have become specialised centres for the sale of unprocessed rattan. In this region most rattan workers are foreign men.Also describes other plants used in basketry: e.g. Borassus sp. palm, forest lianas and the leaves of Thaumatococcus sp. Discusses the potential for development the rattan industry geared to the Abidjan and tourist markets.
98. Coles, M. 1981. Study of medicinal plants in Gloucester village (Sierra Leone). Thesis, Department of Botany, university of Sierra Leone, Fourah Bay College, Freetown, Sierra Leone (unpublished).
This study examines common medicinal plant treatments, and describes their preparation. The discussion is organised according to illness. For example, the paper discusses plant species used to treat malaria (e.g. infusions of the leaves of Sterculia tragacantha). The paper also presents the results of screening of 65 plant species for anti-fungal properties; four show anti-fungal activity (Ficus exasperata, Lantana camara, Colocassia esculentum, and Ageratum conyzoides). Also includes a description of plants that have mystical or symbolic functions.
99. Collart, A. 1986. Development planning for small-scale fisheries in West Africa: practical, technological, and socio-economic aspects of fish production and processing. FAO Publication IDAF/W/71.
This general overview of small-scale fishing activities throughout West Africa includes estimates of the numbers and types of fishing crafts that are used. It estimates the number of canoes (and other fishing craft) in each West African country. Dugout canoes are the most commonly used boats throughout the region. In Cameroon, for example, there are an estimated 4,450 canoes. Ghana produces most of the dugout canoes that are used throughout the region. They are made primarily from the trunks of Triplochiton scleroxylon. The cost of an eleven meter traditional dugout canoe was the equivalent of approximately $ 2,000 at the time of this study. A new type of canoe has been developed in Senegal using board planks. These boats, however, cost about three times more than traditional dugout canoes.
100. Collins, W. et al. 1962. On the ecology of child health and nutrition in Nigerian villages. Elsevier Publishing Co., Amsterdam, The Netherlands. (Reprinted from Tropical Geography and Medicine 14:201-229.)
A combined ecological and dietary survey was conducted over a year to examine the relationship between farming systems and nutrition. While the information and approach are dated, some interesting facts on diet and food consumption practices is included. Data on seasonal variations in nutrient consumption are also provided.
101. Commonwealth Secretariat. 1980. Turner’s Peninsula coconut project (Sierra Leone), feasibility study. Prepared for the Ministry of Trade and Industries, Freetown, Sierra Leone.
This study discusses common processing activities including piassava production (processed from wild raphia plants), palm oil production, palm wine tapping, coconut oil and salt production. It includes information on the resources exploited (e.g. number of trees tapped), the quantities produced and estimates the income that is earned. It notes that most palm products are gathered from wild trees.
102. Conseil Africain et Malgache pour l’Enseignement Supérieur. 1977. Troisième Colloque de CAMES médecine traditionnelle et pharmacopées africaines, Kigali, Zaïre.
A voluminous collection of papers on the use of plants in traditional medicine systems. Theme 1.: Botanical and ethnobotanical research. Theme 2.: Clinical and pharmacological research (papers explore different uses and preparations of traditional plant medicines). Theme 3.: Chemical research (explores chemical composition of different plant species). Theme 4.: Organizational research (focuses on how to further develop traditional medicine practices and how to integrate traditional and other types of medical services nationally).
103. Coulibaly, A. 1977. Artisanat de production et de service enquête régionale: Bandoukou, Bongouanou, Kaniola, Mankaro, Touba (Côte d’Ivoire). Office National de Formation Professionnelle, Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire (unpublished).
Presents an analysis of 750 interviews on artisan activities conducted in five rural zones of Côte d’Ivoire. The report describes the qualities and characteristics of rural small-scale enterprises. It notes that artisan activities can provide a supplementary source of income to agriculturalists. In areas with intensive agricultural production, less time is spent on artisanal production. Artisan activities are especially important in the off-peak agricultural season and during seasons of poor harvest. Approximately 30% of these activities involve woodworking. The survey identified 747 artisans whose activities supported an estimated 4,800 people.
