There are a number of species producing edible
nuts that are relatively little known and appear to have a potential for
development. From past experience, an in-depth investigation of a species
requires a minimum of one month's work spread over several months in order
to allow time for exchange of correspondence, obtain obscure literature
references, etc.; laboratory investigations are not included in this estimate
(Lucas and Wickens, 1988). The discussion that follows on potential nut
species will therefore be confined to the limited literature available
and bearing in mind that the primary sources have not been consulted.
The Bambara and Hausa groundnuts, Macrotyloma geocarpum and Vigna subterranea, although being classified with the groundnut, Arachis hypogea, as nut-bearing plants are not further considered here since they are regarded as agricultural crops and their development lies with agronomists and not silviculturalists. However, they are entered in Appendix A.
The trees and shrubs bearing edible nuts listed
below are provisionally considered worthy of further investigation. The
selection is somewhat arbitrary and is initially based on the available
data presented in Appendix A. Doubtless further investigation could reveal
additional and possibly more suitable species.
| marula or maroela | Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra, Anacardiaceae |
| Guyana or Malabar chestnuts or saba nuts | Pachira aquatica, Bombacaceae |
| Java almond, kanari or galip nut | Canarium indicum, Burseraceae |
| pequí; piquí or piquia-oil plant | Caryocar brasiliense, Caryocaraceae |
| castanha de galinha | Couepia longipedula, Chrysobalanaceae |
| Indian or tropical almond | Terminalia catappa, Combretaceae |
| okari nut | Terminalia kaernbachii, Combretaceae |
| cacay, inchi, tacay, taccy, nogal, etc., nuts | Caryodendron orinocense, Euphorbiaceae |
| cream, paradise or sapucaia nut | Lecythis pisonis, Lecythidaceae |
| yicib, ye-eb or yeheb | Cordeauxia edulis, Leguminosae |
| tara | Lemuropisum edule, Leguminosae |
| galo or promising nut | Anacolosa frutescens, Olacaceae: |
| avellano or Chilean nut or hazel | Gevuina avellana, Proteaceae |
| quandong or native peach | Santalum acuminata, Santalaceae |
| argan | Argania spinosa, Sapotaceae: |
| shea butter tree | Vitellaria paradoxa, Sapotaceae |
| bitter cola, kola nut | Cola nitida, Sterculiaceae |
| sugar plum, areng palm, ejow, gomuti, kaong | Arenga pinnata, Palmae |
| tucumá | Astrocaryum vulgare, Palmae |
| peach plum, palm chestnuts, pupunha, etc. | Bactris gasipaes, Palmae |
| babassu, babacu palm or aguassú | Orbignya phalerata, Palmae |
Angola, Zaire and Kenya to Namibia, Transvaal
and Natal, also in Madagascar. Mixed deciduous woodland and wooded grassland
(Kokwaro, 1986).
Dioecious, deciduous tree to 18 m. Leaves
alternate, imparipinnate, leaflets 7-13(-17). Inflorescence appearing before
the leaves. Fruit an obovoid drupe 3.5 cm long, 3-3.5 cm in diameter, yellow,
with strong odour when ripe; mesocarp very juicy; stone obovoid, 2-3 cm
long, 2.5 cm in diameter, hard; seeds (1-)3(-4), 1.5-2 cm long, 0.4-0.8
cm wide (Arnold et al., 1985; Kokwaro, 1986).
Seeds soaked overnight prior to sowing. Propagated
by seedlings and cuttings, gregarious root suckering (von Maydell, 1986
re subsp. birrea). Trees set fruit after 3 years in Israel (Cherfas,
1989).
A single female tree can yield 2 100-9 100
fruits in a season, fruits falling while still green and ripening on the
ground (Arnold et al., 1985).
Fruits cannot be stored for more than a week,
they bruise easily and therefore are difficult to transport. The Venda
mix the kernels with lean meat, shape into cakes and dry for storage (FAO,
1988).
Fruit skin is hard and bitter, flesh has a
turpentine-mango flavour although flavour is reported to vary from tree
to tree, some sweet, some dry, others aromatic; flesh is eaten fresh or
dry, made into jams and jellies; it is source of an alcoholic beverage,
also non-alcoholic fruit juices; the juice sometimes thick and grainy,
others more liquid depending on the fruit; the juice is often source of
80% of the vitamin C in the local diet; kernels difficult to extract, with
hazel-like flavour, eaten; seed oil expressed and used by the Venda to
preserve meat for up to a year; fermented fruit liked by elephants (Menninger,
1977; Arnold
et al. 1985; Cherfas, 1989).
Subsp. birrea from northern tropical Africa
bears fruits which are similarly utilized. Unripe kernels reported to be
milky and have flavour of groundnuts (Menninger, 1977).
Kernels are highly nutritious, with 28.3%
protein, 57.3% oil, high in minerals, especially magnesium, iron, copper,
zinc and phosphorus, with 462, 4.87, 2.81, 5.19 and 808 mg per 100 g respectively
and an energy value of 2 703 kJ per 100 g (Arnold et al., 1985).
Timber is soft, coarse grained, not very durable,
used for pestles and mortars, bowls, furniture, saddles and carvings; bark
is a source of fibre, gum exudate is mixed with soot for a black ink. The
species is grown for shade and as an ornamental tree (FAO, 1988).
Sold in the local markets.
A high-yielding tree with nutritious fruit,
but the small kernel and the difficult extraction from the stone make it
an unlikely commercial proposition as far as the kernels are concerned,
although worthy of development for its fleshy fruits.
Probably originated in the Amazon estuary,
now widely distributed through the whole of northern South America and
the Antilles, either naturally or by man; widely cultivated in the tropics.
Occurs naturally on sparsely vegetated, marshy riverine, clay soils; also
grows well on sandy or sandy-clay soils of terra firma. Flowering and fruiting
throughout the year. Drought resistant, it tolerates a wide range of temperatures
and humidity (Menninger, 1977; FAO, 1986).
Evergreen tree up to 10(-23) m tall, trunk
25-60 (-90) cm in diameter. Leaves pedately palmate, clustered towards
the ends of branches. Flowers bisexual, solitary or 2-3, terminal. Fruit
an oblong-ellipsoid capsule, 12-30 cm long, 10-20 cm in diameter, woody,
5-valved, dehiscent; pericarp rather thick, spongy and fibrous; seeds 10-25,
globular, 1.2-3 cm in diameter (Menninger, 1977; FAO, 1986).
Grown from seed, with germination in 6-8 days
with rapid initial growth; also grows readily from truncheons. First flowers
produced in 4-5 years. Flowering and fruiting throughout the year (FAO,
1986; Arkoll and Clement, 1989).
Harvesting
Nuts may be left on the ground to dry in the sun
but must be protected from showers as they sprout readily (Menninger, 1977).
No information.
Only the seeds are edible, chestnut-flavoured;
eaten raw, roasted or fried in oil; after roasting, seeds taste like cocoa
and are sometimes used for the preparation of beverages. Regarded as a
useful supplement to the diet in many regions. Seeds yield 58% of a white,
inodorous fat which, when refined, is suitable for cooking (Kedrick, 1972;
Menninger, 1977; Burkill, 1985; FAO, 1986; Mabberley, 1987; Arkoll and
Clement, 1989).
Seed contains 9% water, 10% starch, 16% protein
and 40-50% fat; the yellow fat possesses physical and chemical characteristics
resembling those of palm oil but containing toxic and possibly carcinogenic
cyclopropenic fatty acids (Burkill, 1985; Arkoll and Clement, 1989).
Seed oil with industrial potential for manufacturing
soap. Young leaves and flowers are eaten as a vegetable. Wood is white
and soft, suitable for manufacturing paper, yielding 36% cellulose paste.
Bark is used for caulking boats and cordage and yields a dark red dye.
Bark is also used medicinally to treat stomach complaints and headaches
while a tisane from the boiled bark is used for blood tonic. Suitable for
live fence posts and street trees, it is also planted as an ornamental
species (Hedrick, 1972; FAO, 1986; Arkoll and Clement, 1989; Barrett, 1994).
