L. Lauzon
Lyne Lauzon is a freelance journalist.
Note: This article was originally published in Forêt Conservation, 57(3)
An examination of the challenges in managing Canadian boreal forests to meet the needs of indigenous populations.
Scarifying works on the Cree Reservation of Mistassini
It is impossible to think that the Amerindians, the earliest inhabitants of Quebec, managed to survive without exploiting the resources of this vast province, with its extensive lakes and forests. Does this mean that they were felling trees and selling wood before the arrival of the white colonizers? No, but for the indigenous population the forest was a way of life. They held it in such high esteem and so close to their hearts that it constituted the very source of their culture and spirituality.
It was only between 1950 and 1960 (more than 400 years after the land had been conquered by Europeans) that a number of indigenous Canadian communities chose to benefit from the forest industry developed by the white settlers and began to supply companies such as Consolidated Bathurst (today, Stone-Consolidated) or CIP (Produits Forestiers Canadiens Pacifique). "Our work at the time was to fell approximately 17000 m3 annually within our reservation", recounts Jean-Marie (Jack) Picard, economic development director for the Betsiamites Indian Reservation (Montagnais) on the north coast and vice chairman of the Betsiamites Forestry Management and Development Corporation (Société d'aménagement et de développement forestier). Mr Picard goes on to say that "the Amerindians did a little of the logging themselves but, because of insufficient labour and money to buy the necessary machinery, we had to call in people from outside the reservation for this work".
Unionization
As the years went by, the Amerindians' work produced a good income, even if operations were generally small-scale. With the returns from logging, some communities established their own small sawmills. In the 1970s, forest industry in Canada was unionized. While this was a blessing for some, it was disastrous for others, especially the Amerindians. "With unionization," explains Marcel Boivin, chief of the Weymontachie Reservation in the north of La Tuque, "companies required greater output from the workers. Not only did more have to be produced but production also had to be more regular."
These new requirements were very restrictive for the Amerindian population, as tree-felling had been, and still is, only one of their many activities. The amount of time dedicated to any one activity was determined by the season. "Toward the end of the summer," explains the Atikamekw chief, "the men would sometimes stop logging to pick blueberries, which was often quite remunerative and was an activity in which the whole family could participate. In the autumn and winter, some acted as guides for hunters, after which they went trapping."
Such a way of life was not so easy with the advent of unionization and the introduction of salary scales based, in part, on length of service. "If Indians left their job to carry out their other activities, they were penalized when they returned. It was at this point that the break occurred, when the communities began to abandon forestry work and heavy machinery set in. Since then we have withdrawn from logging and have merely witnessed from the sidelines the spectacle before us: the total destruction of the land."
As is the case with most of the other Amerindian communities, the Betsiamites Montagnais have also suffered considerably from unionization. However, rather than withdrawing like the Atikamekw, they have tried a number of alternatives: individual work; group work, sometimes under the guidance of the tribe council; work with and without formal plans; and so on, but it seems that nothing succeeded. The Amerindians were constantly in debt.
Forest Management Programme for Indian Lands
When the Federal Government proposed an assistance programme in 1985, the offer was seen as a ray of hope and accepted with a degree of relief.
"The Amerindian territories," observes Canadian Minister of Forests Frank Oberle, "are under Canadian jurisdiction, so it is our duty to help the Amerindians, and to help them establish management systems that enhance their social and economic conditions. That's why we have set up the Forest Management Programme for Indian Lands (PAFTI) under the joint administration of our ministry and the Quebec Ministry of Energy and Resources." This programme aims to assist the Amerindians in deriving greater benefits from their forest resources by helping them conduct a forest inventory; suggesting management plans; and facilitating the implementation of appropriate forest activities.
Sixteen indigenous communities have been involved in the PAFTI for five years, some with considerable enthusiasm. However, there have also been problems: "We had to submit a development plan to participate in the programme," explains Mr Picard, "and to do this we had to hire a consultant, but our plan was turned down. Forestry Canada presented us with its own plan a year later and, though certain criteria or felling sectors didn't suit us, we decided to go ahead as we couldn't afford to lose any more time."
The Betsiamites economic development director mentions another shortcoming: "To be able to undertake what was proposed to us we would have needed a sizeable training component in the programme, but this had been omitted by the ministry. It took us a year to negotiate for three of our workers to receive adequate training in appropriate forestry techniques."