104. Cousteix, P.J. 1961. L’art et la pharmacopée des guérisseurs Ewondo (Yaoundé Région, Cameroun). Recherches et Etudes Camérounaises. Yaoundé, Institut de Recherches Scientifiques du Caméroun, pp. 1-86.
This paper explores the Ewondo’s medicinal and mystical beliefs, discussing the practices of their traditional healers and fetishists. Arranged by type of ailment (e.g. illnesses of the intestines, problems specific to women, and health of newly born) each chapter includes descriptions of treatments. Approximately 200 medicinal plants are described.
105. Cremoux, P. 1963. The importance of game meat consumption in diet of sedentary and nomadic peoples of the Senegal River Valley. In Conservation of nature and natural resources in modern African states, International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Publication, New Series 1, Morges, Switzerland.
This data is discussed in Asibey (1986) and Sale (1981). The paper discusses the importance of game in the diet of several Senegalese peoples. Includes estimates of annual bushmeat consumption for Senegal as a whole.
106. Dagogo. 1981. Ecology of the mangrove forest with special reference to the Delta. HND Project, School of Forestry, Forest Research Institute of Nigeria, Ibadan, Nigeria (unpublished).
Estimates that more than 700 people are employed in the fuelwood trade in Port Harcourt. The majority of the fuelwood is gathered from the mangrove areas. Mangrove species provide an excellent fuel which is especially valued for fish smoking.
107. Dalziel, J.M. 1937. The useful plants of West Tropical Africa. London Crown Agents, London, Great Britain. An Appendix to Dalziel, J.M. and Hutchinson, J. 1927-1936. The flora of tropical West Africa. London Crown Agents, London, Great Britain.
A classic botanical text describing the plant resources of tropical West Africa. The appendix on useful plants provides information on more than 100 edible species and thousands of non-food plants with economic import. A significant number of the plants that described are forest-tree species. Many medicinal uses are also listed. (See also Burkhill 1985)
108. Darko, E. 1981. A survey of cane weaving in Ghana. Thesis (BSc), Institute of Renewable Natural Resources, University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana (unpublished).
This study of cane (rattan and raphia primarily) basketry in the Kumasi region notes that in one study village (Enyiresi), basketry is the main rural industry. Men dominate weaving activities, while women dominate the trade of cane and fabricated cane products. Labourers are generally hired by (women) wholesalers who transport the material to weavers. The costs and benefits for different segments of the small-scale industry (includes estimate production figures) are examined.As this region’s supply of cane has begun to exhaust, the costs of production have begun to rise sharply. The industry’s main problems are an irregular supply of both raw materials, and labour for collection.
109. Davidson, O. 1985. Energy use patterns in Sierra Leone. Manuscript Report No. MR103e. International Development Research Center, Ottawa, Canada.
This general study of the energy situation in Sierra Leone includes good statistics on both private and commercial fuelwood and charcoal purchasing and use. The report also provides information on small-scale processing enterprises (e.g. the quantity of fuel used in baking) and the caloric values for the different species of fuelwood that are used in different enterprises. It notes that an increasing percentage of urban people’s income is being spent on wood fuel. For the majority of people in rural areas, fuelwood is the only source of energy. Fuelwood provides 72% of the total energy consumed by all sectors in Sierra Leone, charcoal provides a further 10%.
110. Department of Forest Resource Management, University of Ibadan. 1986. Feasibility study of indigenous forest fruit trees in Nigeria - Irvingia gabonensis, Parkia clappertoniana. Final Report. Prepared for the Federal Department of Forestry, Lagos, Nigeria (unpublished).
This paper examines the uses of these two indigenous economic species, their markets, marketability, availability and distribution. It includes a quantitative analysis of market prices and household consumption.The kernels of Irvingia gabonensis are an important ingredient in the soups made to accompany a carbohydrate staple; in some areas there is such great demand that it has become a luxury item. It is estimated that, on average, households spend between 2 and 5% of their annual expenditure on irvingia products. The estimated annual household consumption ranges from 3.2 to 14.13 kg/year depending on the region. The major market for these kernels is rural southern Nigeria. Consumption is greater in rural areas, but there is a growing demand for it in urban centers. Indeed, irvingia seeds are even imported from Cameroon. The marketing of Irvingia sp. involves producers (principally men), processors (principally women), wholesalers and retailers. Generally the price is controlled by wholesalers, but for distant markets retailers have greater control over prices.