No information, presumably traded locally.
A potentially useful, easily cultivated tree
producing big fruits containing large quantities of nuts. However, toxicological
studies will be required before this species can be recommended for wider
distribution and use. Indeed, such studies are required for all new food
plants.
Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands
and surrounding islands; often cultivated in Melanesia and elsewhere in
the tropics, especially Java. Naturally found in low altitude rain forests,
but cultivated up to 600 m (Howes, 1948; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Tall, buttressed, deciduous tree to 40 m tall.
Leaves with 3-7 pairs of leaflets, leaflets oblong-ovate to oblong-lanceolate,
5.5-28 cm x 2-11 cm, herbaceous to coriaceous, base oblique to broadly
cuneate, apex bluntly acuminate. Inflorescence terminal, laxly paniculate.
Drupe ovoid, slightly triangular in cross section, 3-6 cm x 2-3 cm, green,
turning black when ripe; endocarp hard, thin and brittle, ca. 3
g, seeds 3 or 1 by abortion in cultivated trees. (Howes, 1948; Leenhouts,
1956; Verheij and Coronel, 1991; Macrae et al., 1993).
Propagated by seed. Asexual reproduction by
patch-budding, as recommended for C. ovatum should also be tried
(see under Minor nuts).
In Moluccas leaves shed when fruit ripe and
bunches of fruit then clearly visible. Trees climbed and fruit beaten down
with sticks (Howes, 1948).
Treatment presumed to be as described for
C.
ovatum (see under Minor nuts). Pulp is removed by hand after soaking
in water for 2-3 days, less if water heated to 40-50°
C. Nuts are thoroughly washed, any floating nuts are discarded. Nuts are
sun-dried and bagged for storage. Kernels are extracted by hand, washed
in warm water to loosen the testa before removal by hand.
After removal of testa the oily "pili" nuts
(seeds) eaten raw or roasted, may be used as an almond substitute, eaten
in Sri Lanka as a dessert nut, made into bread in the Celebes, highly esteemed
in Melanesia where several races are cultivated; a strained emulsion of
crushed, well-ripened seeds may be used as milk substitute for infants.
Seed oil is used as a substitute for and usually preferred to coconut oil
for cooking; fresh seed oil mixed with food (Howes, 1948; Leenhauts, 1956;
Hedrick, 1972; Menninger, 1977; Verheij and Coronel, 1991; Macrae et
al., 1993).
Nut contains 70-80% oil, 13% protein, 7% starch
(Howes, 1948; Macrae et al., 1993).
Shells are used for carvings. Seed oil also
used as an illuminant. Wood is soft, mainly used for firewood, also for
canoes. Grown as a shade tree, especially for nutmeg groves, roadside or
street tree (Howes, 1948; Leenhauts, 1956; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Nuts do not keep well, consequently not suitable
as an export crop.
Highly esteemed for food in Melanesia (Verheij
and Coronel, 1991). If the nut production is to be expanded in Southeast
Asia, there is a need to develop mechanization for nut extraction in addition
to selecting elite trees.
Brazil, extending westwards from the state
of Maranhão to Bolivia, eastern Paraguay to northern Argentina,
it forms pure groves in the plateaux and valleys of the cerrado, elsewhere
usually scattered individuals. Adapted to nutrient poor, heavy clays, especially
iron and aluminium rich soils in areas with an annual rainfall of 1 000-1
500 mm and 3-5 months dry season with a relative humidity as low as 13%
(FAO, 1986; Dantas de Araujo, 1995).
A twisted, small tree or shrub or suffrutex
to
ca. 10 m tall, trunk ca. 30 cm in diameter and a deep
taproot; crown spreading, to 10 m in diameter. Leaves 3-foliate, leaflets
elliptic-ovate, up to 18 cm x 12 cm, apex and base rounded. Inflorescence
a terminal raceme. Fruit irregularly ovoid-globose, 4-5 cm in diameter,
usually 1-locular, 4-5 cm in diameter, occasionally 2-locular and larger;
exocarp more or less smooth; pericarp thick, fleshy and ± attached
to the mesocarp, the mesocarp and endocarp enveloping the seed to form
an oval stone ca. 2.5-3 cm in diameter; mesocarp surface smooth,
interior with thin, hard, woody, endocarp spines up to 23 cm long; kernel
white, oily (FAO, 1986; Dantas de Araujo, 1995).
Seeds may take one year to germinate; stratification
of the endocarp with mesocarp removed is recommended. Good results obtained
from grafting and marcottage. Irrigation in the nursery essential. Seedlings
can be planted out when 25 cm tall. Growth is slow but the trees show good
response from irrigation and fertilizers. After 5 years non-irrigated plants
are 25 cm tall while irrigated plants may attain 3 m (FAO, 1986; Dantas
de Araujo, 1995).
Despite their accessibility, the difficulty
in determining the ripeness of the fruit results in fallen fruit being
usually gathered. Large trees may yield up 2 000 fruit (FAO, 1986; Dantas
de Araujo, 1995).
No information.
The oily, mucilaginous fruit is nutritious,
eaten as a famine food. Mesocarp is oily, sweet but acquired taste, eaten,
mainly used as a flavouring, laxative; source of an edible oil, used to
flavour the alcoholic liqueur, lico de piquí; kernel rarely eaten
because of endocarp spines; source of an edible oil mainly used for flavouring
(Hedrick, 1972; Menninger, 1977; FAO, 1986; Clay and Clement, 1993; Dantas
de Araujo, 1995).
No information regarding nutritional value
of the kernels. Mesocarp contains 81% water, 2.7% protein, 8% fats and
oils (dry pulp ca. 42% oil), 1% ash, 6.7% carbohydrates; 120 mcg
carotene, also rich in vitamin C, thiamin, riboflavin and niacin (FAO,
1986).
Kernel oil used in the cosmetic industry and
locally for making soap, as an illuminant, lubricant. Wood used for construction,
wooden machinery parts, furniture, fences, fuelwood and charcoal. Flowers,
fruits and seeds used in local medicine. Leaves, bark and fruit pulp a
tannin source. Tree grown as an ornamental (FAO, 1986; Dantas de Araujo,
1995).
Sold in the local markets for local oil and
soap making (Dantas de Araujo, 1995).
Currently being over-exploited due to an increase
in restaurants serving regional food and small-scale oil production industries.
Potential as an oil crop for the drier regions of the world, being well-adapted
to nutrient poor soils and long dry seasons. Local demand will have to
be met by developing plantations of improved stock, better management of
wild stock, including possible improvement by grafting from elite trees.
There is a need for improved germplasm for larger fruit, higher oil yields.
The high melting point of the kernel oil may have a potential as a cocoa
butter substitute (FAO, 1986; Dantas de Araujo, 1995).
Occurs throughout central and western Amazonia
and the western Guiana shield. Adapted to heavy, infertile, clay oxisols
of lowland rainforests, also occurring in periodically inundated, low lying
areas (FAO, 1986; Clay and Clement, 1993; Prance, 1972, 1994).
Large tree to 30 m or more high, trunk up
to 1.8 m in diameter. Leaves simple, oblong elliptic to lanceolate, up
to 16 cm long and 7.5 cm wide. Inflorescence of pendulous panicles of bisexual,
white flowers. Fruit obovoid to ellipsoid drupe, 4-6 cm long, 4 cm in diameter,
pubescent; epicarp peeling to reveal hard, woody, fibrous, 6 mm thick pericarp;
seed with white to light green kernel, 3 cm long, 2 cm wide, testa thin,
pubescent, surrounded by a thin membrane (FAO, 1986; Clay and Clement,
1993; Prance, 1972, 1994).
Occasionally cultivated, especially around
Manaus; more commonly protected when swidden is opened up. Seeds germinate
within weeks of falling from tree onto moist ground; viability is rapidly
lost and seeds do not store easily. Early growth is rapid, later slowing
and tree attaining 2-3 m in height when 4-5 years old and producing first
flowers. Trials are being carried out with fertilizers and shade in order
to try and overcome slow early growth (Prance, 1971; FAO, 1986; Clay and
Clement, 1993).
