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2.3. Phases in campaign planning*

Phases in campaign planning*

* This section is largely taken from Chapter 4 of R. Adhikarya's book Motivating Farmers for Action (1987) published by GTZ, Eschborn, Germany. While some of the illustrations in this Chapter are not agriculture-related, they represent clear examples of important processes/principles which can be applied in agriculture extension campaigns.

Phase-1: Technology & problems identification and information needs assessment

The planning of a comprehensive extension campaign strategy requires an adequate and accurate set of baseline data including information on recommended technology(ies), identified problems, and information needs. Many types of baseline data need to be collected and analysed. Without such information, a feasible, efficient and cost-effective extension campaign cannot be planned and developed properly. In particular, such information is critical for formulating campaign objectives, developing strategies, selecting and prioritizing extension/educational contents, positioning and designing messages, and evaluating the effectiveness of campaign activities.

Extension planners and practitioners are often forced to make programming or management decisions guided mainly by assumptions or personal experience which might be invalid, and could waste programme resources. Such counter-productive decisions may stem from inadequate planning and/or lack of baseline data and other relevant "feed-forward" information (i.e., data about target beneficiaries' problems, needs or interests on which campaign messages should focus).

(r) KAP survey: a tool for participatory strategic planning and evaluation

As the Strategic Extension Campaign (SEC) method follows a participatory and demand-driven or needs-based approach, target beneficiaries need to be consulted in the process of identifying problems and/or needs regarding their requirements or acceptability of a given technology. A suggested procedure for conducting a participatory assessment of problems and needs is through a baseline survey of target beneficiaries' Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice (KAP) on specific and critical elements of a recommended technology. Unlike other baseline surveys which are often macro in scope and exploratory in orientation, KAP survey is problem-solving oriented and it operates at a micro-level, with a focus on determining at least three distinct conceptual categories: knowledge, attitudes and practice levels of target audiences vis-a-vis the critical elements of a given technology recommendation. The KAP survey also seeks qualitative information from respondents through focus group interviews (FGI), such as on the reasons or causes of their negative attitudes and non-adoption or inappropriate practice with regard to the recommended technologies. Information provided by KAP surveys is very useful, especially for campaign objectives or goals formulation and strategy development as described in the discussion on Phases 2 and 3 of campaign planning.

In many developing countries, extension resources (i.e., funds, facilities, staff, and time) are limited and thus the effective and efficient use of such resources is imperative. A strategic planning approach can help in identifying critical extension/education intervention areas which are important and likely to create a significant impact. Results of a KAP survey can be utilized to analyze which specific elements of the technology package are not known to the majority of target beneficiaries, what are the reasons for their negative attitudes, how and why they have practiced recommended technologies inappropriately, etc. Therefore, in most instances, it is unnecessary to provide all target beneficiaries with a complete set of technology recommendations as some of them may already have known, agreed with, and/or acted on, the necessary information. Problem-solving and strategic extension planning basically follows the principle of "start with what they know, and build on what they have".

KAP survey results can also be utilized for audience analysis and segmentation purposes to determine who needs which types of information/messages through what combination of multi-media materials and channels. In addition relevant findings from surveys on media consumption patterns and habits, media availability and reach, and other socio-psychological and anthropological research studies are useful inputs to the exercise of extension strategy planning and message development.

Likewise, a meaningful evaluation of extension campaign activities is dependent on the availability of baseline data such as those obtained through a KAP survey. It is very difficult to make any summative evaluation judgement if there is no basis for comparison (e.g. pre-test vs. post-test measures; control vs. treatment groups). Baseline data can provide the necessary benchmark for comparison of impact or summative evaluation. Even for formative evaluation, availability of baseline data can help in testing and improving campaign process including the soundness of its strategies, and the appropriateness of its messages and multi-media materials as perceived by the target beneficiaries.

Baseline data collection is usually associated with a research activity. The word "research" is often viewed negatively by many programme planners, project managers/administrators, and decision-makers because it is perceived as an undertaking that requires a lot of money, time and specialized personnel. This perception is incorrect as what is needed is an "applied-oriented" or "problem-solving oriented" survey for programme or strategy decision-making rather than pure or experimental research for theory- or hypothesis-testing. A KAP survey is basically a "quick and cheap" way of consulting target beneficiaries and requesting them to provide information on certain trends or an indication of specific directions regarding their problems and information needs rather than elaborate research findings with statistical tests of significance, etc. As described later, most strategic extension campaign programmes which utilized baseline data effectively spent relatively little of their resources or time in acquiring the necessary data or information.

(r) KAP survey: examples of results utilization

As shown in Fig. 2-5 (see page 40), the audience's KAP level can be used as a basis to consider, in general or broad terms, the type and direction of an extension campaign strategy. While the specifics and details of the strategy still need to be developed further using other types of information and data, the KAP survey is an essential first step in providing information for the logic and rationale for campaign planning and strategy development. For a brief overview on how KAP survey findings have been used in the formulation of specific campaign objectives and in message positioning, design and development, some sample worksheets of a planning exercise of a rat control campaign for the State of Penang, Malaysia, have been included in the following pages. The campaign planning exercise was part of the workshop activities conducted by the author for the FAO Intercountry Programme for Integrated Pest Control in Rice in South and Southeast Asia and the Department of Agriculture, Government of Malaysia, in 1985.