Although Parkia clappertoniana is a savannah tree, it is widely distributed throughout the southern region (it was found in 50% of the southern forest reserves studied). Its fermented seeds provide an extremely popular condiment which is often used as a meat substitute. Its leaves and pods provide fodder, and almost all this plant’s parts provide medicines. In the Lagos area 98% of those interviewed consume fermented parkia bean; 95% of the southern Nigerian population consumes fermented parkia regularly (an estimated 3.2 to 28 kg/household/year).
111. Depommier, D. 1983. Aspects de la foresterie villageoise dans l’Ouest et le Nord (Cameroun). Report of an internship. Institut de Recherche Agronomique and Centre Tropicale Forestier Technique, ‘Nkolbisson’ Cameroun.
The role of trees and forest areas in the west and north of Cameroon is examined in this report. In the West, trees are incorporated into the “farm” areas in live hedges and managed bush areas. Trees are planted and selectively managed. Eucalyptus is a favoured exotic species because of the nearby market for poles (electric company). This report discusses the economics of the eucalyptus trade. There are many other tree species (e.g. Cola nitida, Albizia glaberrima, Vernonia amygdalina) found in these hedge rows which are valued as reserve sources of food, fuel, timber, shade, medicines and other products. Raphia palms are especially valued. They grow in dense stands in valley bottoms, and are used for house construction (60% of a house’s building material is derived from the raphia palm), and palm wine (an important source of income). This study examines the prevalence of different species in planted hedge areas and in other farm areas. It includes a description of the uses of different common species, as well as the species different artisans prefer. For example, the leaves of Dracaena arborea are used in basket-making and weaving. The tree is also traditionally considered the tree of peace, it is used to mark property boundaries.
112. Dietworst, D. 1987. Household meat consumption survey in communities in southern Nigeria. International Livestock Center for Africa (ILCA), Humid Zone Programme, Ibadan, Nigeria. (unpublished).
An extremely interesting study on meat consumption in three different communities in southwest and southeast Nigeria. A total of 61 households were interviewed. Consumption of fish, bushmeat and snails is reviewed. Information on the frequency of consumption (per household), the quantity and prices of meat, and the source of supply (e.g. market, bush, home-production) are all recorded. Information on general economic indicators (e.g. house construction material), taboos and practices is also presented.The data from this study has not yet been analysed, however, a few conclusions can be drawn. In general, domestic livestock (goats and chickens) is consumed a few times a year on special occasions. In a few households beef is regularly consumed. Generally, dried fish is the most commonly consumed meat. In the Imo community snails are regularly consumed (several times a week in season) by more than a third of the community, and are consumed by more than two thirds of the community on at least a monthly basis. In the same community bushmeat is consumed less frequently (only about 20% of the households consume bushmeat on a monthly basis), although it is consumed occasionally by all households. In contrast, the households in Oyo State (Owu-Ile), consume bushmeat more regularly (80% of the households consume bushmeat at least several times a month), 20% consume it daily. In the third community, also in Oyo state, bushmeat and snail consumption is less regular. However, in all communities all households consume both snails and bushmeat occasionally.
113. Diouf, N.S. 1987. Les techniques artisanales de traitement et conservation du poisson au Senegal, Ghana, Bénin et Caméroun. Paper prepared for the FAO Fisheries Department, Dakar, Senegal.
Fish smoking is a common practice in each of the countries that is examined in this report. In Ghana, 60% of marketed fish is smoked. In Benin two thirds of the fish catch is smoked. In Cameroon, all fish from coastal fisheries (with exception of one species) is smoked. This report discusses different fish smoking techniques and the quantities of fuelwood required for each approach. Fuelwood requirements vary according to the length of processing and the desired intensity of heat. For example, one Cameroonian technique requires 3.015 kg/wood to smoke 1 kg of fish.
114. Direction de promotion de bois (Cameroon). 1987. “Note sur l’économie forestière nationale.” Nkolbisson, Yaoundé, Cameroon.