Fallen mature fruits must be quickly harvested
before they can germinate, rot or removed by small rodents and wild pigs;
sometimes plucked from small trees. Trees ca. 20 years old and 7
m high yield over 1 000 nuts per year, mature trees will yield over 100
kg; kernels weigh 4-7 g and represent ca. 30% of the whole nut (FAO,
1986; Clay and Clement, 1993; Prance, 1994).
Seeds (nuts) easily extracted from the mesocarp
with a knife. Dry nuts can be stored for several months but rapidly deteriorate
under moist conditions and high temperatures (FAO, 1986).
Kernels nut-like and eaten roasted or pounded
and mixed with sugar and cassava flour which has a pleasant flavour resembling
Brazil nuts and pomegranate pips when fresh, a Brazil nut-like flavour
after short storage, date-like after a few weeks if stored moist or months
if stored dry, eventually becoming rancid. Kernels also utilized by local
people to extract an oil for use in cooking; seed cake slightly sweet,
used in local pastries (FAO, 1986; Clay and Clement, 1993; Prance, 1994).
Kernels are a rich source of energy and protein,
containing 18% moisture when harvested and 75% of a light greenish-yellow
semi-drying oil that quickly turns rancid. Oil residues contain 32.5% protein,
10.6% fibre and 8% ash (FAO, 1986; Clay and Clements, 1993).
Seed oil also used for soap-making. Timber
heavy, hard and difficult to work, used for building, carpentry and roofing
tiles. Bark source of a rough fibre. Bark and pericarp extracts used in
local medicine (FAO, 1986; Prance, 1994).
Nuts collected from the wild and used in rural
areas. Surprisingly the nuts rarely found in the local markets despite
their local abundance in the forests, their high yields and popularity.
A market needs to be created (FAO, 1986; Clay and Clement, 1993).
Considered worthy of future domestication
(Prance, 1994). Possibility being investigated of growing the tree for
nuts before cutting for hardwood (FAO, 1986).
Malesia and western Pacific seashores; cultivated
and sometimes naturalized throughout the tropics and near-tropics. A gregarious
pioneer species of sand banks and shores. Salt and drought tolerant but
intolerant of wind and frost (Exell, 1954; FAO, 1982; Rosengarten, 1984;
Morton, 1985).
A deciduous or sometimes semi-evergreen tree
to 15(-25) m tall with trunk to 1.5 m in diameter, often buttressed. Leaves
alternate, obovate, 15-36 cm long, 8-24 cm wide, subcordate at the base
and usually with 2 glands, petiole short; leaves turning red before falling
and quickly replaced. Inflorescence spicate, male flowers towards the apex
with hermaphrodite flowers below; flowers greenish, apetalous. Fruit a
somewhat compressed-ellipsoid drupe, 4-7 cm long, 2.5-3.8 cm wide, prominently
keeled along the margins; epicarp thin, green turning yellow with a reddish
blush; mesocarp fleshy, 3-6 mm thick, adherent to the fibrous husk of the
hard-shelled stone containing the spindle-shaped seed; seed 3-4 cm long,
3-5 mm thick, testa very thin, brown, enveloping the coiled cotyledons
or kernel (Exell, 1954; Rosengarten, 1984; Morton, 1985).
Sweet fleshed and more palatable fruits selected
for cultivation. Seeds have good viability and germinate readily (25% germination)
when raised in nurseries. Transplanted when seedlings leafless. Fertilizers
can be beneficial. Growth rate 1 m or more in ca. 2 years (Morton,
1985).
Two crops a year possible in some areas or
even more or less continuous fruiting. A tree may yield ca. 5 kg
of kernels per year (Morton, 1985).
Fruit hard, difficult to crack, kernels extracted
by cracking the defleshed and sun-dried nuts along the keel (Menninger,
1977; Morton, 1985).
Outer flesh commonly eaten by children. Kernels
may be eaten raw or roasted, or used in cooking as an almond substitute.
Sun-dried kernels yield 38-54% of an edible, bland, yellow, semi-drying
oil known as Indian almond oil, which becomes turbid and rancid on standing
(Howes, 1948; Hedrick, 1972; Rosengarten, 1984; Morton, 1985).
Air-dried kernels contain 52.0% fat, 25.4%
protein, 14.6% fibre, 6% glucose and a small percentage of ash. Indian
almond oil contains glycerides of palmitic acid 34.4%, oleic acid 32.1%,
linoleic acid 27.5% and stearic acid 6%; it closely resembles sweet almond,
cotton seed, kapok and groundnut oils and could substitute for them for
dietetic and industrial uses (Morton, 1985).
Oilcake used as pig feed. Kernel oil used
for making soap but its industrial use is limited by the difficulty in
extracting the kernel. Oil is also used medicinally as are also the leaves
and bark. Leaves and bark astringent and variously used medicinally; leaves
also sudorific if taken internally. Bark is a source of dye; bark (25%
tannin), roots and green fruits (known as myrobalans) are used for tanning.
Timber tough and fairly hard, durable in water although not durable in
the ground, susceptible to drywood termites; used for construction, furniture,
carpentry, carts, boats, plywood and pulp. Cultivated as an ornamental
and shade tree (Exell, 1954; FAO, 1982; Rosengarten, 1984; Burkill, 1985;
Morton, 1985).
Fruit marketed locally.
A multi-purpose tree suitable for selection
and further development. If the kernel market is to expand an improved
method for defleshing the fruits and extracting the kernel needs to be
developed (Morton, 1985). The quality of the nut needs to be compared with
that of the following, T. kaernbachii.
From New Georgia in the Solomon Islands through
New Guinea to the Aru Islands of Indonesia; relatively common and frequently
cultivated tree in the lowland rain forests up to 1 000 m altitude (Coode,
1969; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Tree to 45 m with trunk up to 2.8 m in diameter,
flange-buttressed up to 3 m; crown spreading; leaves clustered at end of
branches, obovate-elliptic, narrowly obovate elliptic to obovate-oblong,
12-35 cm x 5-12 cm, base cuneate with 2 conspicuous black glands, apex
rounded to acuminate. Fruit ellipsoid, more or less laterally compressed,
6.3-18 cm x 14.5-8.2 cm x 3.3-6.3 cm, apex slightly beaked, tomentose becoming
glabrescent, plum red when ripe, slightly succulent; endocarp in cross-section
with a broad band of very hard sclerenchymatous tissue including within
it some large irregularly shaped and spaced air-chambers and a large cell
containing the kernel; kernels white, varying in size from spindle shaped,
3 cm x 1 cm to size of small hen's egg; cotyledons 3-4, wrapped around
each other (Exell, 1954; Coode, 1969; Macrae, 1993).
Easily raised from seed, but viability soon
lost; attempts to introduce seed into Hawaii failed. Because of its value
as food for the local inhabitants the species is usually excluded from
timber agreements (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Fruits picked from the trees or collected
from the ground (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
No information.
Kernels the largest known in the Combretaceae,
1.5-10 g in weight, one of the best-flavoured of the tropical nuts and
a favourite article of diet among the natives, almond flavoured, mild and
pleasant, source of ca. 50 g of a sweet, colourless, non-drying,
edible oil, considered less oily than Canarium (Exell, 1964; Coode,
1969; Menninger, 1977; Mabberley, 1987; Verheij and Corondel, 1991; Macrae
et
al., 1993). Although Macrae et al. (1993) state that it can
be eaten raw it is uncertain as to whether it may be eaten raw without
preliminary treatment as Morton (1985) states that, unlike T. catappa,
all other species of Terminalia require preliminary washing and
cooking.
Kernel contains 12.5% protein and 70% fat
(Morton, 1985).
Wood is used for furniture but not exploited
due to value of the fruit (Exell, 1954; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Marketed locally during the fruiting season
(Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
A little known species of which T. okari
is regarded as a synonym by Morton (1985). Further studies are required
regarding its value as a potential nut crop. Other species (see Appendix
1) also have edible kernels but this is said to be the best flavoured.