Identified Problems in Rat Control in Penang, Malaysia
Based on findings of a KAP survey of farmers in Penang State

Source: R. Adhikarya (1985) "Planning and Development of Rat Control Campaign Objectives and Strategies for the State of Penang, Malaysia".

Note: KAP refers to knowledge, attitudes and practice of the target audience.

Specific and Measurable Campaign Objectives for Rat Control Campaign in Penang State, Malaysia

Source: Adapted from R. Adhikarya (1985)

Example of a Worksheet for: Extension Planning and Strategy Development Process Exercise

Source: Adapted from R. Adhikarya (1985)

Example of a Worksheet for: Message Design Process Exercise

Source: Adapted from R. Adhikarya (1985)

Phase 2: Campaign objectives formulation

In order to be effective, strategic extension campaign should be an integral part of a given agricultural extension system or programme and its function should be to support such extension activities. The specific campaign objectives should reflect the extension system or programme goals, respond to the needs of the programme and its target audience and help in solving the problems encountered in achieving such goals. It should be pointed out, however, that strategic extension campaign objectives are not necessarily the same as the agricultural extension system or programme goals which are expected to be the ultimate results of the whole extension undertaking. The achievement of the campaign objectives is a necessary, but not a sufficient, condition for achieving extension system or programme goals.

An extension programme goal should be explicit in specifying what is to be accomplished. For instance, the following two inadequate goal statements give only the general or operational elements to be achieved:

"To provide irrigation for rural people".
"To drill 4,000 ring wells and 2,000 tube wells by August 1994".

Those descriptions of goals can be made more comprehensive and specific, as well as made to reflect the actual scope of the programme, as follows:

"To increase the number of small farmers in districts X, Y and Z using water from the wells to irrigate their farmland from the present 100,000 to 175,000 small farmers within two years".

With such a goal, the extension programme could not be considered successful if it had only drilled 4,000 new ring wells and 2,000 new tube wells within two years although such an operation or activity was important and essential. It might well be that the water from the wells could not be used for irrigating farmers' land but, perhaps only for household purposes, or not at all. Even when the water might serve irrigation purposes, perhaps it would be mostly the large farmers who were using it rather than small farmers.

The ultimate goal of the above programme or project is not only to drill new wells but to persuade small farmers to utilize water from the wells in irrigating their farmland. Since a campaign activity is an important support component of the extension programme, the chances for success in meeting the programme goal are increased if the campaign objectives of the programme or project are accomplished.

It is thus also useful and important to distinguish extension campaign objectives from the broader extension programme objectives. Strategic extension campaign objectives are usually very specific and aimed at increasing knowledge, influencing attitudes, and/or changing practices (or behaviour) of intended beneficiaries with regard to a particular action recommendation or technology.

Campaign objectives should specify some important elements or characteristics of the extension activities which could help to provide a clear operational direction, and facilitate a meaningful evaluation of the campaign. Some of those elements are, at least, the following:

It should also be pointed out that if the time frame and/or location of target beneficiaries are not explicitly mentioned in a extension campaign objective, it is usually understood that they follow the time-frame or duration and the target location/area of the campaign itself.

In the case of the above-mentioned irrigation programme, examples of strategic extension campaign objectives which would help in achieving general extension programme goals could include the following:

It should be noted that campaign objective (d) above is very similar to the stated extension programme goal. While this objective may be considered and included as one of the campaign objectives, it should be realised that the accomplishment of this objective is not entirely dependent on effective campaign strategies or activities. There are other "non-extension" factors which might influence the accomplishment of this objective, such as availability of inputs or funds, type of seeds utilized and land conditions. A campaign is only one of the many factors which can contribute to the successful achievement of a programme or project.

Phase 3: Strategy development and information positioning

A systematic and strategic campaign plan is essential to the efficient achievement of campaign objectives. The first step in a strategic extension campaign (SEC) planning exercise is to identify clearly the problems which may impede or obstruct adoption of the suggested idea, innovation or technology. Data from baseline/KAP surveys, including problem identification and needs assessments results should be analysed carefully. The central issue(s) or problem(s) which might impede progress in achieving the extension goal should be identified. The following two actual cases illustrate the importance of problem identification and analysis:

In a coconut replanting and rehabilitation programme in one South-East Asian country, it was discovered during the planning analysis phase that many coconut farmers were not adopting the recommended new and improved MAWA seed (a hybrid of yellow Malaysian Dwarf and West African Tall species of coconuts). Their unresponsiveness was initially the main concern of the extension activity. It was found that a large number of coconut farmers were already well-informed about this type of seed and they were favourably disposed towards using it. However, many coconut farmers reported that they felt there was no need to increase their coconut yields because the price of copra was very low. After further study and analysis, it was found that the low copra price was attributed to the poor copra quality, which was due to the ineffective method of drying the coconut. Thus, one of the main emphases of the campaign on this coconut replanting and rehabilitation programme should have been on informing or educating coconut farmers on new or improved coconut-drying techniques and methods rather than on promoting the improved MAWA seeds. If such appropriate (i.e. simple and inexpensive) technology for effective coconut drying is not available, then it is also the task of extension planners to sensitize and encourage researchers, technicians, decision-makers or administrators involved in coconut production to resolve that problem. Thus the target audience of extension campaign activities do not always have to be the "farmers" or "rural" population; when necessary, they can also include the "big bosses".

In one South Asian country, a programme of voluntary female sterilization (ligation) was launched. Before a systematic baseline/KAP survey was conducted almost all of the programme's decision-makers, planners and managers thought (or assumed) that the main problem of the programme was that most couples, especially the husbands, were afraid that their sex-life might be affected after sterilization. However, KAP survey results revealed that the programme organizers' perception of the problem was incorrect. Almost two-thirds of the respondents reported that the main reason for not having sterilization was due to their "fear of operation" (the first-ranking reason) and only 26.5 percent cited "sex-life might be affected after the operation" (ranking fourth). Had the KAP survey not been conducted, the programme thrust in terms of campaign strategy and message positioning would have been mainly on counter-attacking "the negative effects on sex-life" rather than the "fear of operation" issue.

The foregoing two simple illustrations, and also the examples provided earlier on the planning process of the rat control campaign in Malaysia, indicate the need to analyse and identify specific and main issue(s) or problem(s) which an extension programme has to resolve. Once such problems have been identified, specific campaign strategies need to be developed to solve each of the problems encountered by the programme. Figure 2-5 provides simplified guidelines on how to determine the general campaign strategy direction and/or priority on the basis of KAP survey findings. These general strategies need to be made more specific in Phases 4, 5 and 6 of the campaign planning process, which is discussed in greater detail later. It should be mentioned that the general and simplified guidelines should not be applied rigidly in all situations. Rather, it should be utilized as a tool to conceptualize and systematize a campaign planning and strategy development process.

FIGURE 2-5 General and Simplified Guidelines on Utilizing Results of Knowledge, Attitude and Practice (KAP) Survey for Planning and Development of Extension Campaign Strategies.

Source: Adhikarya, (1985).

Note: The classification of KAP levels (high, medium, low) depends on the type of innovation/idea promoted, size of population, cost/effort required, etc. It's a rather arbitrary judgement as to what criteria to use to classify these levels, but normally low level is 0-30%, medium level is 31-60%, and high level is above 60% for knowledge or attitude, and 0-20% (low), 21-40% (medium), and 40% (high) for practice.

Phase 4: Audience analysis and segmentation

One of the most important elements in a campaign is the target audience or beneficiaries: who they are, where they are located, why they are chosen as target beneficiaries and what information contents or messages should be communicated to them. Analysis of a target audience is an integral part of designing and planning a campaign strategy. In such an analysis, certain types of information or data are needed; for instance, the size and location of the target audience, their socio-economic profile (including age group, income, occupation, education, among other data) and their socio-cultural profile (including religion, language, family life patterns, traditional belief systems, norms, values, information sources, communication and interaction practices, among others). Characteristics, interests and information needs of the target audience might be different, so audience segmentation into several different target groupings is usually necessary. For each target group, a specific campaign strategy may be required. In this phase, it is also important to prioritize the target beneficiaries as to which group(s) should be reached first or be given the most intensive campaign treatment.

Tables 2-6 and 2-7 are examples of the results of a KAP survey on weed management conducted in 1988 among farmers in Malaysia's Muda Agricultural Development Authority (MADA). Based on these data, useful strategies for campaign planning, including priority target group, location, type/nature of information needed, etc. can be developed. Table 2-6 revealed that most farmers surveyed did not use the correct amount of Arrosolo, while among those farmers using Rumputox only about half of them applied the recommended amount. In the use of Ronstar, about 81 percent of farmers who were located in Districts III and IV of the MADA scheme used the correct amount, while the majority (84.4 percent) of those in Districts I and II did not use the recommended amount. If one follows a strategic planning principle, one possible option is to concentrate the SEC activities on providing information, motivation and education to farmers in all districts on the correct amount of Arrosolo use, and the correct amount of Ronstar use only to farmers in Districts I and II.

TABLE 2-6

Amount of herbicide applied by farmers in the Muda irrigation scheme, Malaysia (1988)

* the correct/recommended amount
** For Ronstar, we use simulated data for illustration only

Source: R. Mohamed and Y. L. Khor, "Survey Report of Farmers' Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice (KAP) on Weed Management in the Muda Agricultural Development Authority (MADA)", Malaysia (March 1988).

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