An analysis of the Cameroonian forest industry. Includes information on local wood processors and local markets.
115. Direction des Eaux et Forets (Senegal). 1982. Annual Report 1982-1983. Dakar, Senegal.
The Senegalese Forest Service gathers a considerable amount of information on the exploitation of secondary forest resources. The Forest Service collects a tax on poles, palm spines and leaves, as well as wood used for artisan woodworking (e.g. for coffins, tam-tams, chairs, beds, and canoes). Therefore, this report provides statistical estimates of forest-based artisan production by district (the numbers of beds, mats, baskets, chairs, etc. produced). The Casamance region (Guinea forest zone) produces the greatest quantity of processed and gathered forest products. For example, in 1982, an estimated 1.96 million kg of wild fruits were collected, 714,000 litres of palm oil were produced’, 47,500 litres of palm wine were produced, 23,000 kg of leaves and bark were collected, 582,000 brushes were produced, and 12,000 baskets were produced.The records include statistics on products that entered Dakar each month of 1982; 502,000 kg of wild fruit, 26,000 kg of wild leaves, and 19,000 litres of palm oil. The report comments on the market prices for processed wood products, animal products (e.g. skin), wild fruits and leaves, palm oil, palm wine, and plant medicines. Also includes statistical estimates of the consumption of charcoal and fuelwood over the last ten years.
116. Direction des Eaux et Forets (Cameroon). 1985. Annual Report 1984-1985. Ministère d’Agriculture, Yaoundé, Cameroon.
This report provides some statistics on the export of medicinal plants (the most common secondary forest products collected from Forest Department land): the bark of Pygeum (Prunus africana) (729 tonnes), Voacanga sp. (30 tonnes), Yohimbe (Pausinystalia johimbe) (229 tonnes), Strophanthus sp. (25 tonnes) and ebony. These statistics only provide an indication of the quantities of secondary products “officially” extracted from forest reserves by large scale producers.
117. Direction du commerce intérieur (Cameroon). No date. Enquête des commerçants-artisans: resumé. Ministère du Commerce et de l’industrie, Yaoundé, Cameroon (unpublished).
This survey of small-scale commercial and artisan enterprises in urban areas of Cameroon reveals that 35% of these enterprises are in Douala and 26% are in Yaoundé. A total of 13,700 enterprises were surveyed and classified into 80 professional groups. Of these, 14% were found to be woodworking enterprises and 1% were sculptors. Seventeen percent of the total male employment was in woodworking. Most products were produced on order (9% were sold on street corners and a further 6% were sold in markets). Forty percent of those interviewed complained that they had difficulty purchasing raw materials.
118. Djoko, E., Eboutou, M.L., Rafidison, P. 1983. Plantes médicinales du Caméroun. Série No. 1. Cahiers de l’I.M.P.M. (Institut de Recherches Médicales et d’Etudes des Plantes Médicinales). Centre d’Etudes des Plantes Médicinales (MESRES), Yaoundé, Cameroon.
Providing the results of interdisciplinary research on the useful medicinal plants of Cameroon, this report outlines 30 species describing them botanically, listing their habitat and ecology, traditional uses, and chemical composition. For example, Pterocarpus soyauxii’s bark is used in treatments of anaemia, bronchial problems, and with palm oil against many skin aliments. It contains tannins, sterrols and flavanoids. The effectiveness of the different medical treatments is not evaluated.
119. Dodah Ayernor, G.K. 1970. The sap of the palm, Elaeis guineensis for alcoholic fermentation. Student paper. Department of Nutrition and Food Science, University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana (unpublished).
In the Krobo district of Ghana farmers tap between 25 and 100 trees a season (which in this region involves felling the tree). This paper discusses the fermentation process of palm wine and spirits.
120. Dongmo, J. 1985. L’évolution du système agraire en pays Banen: étude géographique. Thesis, Department of Geography, Université de Yaoundé, Yaoundé, Cameroon (unpublished).