Morton (1985) recommends the more widely distributed and introduced T.
catappa as worthy of further development. Verheij and Coronel (1991)
consider the species has a potential as a multipurpose species, grown for
its edible kernels and ultimately for its timber.
Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador in the headwaters
of the Orinoco; plantations in Colombia and Ecuador. Thrives in areas with
temperatures ranging between 12°
C and 29° C
and 800-5 000 mm annual rainfall and occurs on a wide range of soils at
altitudes from sea level to 2 300 m. Tolerates a few months of mild drought
and withstands brief waterlogging (Reckin, 1983; FAO, 1986).
Tree to 20(-40) m tall with small, dense and
flattened crown in wild or, under cultivation, to 15 m tall with large,
rounded crown. Both monoecious and dioecious trees reported. Leaves elliptic,
ca.
25 cm long, 10 cm broad, somewhat leathery. Male flowers in terminal racemes,
female flowers in terminal panicles, wind pollinated. Fruit a dehiscent
or sometimes semidehiscent, woody capsule, 3.7-6.5 cm long, 3.2-4.5 cm
in diameter, pericarp thin and brittle, seeds 3, 3-sided (Reckin, 1983;
FAO, 1986).
Seeds should be preferably sown within 10
days of harvesting, reputed to fail to germinate after 35 days; distribution
of plants otherwise by potted seedlings or vegetative reproduction. Shade
is required in the first year, followed by full exposure to the sun on
transplanting when ca. 50 cm high at onset of the following rainy
season. Recommended spacing 610 m x 610 m; interplanting with Azadirachta
indica and Derris spp. for source of ant-repellent insecticides
is recommended (Reckin, 1983). In Colombia caterpillars are an extremely
serious pest causing complete defoliation of the trees several times in
a year (Clement and Villachica, 1994).
Plant growth is rapid, with fruiting usually in
the seventh year when trees are ca. 7 m tall, although fruiting
at 45 years has been reported. Average weight of nut is 8.5 g, attaining
12.5 g or more in superior selections. A 10 year old tree can yield 100-250
kg of nuts per annum, an old specimen has given ca. 800 kg. Potential
for an annual production of 3 500-5 000 kg of oil per ha from trees bearing
nuts with an oil content of 57% (Reckin, 1983; FAO, 1986).
Nuts ripen at the onset of the rains and either
fall or are shaken off. They tend to ripen all at once and must be gathered
quickly before they germinate, rot or are eaten by animals. A 10-year old
tree can yield 50-90 kg of capsules per tree and large trees produce over
200 kg, although yields may vary considerably from year to year. A capsule
consists of 42% seed and 29-36% edible kernel (Reckin, 1983; FAO, 1986).
Under dry conditions nuts keep for ca.
30 days in the capsule; shell damage or a moist environment can initiate
enzyme reaction leading to acidification and rancidity of the oil. The
nuts are easily separated from the thin shell and, when dried and roasted,
they can be safely stored for a long time in sealed plastic bags (Reckin,
1983; FAO, 1986).
Crushed nuts and milk fed to weaned children.
Nuts have a pleasant flavour resembling hazel nuts. After removal of the
leathery testa kernels are eaten raw, roasted, fried or ground for a drink
or sweets. Nuts are source of an edible oil rich in linoleic acid (34.4%)
and, once extracted, can be safely stored for a long time without turning
rancid (Reckin, 1983; FAO, 1986).
Kernel contains (33.7-)37.4-54% edible oil,
33.6% starch, 2.6% glucose, 20.0% protein, 4.5% crude fibre and 3.2% ash
with a calorific value of 585 kcal per 100 g (Reckin, 1983). According
to FAO (1986) the kernel contains 54-60% of a clear, light, edible oil
containing 73% linoleic acid, 4% moisture and ca. 18% protein.
Grown as a shade tree for coffee and cacao
in Colombia. Oil from shells, nuts and bark latex used as an illuminant.
Nuts and oil an excellent cure for pulmonary complaints and dermatitis.
Wood is not regarded as valuable or durable, used for furniture and excellent
charcoal (Reckin, 1983; FAO, 1986).
Nuts are sufficiently attractive to be sold
in the local markets. Interest in Colombia in developing the crop to overcome
the shortfall between existing production of edible oil and domestic demand
(Reckin, 1983; FAO, 1986).
The species is widely distributed and plantations
established with little selection. Provenance surveys and trials are required
for improved performance and to establish priority areas in the forest
for genetic conservation (Reckin, 1983). Small germplasm collections exist
at University of Naro and by Corporación Araracuara at San José
de Guaviare, Colombia (Clement and Villachica, 1994). The reason for the
annual variation in yield requires investigation and solution if the crop
is to develop commercially.
Throughout Brazilian Amazonia, Colombia, Orinoco
basin of Venezuela and the Guyanas; also cultivated. It occurs in the rain
forest on fertile flood plains and tolerating several months of waterlogging
as well as growing on the drier oxisols of terra firma, the latter at densities
between 0.2-11 trees per ha. The minimum annual rainfall requirement is
2 000 mm (Prance and Mori, 1979; FAO, 1986; Macrae et al., 1993).
Tall deciduous tree, 30-40 m tall, trunk 60-80
cm in diameter. Leaves petiolate, simple, blade narrowly ovate to widely
elliptic, 2.5-12 cm long, 1.5-5 cm wide, chartaceous to coriaceous. Flowers
bisexual in small, terminal racemes. Fruit a large, woody, dehiscent, bell-shaped,
pendent capsule up to 25 cm long; pericarp woody, 1-2 cm thick; a large
operculum becomes detached at maturity, leaving the seeds (nuts) dangling
by a slender, fleshy funicle until the funicle decays and allows the seeds
to fall; seeds 30-40, irregularly oblong, resembling Brazil nuts but more
rounded with thinner and softer shell, kernel white, creamy texture (Prance
and Mori, 1979; Rosengarten, 1984; FAO, 1986; Mori and Prance, 1990; Macrae
et
al., 1993).
Seeds germinate within 7-10 days and growth
is rapid, attaining 60 cm after 1 year and 4 m after 5 years. Trees begin
to bear when 8-10 years old. Flowering is sporadic, some trees bearing
every other year, others at 5 year intervals. Yields may be 12-20 fruits
in the first fruiting year, with 81 fruits reported 2 years later. Average
seed weight 5.5 g, mature trees may yield ca. 80 kg annually. Average
yield for mature trees on terra firma is less than 50 fruits per year,
probably more on the fertile flood plains. There are no commercial plantations
reported. Attempts at grafting sapucaia onto the closely related Brazil
nut and vice versa have failed (Prance and Mori, 1979; Rosengarten,
1984; FAO, 1985; Clay and Clement, 1993).
Fruit mature in ca. 18 months after
flowering, when the capsule lid drops off, eventually releasing the nuts
after the funicle has decayed. While suspended from the capsule the nuts
are liable to be eaten by bats, parrots and monkeys, although less liable
to predation around homesteads. The capsules remain attached to the tree
for a long time before they too fall. The nuts can, with some difficulty,
be cut down from the open capsules or gathered up from the ground, although
in the latter case the majority of nuts are eaten by animals, especially
monkeys and wild pigs. Average yield of nuts per tree is ca. 75
kg; fruit weigh 1-2.5 kg and contain 30-50 nuts, each weighing ca.
4-14 g. (Howes, 1948; Rosengarten, 1984; FAO, 1986; Clay and Clement, 1993).
Seed coat thin and offers little protection
to disease and insects. Nuts laid on mats to dry; the kernels are rather
moist and must be dried quickly, otherwise they do not store well (Howes,
1948; FAO, 1986).
Kernels are delicious, and considered to have
a superior sweet flavour to that of the Brazil nut, also more digestible;
eaten raw, roasted or in confectionary, highly nutritious. Kernel yields
a light yellow, almond flavoured, edible oil, the harmful seed coat being
removed before extraction (Howes, 1948; Prance and Mori, 1979; Rosengarten,
1984; FAO, 1986; Macrae et al., 1993).