Many other adjustments were subsequently needed but, all things considered, Mr Picard admits that "everything has worked out very well". The workers have even managed to beat the deadlines set out in the management work plan. At the same time, felling has continued thanks to various social programmes and the support of the Department of Indian Affairs, and 20000 m3 of wood is delivered annually to the Quebec-Ontario Company. "Logging still requires considerable financial management," confesses Mr Picard, "but things are going well."
The Mohawks
While the PAFTI has appeared in many respects a blessing for the Betsiamites Montagnais, it is strongly criticized by the Mohawks of Kahnawake and Kanesatake, two reservations to the south of Quebec which jointly administer a forest area. "The government's position," complains Joseph Norton, Kahnawake chief, "has three facets: productivity, money, marketing. It says that it also considers environmental aspects but they are always thinking of the need to log and, to justify this, they say that logging and conservation can go hand in hand. But this is hard for us to believe, given what has happened over the past 30 years."
Quebec Minister of Forests Albert Côté admits, "we have made collective mistakes in the past by not requiring companies to provide for forest restoration after their harvesting operations." There is no longer need for concern, however, according to the minister, as the new Forest Act of 1987 requires that logging companies respect forest regeneration capacity and ensure regrowth in logged areas. Mr Côté goes on to say that the companies must abide by the prescribed intervention procedures which, among other objectives, aim to ensure the conservation of wildlife habitats and to protect watercourses as far as possible. "Of course," says the minister, "we cants expect people's mentalities to change overnight. In 1989, there were 240 lawsuits against loggers failing to comply with the prescribed procedures. But people will get used to the new situation and will increasingly respect the rules."
The Atikamekw Reservation at Weymontachie - most of the Amerindian reservations are in forest areas
A narrow vision
The minister's words are meant to reassure but, according to most of the Amerindian communities, they also testify to an overly restricted or, at least, restricting vision. "With a little hindsight," claims Marcel Boivin of Weymontachie, "we realize that the federal programme only proposed activities aimed at providing fibre for the processing plants, i.e. for the forest industry. Although we do not categorically oppose progress, there is no doubt that it does not fully fit in with our ways of thinking and living."
Tsuga canadensis (Eastern hemlock)
For the indigenous population the forests are above all a way of life
By way of illustration, the Atikamekw chief explains that a contract drawn up under the PAFTI last year involved the replacement of broad-leaved species by conifers. "Yet broad-leaved species are as important as conifers," says Mr Boivin. "They are the habitat for the beaver, ruffed grouse, hare and American moose which make up the bulk of the Amerindian diet. And when the indigenous population need to make snowshoes or need fuelwood, they use birch. For them it is therefore absolutely vital to avoid conifer monoculture and, instead, focus on multipurpose forest use.
Multipurpose use would appear to be possible despite the somewhat limited Amerindian land area. At least this is the case in Betsiamites, where all or part of a felling plan can be changed to avoid damaging a sector that is important to community hunters, fishermen and gatherers. The accessible production forest area amounts to some 19000 ha.
But production forestry is not an easy task, as the forest profile changes considerably. For their part, the Atikamekws only have 4400 ha of accessible production forest, and are currently examining the matter. What they would like to do is to reconcile logging with traditional forestry activities as far as possible. In other words, they would like to manage their resources in an integrated manner. They know that this will require considerable effort as such a concept calls for a complete revamping of the established system.
In this connection, Chief Boivin of Weymontachie points out that even Law 150 (Forest Act) is not fully satisfactory: "For example, to avoid disturbing the beavers, the procedural guidelines recommend that nothing be felled within 20 m of a lodge, but it's the area around the lake that needs to be protected because the beaver doesn't just stay near its lodge. And it is not enough to set aside four ha out of 100 ha for the moose. Other factors need to be considered, such as terrain, the natural environment and the availability of vegetation.
"Currently, there is no expertise in integrated resource management. A number of groups are interested or involved in this area but each is working in isolation - acting as independent units without overall guidance and in competition with each other."
Yet the indigenous population remains optimistic for, at least on the Federal side, they perceive an opening: "a willingness to focus more on the multipurpose use of forest lands". The problem now is to find the biologists, environmentalists and foresters capable of understanding this Amerindian perception and putting it into practice. "It's not easy," comments Chief Boivin. "These people have been trained at school and university while we Indians have learnt on the land."