This detailed geographic study explores the role farm and field trees and forest resources play in the lives of the Banen of southern Cameroon (between Douala and Bafoussam). It describes their agricultural and non-farm activities. And discusses the socio-cultural functions of forest products. Most “farm” trees are valued for their fruits, leaves, or seeds. Especially important are Canarium schweinfurthii, Vitex cierkowskii, Myrianthus muellerianthus, Pachylobus edulis, and Irvingia gabonensis. Some tree species are left in fields for protection and demarcation. For example, the tree Kigelia africana is thought to protect fields from trespassers. Most forest and tree products are gathered for home consumption rather than for sale in the markets. During the off-peak agricultural season, gathering is at its height.Oil palms play a central role in the economic and social lives of the Banen. The study finds that the density of palms is a function of their distance from people’s houses (the highest densities are found nearest the houses). Palm oil is now used primarily for home consumption because of the low prices at the market level. Palm kernel oil is an important ingredient in many medical treatments, palm wine is commonly tapped. Often the bark of certain forest species is added to wine to speed fermentation or to give a desired flavoring. The greatest quantities of wine are tapped during the rainy season. Palms also provide the basic raw materials for household utensils and farm equipment, including transportation baskets, storage bins, drying racks, harvest baskets. The main species used for basketry is Hybophrynium braunianum. Fish traps are made from the bark of raphia palms. Mushrooms are even collected from the decomposing felled palm stems.
A description of the Banen hunting and fishing practices is also included. It notes that hunting has become more lucrative with the increased commercialisation of the area. Wild game is still in plentiful supply. And the flowers of Tephrosia vogelii are crushed, placed in a basket and put in the water as a fish poison. Snails, tortoises, caterpillars, larvae, and other insects are also commonly gathered during the rainy season. This study contains considerable descriptive information on the collection of wild game, but gives little indication of the extent to which they are exploited.
121. Duke, J.A. and Atchley, A.A. 1986. CRC handbook of proximate analysis tables of higher plants. CRC Press, Boca Raton, USA, pp. 389.
Presents nutrient composition data for hundreds of plant species. It includes information on calories, protein, fat, fibre, ash, calcium, phosphorus, iron, sodium, potassium, carotene, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin and vitamin C.
122. Dwuma-Badu, D. 1983. Anti-infective agents from traditional useful medicinal plants in West Africa. In Essien et al. 1983. Anti-infective agents of higher plants origin: proceedings of VISOMP - Fifth International Symposium on Medicinal Plants. Drug Research and Production Unit, University of Ife, Nigeria and Organization of African Unity, pp. 32-40.
Discusses the results of pharmacological analyses of Piper guineense, Cryptolepis sanguinolenta, Xylopia aethiopica, Tiliacora funifera, Azadirachta indica, Enantia chlorantha, Combretum mucronatum and Mitragyna stipulosa. All are used by traditional healers for treating infections. Discusses the traditional use as well as the chemical composition of each species. For example, Enantia chlorantha is traditionally used for treating jaundice and skin ulcers and leprosy. The plant has been shown to have strong microbial action. It also contains constituents (analgestic and alkaloids) which have been found to reverse and repair liver damage. Its uses for treating skin diseases can also be explained by its chemical composition.
123. Dwuma-Badu, D. 1986. Some studies of the constituents of West African medicinal plants: problems, progress and potentials. The Ghana pharmaceutical Journal: 21-38.
Describes research undertaken by the Faculty of Pharmacy at the University of Science and Technology at Kumasi in Ghana. They have focused their research on analysis of the chemical constituents of Cryptolepis sanguinolenta, Rhigiocarya racemifera, Triclisia sp., and Griffonia simplicifolia. C. sanguinolenta is traditionally used in treating malaria, urinary tract infections and wounds. Its chemical composition and biological activities indicate that it has great potential for treatment of bacterial and other diseases. It contains the compounds cryptolepine and quindoline. Detailed information on the chemical composition and biological activities of many commonly used plant medicines is provided. The author focuses on plants that contain anti-tumor constituents and muscle relaxants, anti-inflammatory and anti-bacterial, and anti-sickling agents.