Nuts contain 60% kernel. Highly nutritious,
kernel contains 60% dry matter consisting of 51-64% oil, 16% protein, 8%
fibre, 4.2% ash. Seeds likely to contain toxic quantities of selenium when
grown on soils high in selenium (Prance and Mori, 1979; FAO, 1986).
Oil used locally for making soap and as an
illuminant. The capsules (monkey pots) are used for domestic utensils;
when tethered and baited with sugar they are used to trap monkeys who,
when disturbed, are unable to open and withdraw their hands. Nuts fed locally
to chickens (the vernacular "sapucaia" means chicken). The wood is not
extensively used as it is tough and difficult to work; used for railway
sleepers, roofing shingles, construction and general carpentry. The tough
and fibrous bark consists of a succession of thin layers which can be peeled
off and used locally as cigarette wrappers. Infusions of bark and pericarp
used in local medicine for liver complaints. Cultivated as an ornamental
(Howes, 1948; Prance and Mori, 1979; Rosengarten, 1984; FAO, 1986).
Marketed locally (Howes, 1948).
The enormous loss of nuts to animals has limited
the exploitation of nuts from the wild. If sufficient quantities were available
at the right price there would be a potential in the confectionery nut
industry. Shell of fresh nuts reputed to contain a toxic substance which
may affect its commercial exploitation for extracting the edible oil. There
is a possibility of nut and timber production from the floodplains but
more information is first required on growth rates and production (Howes,
1948; Rosengarten, 1984; FAO, 1986). Selection for high and consistent
yields is required.
Central Somalia extending into the Ogaden
of Ethiopia, in semi-arid scrub; intolerant of waterlogging. Introduced
on an experimental scale to Israel, Kenya, Tanzania, Sudan, Yemen and USA
for trials. The plantation established near Voi, Kenya is largely neglected
but, due to the Somali political situation, is currently the sole source
of germplasm. Grows in Somalia at 100-1 000 m altitude on coarse, deep
red sands with a water table at 6.5-25.5 m. The daily temperature is in
excess of 25°
C and the mean annual temperature 26.3-30°
C. The mean annual rainfall is 85-400 mm, bimodal with the two rainy seasons
of varying reliability (Baumer, 1983; Wickens and Storey, 1984; Booth and
Wickens, 1988; FAO, 1988).
Many-stemmed, evergreen shrub to 2.5(-4) m
tall with deep taproot. Leaves paripinnate, leaflets (1-3)4(5-6) pairs,
with numerous red glands below. Flowers bisexual, yellow. Fruit a 14seeded
indehiscent pod, 46 cm long, shell fragile; seeds (nuts) globose to ovoid,
ca.
12 mm in diameter (Baumer, 1983; Wickens and Storey, 1984; Booth and Wickens,
1988; FAO, 1988).
Only recently subjected to domestication.
Early aerial growth slow until the massive root system is established.
Nodulation observed on young plants but rhizobia not identified. Good germination
with fresh seed, low viability if kept for a few months; however, seeds
coated in wood ash and stored in a sack are reputed to remain viable for
at least a year. Vegetative propagation possible. Direct seeding is recommended
as problems exist with moving seedlings from nursery due to rapid tap-root
development - in Israel roots 15 cm deep developed with only 1 cm of aerial
growth.
Shrubs begin to bear well after 34 years. Water
harvesting techniques will increase yields, however humid conditions will
result in only vegetative growth. Depending on the rainfall, fruits can
develop within 2 weeks from the start of the rains; fruit development is
arrested when the rainfall ceases and is completed 45 months later when
the rains start again. Note, these observations refer to Somalia where
the rainfall is bimodal (Baumer, 1983; Wickens and Storey, 1984; Booth
and Wickens, 1988; FAO, 1988; Cherfas, 1989; Aronson et al., 1990).
Yield ca. 5 kg of seeds per shrub.
Such is the demand and free access to all range plants that the fruits
often collected from the shrubs before they are fully mature (Wickens and
Storey, 1984; Booth and Wickens, 1988; FAO, 1988).
Pods are opened and seeds roasted or boiled
before storage to kill any insects present and to harden the shell against
further insect attack (Baumer, 1983; Wickens and Storey, 1984; Booth and
Wickens, 1988; FAO, 1988).
Can be the sole sustenance in times of dearth.
The delicious, chestnut flavoured seeds may be eaten raw, roasted or boiled
as a vegetable; seeds may also be boiled for a sweet liquor (Menninger,
1977; Wickens and Storey, 1984; FAO, 1988).
Seeds nutritious, with ca. 13% protein,
37% carbohydrates, ca. 11% fat, ca. 24% sugars; protein rich
in lysine; fat a mixture of the saturated acids: 26-32% palmitic, ca.
12% stearic and the unsaturated acids ca. 32% oleic and 25-30% linoleic.
A trypsin inhibitor is present which is inactivated on cooking. The energy
value, 446 Kcal per kg, is twice that of the carob, Ceratonia siliqua,
and as much as that of soya, Glycine max (National Academy of Sciences,
1979; Baumer, 1983; Wickens and Storey, 1984; Booth and Wickens, 1988;
FAO, 1988).
A tea is brewed from the leaves. Browsed by
sheep, goats and camels; when eaten as the sole diet it is reputed to cause
intestinal disorders in goats. The bones of browsing animals become pink
caused by cordeauxiaquinone, a brilliant red dye which is unknown elsewhere
in the plant kingdom. Cordeauxiaquinone produces fast, insoluble dyes with
some metals and is used as a mordant in dyeing factories. The wood is used
for firewood ((Wickens and Storey, 1984; Booth and Wickens, 1988; FAO,
1988).
Marketed locally with production less than
demand. The yicib has the potential for development as a food resource
for the semi-arid regions and a very high potential as a dessert crop (Booth
and Wickens, 1988).
The agronomy is little understood. There is
an urgent need for a survey of the genetic potential and establishment
of gene bank and provenance trials of this potentially very desirable food
species. The long term effect of cordeauxiaquinone on human teeth and bones
requires investigation (Booth and Wickens, 1988).
Native to south west Madagascar; the precise
distribution is not known due to difficulty of access but apparently confined
to two disjunct populations some 60 km apart, from near Itampolo and around
Lake Tsimanampetsotsa. It appears to be confined to the exposed seaward
facing rocky limestone escarpment and the sandy soils immediately below,
growing at altitudes between 15-100 m.
The local rainfall is bimodal, very erratic, with
an annual average less than 400 m; the average temperatures of 27.4°
C in summer and 19.9°
C in winter. The species is currently under investigation as a potential
nut crop in Western Australia (Willing,1989).
Unarmed, multistemmed, much branched, spreading
shrub up to 4-6 m tall, crown dense, branchlets sometimes spine-like. Leaves
sparse, semi-persistent, paripinnate, with 1-4 pairs of oval to suborbicular
leaflets, 3.5-6 mm wide. Inflorescence a raceme; flowers bisexual, with
4 white petals and 1 tinged yellow. Fruit pendent, subcylindric, depressed
between the seeds, 20-30 cm long, 2 cm wide, 2-valved, valves membraneous,
dehiscent; seeds 6-12, ovoid-reniform, 2.5 cm long, 1.6 cm across, testa
thin and brittle (Willing,1989).
Not cultivated in Madagascar. Seeds require
storage under conditions of low temperature and low relative humidity.
In Australia seed sown in 20 cm long tubes; germination rapid after soaking
for 10 hours. Aerial growth characteristically zigzag with rapid development
of side branches requiring plants to be well spaced in nursery to prevent
entanglement; root growth rapid. Plant at 4 m x 4 m spacing after 3 months.
Alkaline soils preferred. After 1 year, two growth forms are noted, a spreading
open bush or the less common compact, somewhat fastigiate bush (Willing,
1989).
Nuts (seeds) are harvested from the ground
following dehiscence (Willing,1989).
None required (Willing, 1989).