124. Ekong, D.D.E. 1979. African medicinal plants under the microscope. UNESCO Courrier 7:17-19,42.
A general discussion of the drug potential of African plants used in traditional medicinal treatments. Draws examples from Nigerian research. For example, the roots of Fagara zanthoxyloides, traditionally used as chewing sticks for dental care, have been found to have anti-microbial and anti-sickling activity. Examination of the dried fruit of Xylopia aethiopica, used in many traditional treatments, revealed that it contains an acid which is very active against certain bacteria.
125. Elletey, J.S. 1986. An architectural analysis of some traditional farms in some villages near Kumasi. Thesis (BSc), Institute of Renewable and Natural Resources, University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana (unpublished).
This study examines the role trees play on four farms in four different Ghanaian villages. It explores the farmers’ reasons for protecting or leaving trees on agricultural lands: to use as yam stakes, to improve crop yields, as food crops, for shade, for wood for carving, as timber, as live fences, for firewood and fodder. The largest trees are found on farm land not in fallow areas, although the diversity of species is greater in bush fallows. Some species are believed to positively (e.g. Rauwolfia vomitoria and cocoyams) or negatively (Ficus asperifolia and cocoyams) effect certain crops.
126. ENDA. 1987. Environnement africain: série plantes médicinales. Fiche technique. ENDA. (Environnement et Développement du Tiers Monde), Dakar, Senegal.
This series of leaflets on medicinal plants that are commonly used in West Africa includes plant descriptions, details of plants ecological distribution, ecological requirements, and means of propagation. It outlines the chemical composition of their active ingredients, and describes their traditional use in medicine. For example, Xylopia aethiopica, a tall, humid forest tree, is traditionally used for treating liver ailments and mouth infections (a decoction of the roots mixed with water is used as a mouthwash). The tree requires rich, humid soil, thrives in swampy conditions, and can be propagated from seed in good soil after six months gestation. The plant contains the essential cuminol, organic acids, alcohol, turpines, and anonacenes. Other species covered in include Cassia alata, Holarrhena floribunda, Borreria verticillata, Piliostygma reticulatum, Moringa oleifera, Calotropis procera and Euphorbia hirta.
127. Energy Initiatives for Africa. 1986. Etude de marché régionale sur le charbon de bois en Europe, Royaume Uni, et Afrique de l’Ouest. Energy/Development International (EDI), Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire.
This report discusses charcoal production and marketing in Liberia and Côte d’Ivoire. It examines the potential for development of the export market to Europe and northern Africa. The economics of this trade including the selling prices at roadsides, in rural markets, and in Monrovia markets, as well as the costs of production and transportation are all discussed. The paper notes that charcoal production provides the second most important source of income in Liberian rural areas after agriculture. Fifty percent of the annual production is geared to the Monrovia market. It also states that, alternatively, in Côte d’Ivoire, charcoal is primarily used in urban areas. An estimated 190,000 tonnes are produced a year (600 tonnes are exported to France). The article concludes that the production costs for the African export market are prohibitive, but there is some potential for development of the European market.
128. Engel, A. et al. 1984. Promoting smallholder cropping systems in Sierra Leone: an assessment of traditional cropping systems and recommendations for the Bo-Pejehun rural development project. Institute of Socio-economics of Agricultural Development, Technical University of Berlin, Berlin, West Germany.
The published results of this interdisciplinary 3 month field survey provide a great deal of detailed information on Sierra Leonian farming practices, off-farm activities (especially palm oil processing), markets for agricultural and processed products, and women’s role in the household (including their income earning activities). It describes the seasonality of different activities as well as the seasonal periods of hardship. The study finds that off-farm activities (oil processing, coffee and cocoa processing, hunting, fuelwood collection, palm wine tapping and artisanal activities) are very important. Nineteen percent of the farmers regard these activities as the most important in terms of labour and household benefit, another 14% mention them as the second most important activities. The analysis discusses the conflicting demands on farmer’s time and the extent to which palm fruit and kernels are processed. Often palm kernels and other products are put aside to process later in times of emergency cash needs.
129. Engelhard, P. and Robineau, L. 1981. La pharmacopée: composante de l’économique de la Santé au Senegal. ENDA (Environnement et Développement du Tiers Monde) Study No. 59, Dakar, Senegal.
In reviewing the health situation and health care systems in Senegal, this study examines Senegalese use of traditional medicine. It also provides an assessment of traditional medicine by “modern” practitioners. The study notes that 62% of “modern” Dakar doctors send patients to traditional practitioners. A list of common plant medicines is included.
130. Enti, A.A. 1987. Personal communication. Director, Forest Enterprises Inc. Accra, Ghana.
Enti owns Forest Enterprises Inc. which exports non-timber forest products, including a number of drug and food (sweeteners) gathered from forests throughout Ghana. In 1984 he exported £180,000 worth of forest medicines. Discussed the exploitation of NTFPs and the international markets and marketing of medicinal/food forest products. Currently his main business is with Tate and Lyle (a large food processing company in Great Britain) exporting the aryl’s of Thaumatococcus daniellii from which a sweetener is extracted. In 1987, he expected to export 110 tonnes of the semi-processed fruit of Thaumatococcus daniellii. Also supplies companies and research centers in the United States and Europe.
131. Enunwaonye, R.U. 1983. Economic analysis of fuelwood consumption in Enugu, Anambra State. MSc. Thesis, Department of Forest Resource Management, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria (unpublished).
Examines the fuelwood market in Enugu analysing the people involved In the trade, and the seasonal differences in prices and profits. Notes that fuelwood producers generally do not sell fuelwood in the Enugu markets, rather they sell to retailers or middle-(wo)men. The main fuelwood producers are farmers, the majority of whom participate in this activity seasonally, during the agricultural slack period. Women are more involved in the transport of fuelwood than production for the market. There are nonetheless some regular fuelwood producers who often employ labourers. Those involved in the seasonal sale of fuelwood generally find the fuelwood on their land, whereas the regular producers gather wood from communal forest areas. Examines on-farm (producer) and market (retailer) fuelwood prices and costs and finds that the profit margin averages 28-54% for seasonal fuelwood producers, 19-26% for regular producers, and 47-71% for the retailers. Also includes information on fuelwood species preferences.
132. Essien, E., Adebanjo, A.O., Adewunmi. C.O. and Odebiyi, O.O. (eds.). 1983. Anti-infective agents of higher plants origin: proceedings of VISOMP - Fifth International Symposium on Medicinal Plants. Drug Research and Production Unit, University of Ife and Organization of African Unity, Ife-Ife, Nigeria.
A collection of papers investigating the plants that are used in traditional treatments against infections. Includes several interesting reports on molluscicidal plants. These plants contain substances which kill molluscs (e.g. snails), often the intermediary hosts of infectious diseases such as bilharzia. Reviews current pharmacological and chemical research on traditional plant medicines. Contains some useful information assessing the effectiveness of specific traditional cures. However, the information is geared to the potential drug market and not to assessing traditional medical practices per se.
133. Etienne, J. 1974. Artisanat traditionnelle en Côte d’Ivoire. Association Universitaire pour le Développement de l’Enseignement et de la Couture en Afrique et a Madagascar. Ministère de L’Enseignement et de la Formation Professionnelle, Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire.
This detailed study of traditional artisan production throughout Ivory Coast provides descriptive information on wood, cane, raphia, cloth, dyeing and printing, pottery and metal artisanry. It describes the region, ethnic groups, objects fabricated, raw materials used, marketing and techniques of production for more than 200 activities. Describes the most commonly used objects including mortars and pestles, plates, household utensils, furniture, and musical instruments. Notes that basketry and other weaving activities are not specialised enterprises, that they are engaged in by most rural men. The most common raw materials for this sector are raphia palm, leaves, fibres and leaf spines, forest lianas, and the leaves of Thaumatococcus spp. Describes the different methods used by various ethnic groups to fabricate a multitude of household and agricultural products (e.g. harvest and transport baskets for coffee, cocoa, and cola nuts, crop dryers and crop storage containers, household utensils, and furniture).Traditional clothes (cloth) are made from the bark of several forest trees. These are still important for traditional ceremonies and festive occasions. Discusses the natural dyes used in cloth printing enterprises (which are dominated by women). Certain traditional colours (indigo) are still commonly produced from forest plants. Traditional wood-based artisan activities have been most affected by modernisation.