Nuts (seeds) eaten raw, discarding the brittle
testa, the cotyledons agreeably sweet with a cashew-like flavour, smooth
consistency and a flexible, rather plastic texture. Apparently not used
in cooking; when eaten green the flavour reminiscent of fresh garden peas
(Willing,1989).
The nuts contain 38-43% available carbohydrates,
26-32% unavailable carbohydrates, 14-16% protein and 6-9% fat, comparing
favourably with those of Cordeauxia edulis. However, the ingestion
of 100 g kernels, ca. 84 raw seeds, may inhibit human production
of chymotrypsin and cause digestive upsets, although this could possibly
be reduced by cooking or roasting the seeds (Willing, 1989).
Browsed by goats when little else to eat,
they also eat the seeds. Possible potential for windbreaks and hedges (Willing,1989).
Apparently not sold in the local markets (Willing,1989).
Survey of extent of natural populations and
genetic variability, and applying measures for its in situ and ex
situ conservation is required as well as investigation of its autecology.
Establish provenance trials; select high-yielding, toxin-free trees and
evaluate the two life forms; investigate potential for micropropagation
and agronomic requirements; investigate possible potential for Mediterranean
regions in addition to the arid tropics (Willing,1989).
Myanmar, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, eastern
Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan, north-eastern
Sulawesi, Moluccas and the Philippines. Found in low to medium altitude
forests, occurrence rare (Sleumer, 1984; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Erect shrub or tree to 25(-30) m. Leaves elliptic
to elliptic-oblong or lanceolate, (6.6-)7-15(22) cm x (3-)4-6.5(-12) cm.
Inflorescence in leaf axils. Fruit a drupe, obovoid-ellipsoid to oblongoid,
1.5-2.5 cm long, 1.2-2 cm in diameter, yellow or orange, thin shelled;
pulp 3.5-5.9 mm thick; seed 1 (Howes, 1948; Menninger, 1977; Sleumer, 1984;
Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Not even grown experimentally as an orchard
crop. Propagated by seed, germination takes more than 100 days. Cleft grafting
of selected parent trees highly successful. Seedlings take one year to
reach grafting stage (Howes, 1948; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Generally harvested when mature green (Verheij
and Coronel, 1991).
No information.
Nut resembling a filbert, kernel of good flavour
and quality, eaten raw or roasted. Pulp eaten raw or boiled (Howes, 1948;
Menninger, 1977; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Highly nutritious, containing 10-38.5% water,
2.9-3% ash, 10.7-11.1% protein, 7.5-8% fat, 39.5-75.5% carbohydrates, 3.7%
fibre, providing 2 733 calories per kilo (Menninger, 1977; Verheij and
Coronel, 1991).
Timber heavy but not durable, used for house
posts (Sleumer, 1984; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Not known, presumably marketed locally. Found
locally in backyards and forests as volunteer trees (Verheij and Coronel,
1991).
Species considered to have a potential for
domestication (Mabberley, 1987). Its potential for commercial cultivation
is only now being considered. There is no information regarding its cultural
requirements or yields. Trees appear to be highly variable but some high
yielding trees have been noted.(Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Chile, growing in the shelter of taller trees
from the snowline of the Pacific slopes of the Andes to the coast; introduced
into Ireland, southwest England and California in areas with mild, moist
climates. Due to the weight of foliage it requires protection from strong
winds (Rosengarten, 1984; Benoit, 1989).
An evergreen tree up to more than 15 m. Leaves
pinnate, leaflets oval with toothed margins. Inflorescence racemose; flowers
snow- to ivory-white, appearing from February to May in the late Chilean
summer and early autumn. Fruit a drupe, coral-red, the previous year's
fruits ripening at flowering time; seeds l, globular, with smooth, tough
shell (Menninger, 1977; Rosengarten, 1984).
Difficult to establish due to the weak root
system making it extremely sensitive to transplanting outside its native
habitat (Rosengarten, 1984).
Mainly from the wild. Yield ca. 4.5
kg per tree (Rosengarten, 1984).
No information.
Kernel similar to hazel in appearance and
flavour, eaten fresh or roasted (Howes, 1948; Mabberly, 1987).
No information.
Timber pale brown, light, strong and easily
worked, used locally for picture frames, furniture, oars and shingles.
Tree grown as an ornamental (Rosengarten, 1984; Mabberly, 1987).
Marketed locally, sold roasted, in bags like
peanuts. Virtually unknown elsewhere (Rosengarten, 1984).
An interesting tree with a wide altitudinal
range from which it should be possible to select high yielding potential
cultivars. Both pulp and kernel are edible with only the thin shell of
no immediate use. Verheij and Coronel (1991) consider the species ripe
for commercial development.
Disjointed distribution throughout southwest
and extending into desert areas of central Australia; salt tolerant, grows
in areas with an annual rainfall of 125-275 mm (Brand and Cherikoff, 1985;
Rivett et al., 1989).
Semi root parasite shrub or small tree up
to 10 m tall. Leaves opposite, grey-green, ends tapering, apex shortly
hooked when young. Fruit: outer flesh red, pulpy, enveloping a large, wrinkled
stone (Rivett, et al., 1989).
Seeds germinate within 2 months of removal
from ripe fruit. Potential for grafting and tissue culture as alternative
means of propagation. Trees begin to bear in their third year with a maximum
production in seventh year of 10 kg; yields up to 23 kg per tree are known.
Kernel represents 40% of the total fruit weight (Rivett et al.,
1989).
Fruits rattle when ripe. No information as
to whether picked from the tree or collected when fallen (Brand and Cherikoff,
1985).
Unpleasant volatile methyl benzoate contained
in kernels will decrease during storage; loss can be further reduced by
placing kernels in a vacuum oven (Rivett et al., 1989).
Fruit pulp may be eaten fresh but usually
cooked, made into pies, jams and chutneys; kernels eaten mainly by Aborigines.
Kernels eaten either raw and salted after roasting in coconut oil not considered
very palatable due to the somewhat unpleasant aroma from the volatile methyl
benzoate. (Rivett et al., 1989).
Kernels have an energy value of 3 000 kJ and
contain
ca. 67% oil, ca. 15% protein, fibre, free sugars,
together with adequate quantities of essential amino acids but some samples
deficient in sulphur amino acids. High levels of santalbic acids, plus
doubts about the safety of the acetylene fatty acids present, suggest that
considerable caution needs to be exercised before the quandong kernels
can be safely recommended for human consumption (Brand and Cherikoff, 1985;
Rivett et al., 1989).
Timber utilized by Aborigines; used for fuel
(Maconochie, 1985; Lazarides and Hince, 1993).
Not marketed and product currently unsuitable
for marketing without further selection for edible kernels.
Very few indigenous Australian food plants
have been considered for cultivation. It is currently being investigated
by CSIRO with a view to commercial cultivation. Considering that the kernel
accounts for 40% of the fruit and that there are problems regarding its
palatability and digestibility it is doubtful whether the quandong has
a potential for domestication unless improved strains can be selected or
developed. Should suitable cultivars be developed there would certainly
be a potential for introduction to other arid regions.
Southwestern Morocco, introduced in other
Mediterranean countries; locally dominant in almost pure stands in areas
receiving 100-300(-400 max) mm annual precipitation and growing on a wide
range of soils, including slightly saline but not drifting sands and water-logged
soils; the altitude range is from sea level to 1 500 m. Drought resistant,
shedding foliage and remaining in a state of dormancy for several years
during prolonged drought (Baumer, 1983; Morton and Voss, 1987; Bouachrine,
1994).
Spiny, normally evergreen tree, 4-8(-10) tall,
occasionally attaining 21 m with main trunk 1 m in diameter. Leaves clustered,
lanceolate. Inflorescence axillary; flowers greenish, bisexual. Fruit an
ovoid drupe, greenish-yellow; epicarp thick, bitter, gummy; mesocarp plus
endocarp fleshy, containing an unpleasant (for humans) milky latex; seeds
2-3, ca. 2 cm long, united in a pseudo-kernel (Baumer, 1983; Morton
and Voss, 1987; Bouachrine, 1994).
Seed polyembryonic, germinating readily and
producing several shoots. Trees start to bear when 5-6 years old with maximum
production at 60 years. Trees long-lived, to at least 200-250 years with
some individuals believed to be over 400 years old. Trees coppice readily
when cut (Baumer, 1983; Morton and Voss, 1987; Bouachrine, 1994).
Fallen ripe fruits dehydrate and pericarp
becomes tough, wrinkled and difficult to remove. Fallen fruits are eaten
by goats, who digest the subacid rind and eject the hard seeds during rumination,
when they are gathered up. Average yield of fruit is ca. 8 kg per
annum (Hedrick, 1972; Baumer, 1983; Morton and Voss, 1987).
None recorded.
Kernels are source of an edible argan oil.
After first roasting to eliminate saponins, the seeds are ground and mixed
with tepid water. The oil floats and is separated by decantation. The resulting
brownish, acrid and unpleasant tasting oil is allowed to stand for any
residues to be deposited. The oil is then lighter in colour, strong flavoured.
It may be further purified either by emulsion with water or by adding bread
to produce an oil as sweet as walnut oil. Approximately 100 kg of seed
yield 1-2 kg of oil and 2 kg of press cake plus 25 kg of dried "husk" (Baumer,
1983; Morton and Voss, 1987).
Argan oil contains ca. 80% poly-unsaturated
fatty acids of which 31.5% is linoleic, making it nutritionally interesting
as it is one of the most important essential fatty acids in the human diet
(Morton and Voss, 1987; Bouachrine, 1994).
Argan oil is used as an illuminant and for
making a hard, yellowish soap. The sun dried cake residue after the oil
has been expressed may be fed to livestock but it is not accepted by horses;
it contains the slightly toxic, haemolytic saponin sapoarganine which does
not harm ruminants and passes out with the urine. However, cake fed to
dairy cattle will contaminate the milk, which may cause diarrhoea in children.
Foliage is a valuable dry season fodder source for livestock; fruit also
eaten by livestock. Timber very hard, heavy and durable, suitable for agricultural
implements and building poles; the wood makes good charcoal. Brushwood
used for fences. The species coppices well; a valuable shade tree, also
used for soil conservation and windbreaks (Hedrick, 1972; Göhl, 1981;
Baumer, 1983; Morton and Voss, 1987; Bouachrine, 1994).
Argan oil was imported into Europe during
the eighteenth century but, being stronger flavoured was unable to compete
with olive oil (Morton and Voss, 1987).
Tree endangered due to exploitation for fuel
and land clearance for agriculture, with natural regeneration limited due
to herbivore pressure (Morton and Voss, 1987).
From Senegal to Cameroon through to the drier
parts of equatorial central Africa and Uganda; in savannas, preferably
with a shallow water table, generally between 500-1 000 (1 200) m altitude.
Grows in areas with an annual rainfall 600-1 000 mm and a marked dry season
of 6-8 months or 900-1 800 mm and a shorter dry season of 4-5 months but
subjected to annual burning. An annual average temperature of 24-32°
C, with a minimum of 21°
C and a maximum of 36°
C preferred. Yields best on cultivated lands but occurs naturally on dry
lateritic slopes and stony soils, it prefers dry alluvial-sandy soils rich
in humus; intolerant of alluvial hollows and areas subjected to flooding
(Booth and Wickens, 1988; FAO, 1988).
Deciduous, spreading tree 15(-25) m tall,
trunk up to 2 m in diameter, bark corky, fire resistant. Leaves oblong,
clustered at the end of branches. Flowers bisexual, produced in the dry
season before the leaves. Fruits subglobose to ovoid, 4-5 cm in diameter,
with fleshy pericarp ca. 1 mm thick, exuding latex when green and
turning brown when ripe; seeds 1(24), shiny brown with fragile husk; kernel
white (Menninger, 1977; Booth and Wickens, 1988; FAO, 1988).
Natural populations are often left when land
is cleared for cultivation and relatively little attention has been paid
to its cultivation. Propagation by direct sowing of seed recommended as
nursery seedlings do not transplant well due to the development of a long
tap root. Seedlings initially slow growing due to development of root system.
Recommended spacing 2 m x 8 m to 15 m x 15 m or in an 8 m triangular pattern
with final stocking thinned to 30-50 trees per ha. Fertilizers possibly
beneficial. Yield variable, 1520(-45) kg per tree of fresh fruit. Annual
yields in a range of 9-17 tonnes per ha optimistically predicted. In Nigeria
only one tree in three produces each year. Trees start to fruit at 10-15
years, with full bearing by 20-25 years with individual yields ranging
from 20-200 kg. The fruit takes 4-6 months to ripen (Booth and Wickens,
1988; FAO, 1982, 1988).
Harvest from the ground as soon as fruits
fall. One person can gather ca. 45 kg in a day. The fleshy pulp
rots and splits to expose the nut, the process can be hastened by burying
the freshly gathered fruit for a few days in a pit. As harvesting takes
place during the rainy season, a period which favours early germination,
the nuts (in the shell) are often stored in huts until the dry season or
when required. The amount harvested each year appears to be dependent on
the price of shea butter (Menninger, 1977; Booth and Wickens, 1988).
Depulped nuts sun-dried for ca. 12
days or dried in an earth oven; the drying process results in 30-40% loss
of weight. Alternatively the fruits are fermented by being kept moist for
weeks or months in large earthenware jars, after which the nuts are roasted.
The skin is removed to expose kernel. Decorticated kernel contains 40-60%
by weight of the kernel oil known as shea butter (Menninger, 1977; FAO,
1988).
Shea butter usually extracted by women, who
pound the usually roasted kernels and then grind them to an oily, chocolate-coloured
paste. The paste contains tannins and is not edible until it has been boiled
and the oil skimmed off, the bulk of the impurities being removed in the
scum. About 50 kg of fresh nuts will give 12 kg of dry kernels, required
to yield 4 kg of shea butter.
Shea butter prepared from unroasted kernels is light yellow or sometimes tinted with a yellow dye, with a strong odour, especially when warmed. Properly prepared shea butter keeps perfectly unless adulterated with water or yam flour. The deeper the colour the stronger the odour and taste resulting from decomposition of proteins which occur in proportion to the degree of fermentation of the nuts and to over-roasting. Butter prepared from nuts subjected to little fermentation, as when nuts are lightly sun-dried without previous maceration of the pulp, is almost tasteless and odourless.
Purified shea butter is edible, used in cooking, also suitable as cocoa butter equivalent (CBE) for chocolate manufacture (Menninger, 1977; FAO, 1988)).
Fruit pulp is eaten raw, when slightly overripe,
or lightly cooked after removal of seed and husk (FAO, 1988).
Whole seed, including husk, contains 34-44%
fat, the kernel 45-60% fat. The main fatty acids present in shea butter
are 5-9% palmitic, 30-41% stearic, 49-50% oleic and 4-5% linoleic. The
fruit pulp is rich in carbohydrates, is a good source of iron, and contains
small amounts of B vitamins (FAO, 1988).
Fruit pulp sometimes eaten, but usually eaten
by elephants, etc. Shea butter used commercially in soap, cosmetics and
candles with a potential for pharmaceutical preparations. Used locally
in ointments, hair dressing, waterproofing hut walls and as a soap. Oil
cake residue is bitter and contains saponins but can be used as a filler
for feed stuffs. Seed husk used as mulch and fertiliser. Timber heavy,
difficult to work, takes a fine polish, termite resistant, used for stakes,
house posts, shipbuilding and tool handles, also as source of firewood
and charcoal (Menninger, 1977; FAO, 1982; Booth and Wickens, 1988; FAO,
1988).
Shea butter is used mainly for home consumption
especially in rural communities and is sold in the local markets as balls
or pats weighing ca. 2.3-3.7 (-10) kg. In urban areas there is increasing
competition from alternative imported oils such as sesame and groundnut
oils. For export shea butter requires clarifying by steam to remove volatile
acids and some of the odorous matter. Lightly sun-dried nuts without previous
maceration of the pulp are preferred for export. Any variation in free
fatty acids in the fat is mostly due to faulty handling after leaving the
producer (Menninger, 1977; Booth and Wickens, 1988).