The commercialisation of wood-based artisanry has led to a dichotomy between products fashioned for tourists and urban markets and those produced for everyday use. Most rural men still produce the wooden objects needed within the household.
134. Ewusi, K. 1986. Statistical tables of the economy of Ghana 1950-1985. Adwensa Publications, Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research, University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana.
These statistics give some indication of the importance of forest resources in the fishing sector. They include information on the Ghanaian fishing fleet.In 1962 an estimated 78% of the total fish catch was caught from dugout canoes, in 1982 83% of the total catch was caught from dugout canoes. The number of dugout canoes has remained approximately the same over the last twenty years (8,700) while the number of motorized canoes has increased (from 1,700 in 1961 to 7,600 in 1970). The number of motorized fishing vessels has also increased, although dugout wood canoes still remain the most common boats. The tables also include some production statistics for palm kernel, shea nut, copra and cola nut.
135. FAO. 1986. Some medicinal forest plants of Africa and Latin America. FAO Forestry Paper No. 67, FAO, Rome, Italy.
Presents monographs of 40 species of trees and shrubs used as medicines. Includes information on the botany, silviculture, ecological distribution, chemical properties, pharmaceutical and traditional uses for each species. A bibliography for each species is included.
136. Faure, J. and Vivien, J. 1980. Intérêt de toutes les ressources ligneuses et non-ligneuses tirées de la foret par les populations locales. Etude 3. Etude préparée pour le Société SEDA (Yaoundé) sur l’aménagement des forets littorales de Campo et Edea, Cameroun (unpublished). (Study prepared for SEDA, a consulting firm as part of a larger study on the development potential of the Littoral region and its forest management.)
An excellent study on the local use of forest resources in eight rural villages and a pygmy settlement. The study examines the uses of a gamut of resources including fuelwood, house construction supplies, foods, medicines (particularly those commonly used by villagers without healer assistance) and other vegetative products, aquatic and terrestrial animals. It also assesses the zones of harvest or gathering for various forest products. The paper notes that the distances traveled in search of medicines and wild game were considerable (more than 20 km). The paper includes an estimate of the quantities of wood used for fuel and house construction.In all surveyed villages people hunted and fished for home consumption. In some villages wild game was found on the market. The authors note that bushmeat and fish provided the only regular source of meat to households in the region.
In a village where access to forest resources had recently been taken away, the numbers of species identified by villagers as essential far outnumbered those identified in other villages. The authors argue that as village access to forest resources has declined, awareness of what is(was) used and depended upon has heightened (see Section 1.2, conclusion).
137. Federal Department of Forestry (Nigeria). 1987. Wildlife utilization and wildlife values in Nigeria. Paper presented at the International Symposium and Conference: Wildlife Management in Sub-Saharan Africa, Harare, Zimbabwe, 6-13 October. Sponsored by FAO and the International Council for Game and Wildlife Conservation.
In Nigeria, wildlife is most used and valued as food in some communities it also features in traditional religious and customary ceremonies. This paper reviews the importance of bushmeat (listing the important food species) and discusses current trends in price and consumption patterns. The ever growing demand for bushmeat in urban areas and the dwindling supply throughout the country (caused by changes in land use and over-exploitation) have caused great increases in bushmeat prices in the last few years (especially in urban markets). In some regions the price has increased as much as 400%. In many areas it has become a luxury item. Farmers generally sell what they catch to wholesale traders or on the roadside. Only what is not sold, or what is left from dressing the carcass is consumed by the rural poor. The bushmeat trade is highly specialised in most areas. This report presents data on bushmeat consumption from the 1960’s.
138. Ferry, G. 1974. L’univers végétal dans les contes Tenda (Senegal). In Calame-Griaule, G. (ed.). Le thème de l’arbre dans les contes III, SELAF (Société d’Etude Linguistiques et Anthropologiques de France) 42-43:21-37, SELAF, Paris, France.
This paper examines the plants which feature in myths and stories in Tenda (southern Senegal) tradition. It includes a description of over 300 species. It compares the common day to day use of plants with their symbolic role in myths and stories.