Research is required on methods of establishment
and general agronomy, especially with regard to plantations. Due to changing
agricultural practices there is a danger that with increasing cultivation
and lack of protection the natural regeneration will be inhibited. With
present aging populations of trees there is a danger of a future reduction
of this resource. There is a need to encourage protection and to establish
plantations. Plantations could encourage more efficient, fuel-saving methods
of extraction. It could lead to the establishment of large-scale oil mills
in Africa, provided the current unpredictability of annual yields could
be overcome (Booth and Wickens, 1988).
Native of Sierra Leone, Côte d'Ivoire
eastward to Ghana, often cultivated elsewhere in West Africa and obscuring
the natural distribution. Constituent of the lowland forest. Requires a
hot, humid climate although capable of withstanding 3 or more months of
dry season. It may be cultivated in drier areas where ground water is available.
Introduced in Jamaica and Brazil (FAO, 1982; Purseglove, 1987).
Evergreen tree to 15-20(-25) m tall, trunk
20-30 cm in diameter with narrow buttresses. Leaves simple, broadly oblong
to broadly elliptic, up to 33 cm x 13 cm, apex abruptly and shortly acuminate.
Inflorescence of axillary cymes; flowers male or hermaphrodite, apetalous,
cream, usually with dark reddish markings within. Fruit consisting of 5
ellipsoid, warty follicles, up to ca. 13 cm long, 7 cm wide, each
follicle containing 4-8-(10) seeds arranged in 2 rows; seeds ellipsoid,
ca.
2.5 cm in diameter, red or white depending on the variety (Keay, 1958;
FAO, 1982).
Propagated by seed (germination is slow, taking
2-3 months) or, preferably by cuttings. Final spacing is 10 m. Initial
growth slow, reaching only 3 m in 4 years. Initial weeding is essential
and interplanting with a shade tree recommended (FAO, 1982).
Ripe fruits harvested before the follicles
split open, using knives mounted on long poles. Yields of 300 nuts per
tree are considered good (FAO, 1982; Purseglove, 1987).
Follicles split and seeds are removed. Seeds
are fermented in heaps for 5 days, after which the testa is removed and
the nuts washed and cleaned. Nuts are stored in baskets lined with green
leaves, which are regularly changed. Nuts may be thus stored for several
months without spoiling but will require regular checking for weevil damage
(Purseglove, 1987).
The bitter tasting seeds are much appreciated
by Moslems in the drier regions of West Africa, especially after Ramadan.
Used as a stimulating masticatory, a beverage is prepared by boiling powdered
seeds in water (FAO, 1982; Rosengarten, 1984; Purseglove, 1987).
Seeds consist of 13.5% water, 9.5% crude protein,
1.4% fat, 45% sugar and starch, 7.0% cellulose, 3.8% tannin, 3.0% ash,
also rich in alkaloids, caffeine (2.8%), theobromine (0.05%) and kolatine
(FAO, 1982).
Widely used in West Africa for social ceremonies.
A non-addictive stimulant used medically for diarrhoea and to prevent vomiting
in cases of high fever; reputed to act as a water purifier. The red nuts
are a potential source of food colorant. Wood is susceptible to borers;
suitable for furniture, joinery and carvings (FAO, 1982; Rosengarten, 1984).
Seeds important in local and international
commerce, the white-seed strain preferred by the market. Industrial exploitation
is mainly for the caffeine, which is used in decoctions and non-alcoholic
drinks. World production of cola nuts from Cola nitida and
allied species estimated as ca. 180 000 tonnes of which ca.
120 000 tonnes is produced by Nigeria and used either internally or in
neighbouring countries (FAO, 1982; Rosengarten, 1984).
Considering how much cola nuts are appreciated
in West Africa while being virtually unknown elsewhere, there would appear
to be reasonable expectations for expanding the market.
Assam to Malaysia, possibly introduced in
the Philippines; widely cultivated (Menninger, 1977; FAO, 1984; Uhl and
Dransfield, 1987).
A solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, monoecious
feather palm to 15 m tall, stem 40 cm in diameter. Leaves pinnate, long,
ascending, up to 8.5 m long. Inflorescences large, axillary, pendulous;
inflorescences appearing in descending order from the uppermost leaf axil
and continue for ca. 2 years until the palm is exhausted and dies.
Fruit turn yellow when mature, ca. 5 cm in diameter; seeds 2-3 (FAO,
1984; Purseglove, 1985; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987).
No information.
Propagated by seed or suckers. Flowering at
7-10 years (FAO, 1984).
No information.
Immature kernels cooked and eaten in the Philippines,
or boiled in sugar and made into a sweetmeat (Hedrick, 1972; Menninger,
1977; FAO, 1984).
Fruits contain 6.8% moisture, 7.9% ash, 16.2%
crude fibre, 10.0% crude protein, 1.5% fat (FAO, 1984).
Stem is a source of a form of sago, which
is converted into sugar when the palm first begins to flower. The male
spadix tapped daily for 2-3 months for its sugary sap (ca. 3.5 litres
daily), of which 9 litres is evaporated to produce ca. 1 kg of palm
sugar (jaggery), palm wine or toddy, distilled for arrak; palm cabbage
eaten raw as a salad or cooked. Leaf sheath source of a tough, black fibre
(gomuti or yunot fibre) used chiefly for a durable rope tolerant of both
fresh and salt water and fire, used for marine work and thatching; fibre
also used for brushes. Leaves used for thatching; the split petioles for
basketry and a form of marquetry work (Hedrick, 1972; Menninger, 1977;
FAO, 1984; Purseglove, 1985; Mabberley, 1987).
Sweetmeats marketed (Menninger, 1977).
Regarded as the most useful of all palms (Hedrick,
1972), however, its chief economic importance is for its fibre.
Amazonia. Occurrence abundant, especially
in disturbed sites (Prance, 1994).
Tall, single-stemmed, spiny, pleonanthic,
monoecious, feather palm. Fruit more or less globose (Uhl and Dransfield,
1987).
No information.
Method presumably as for A. aculeatum
(FAO, 1986). Bunches pulled down with a hooked stick soon after first fruit
ripens and falls.
Treatment presumably as for A. aculeatum
(FAO, 1986). Nuts stored for 3 days in sacks to ripen and pulp soften slightly.
They must be eaten within 3-4 days before they dry and rot where bruised.
Mesocarp edible, juice extracted from the
pulp. Kernel produces an excellent oil for cooking and soap-making (FAO,
1986; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987; Prance, 1994).
Mesocarp rich in vitamin; fresh pulp contains
31 mg of carotene per 100 g (FAO, 1986; Prance, 1994).
Seed oil is used for making soap. Source of
fibre from leaf epidermis, the strongest in Amazonia and possibly commercially
viable, used by the Amerindians for fishing lines (Mabberley, 1987; Uhl
and Dransfield, 1987; Prance, 1994).
No information.
Because of its abundance in disturbed areas
it could have a potential for easy domestication (Prance, 1994). A genus
of 50 species of which at least 40, including A. aculeatum, A. ayri,
A. jauari and A. murumuru deserve further attention by economic
botanists (FAO, 1986). See FAO (1986) for further information regarding
A.
aculeatum, which is not discussed here since its potential as an oil
crop depends on the oily mesocarp, the kernel being hard and inedible.
Caribbean and Central America to Ecuador;
widely cultivated, not truly known in the wild, the inferred original distribution
from the Colombian Andes, eastern Peru and northwest Brazil where it occurs
on slopes too steep for cultivation. Occurs in tropical rain forest to
elevations of 700 (-1 500) m in areas with 2 000-4 000 mm annual rainfall
and not more than 2-3 months dry season; optimum temperature 18-24°
C (Menninger, 1977; Johnson, 1983; FAO, 1986; IBPGR, 1986).
Suckering, unarmed, pleonanthic, monoecious,
feather palm to 20 m after 10-15 plus years, often 4-5 stems are allowed
from the base; flush of suckers produced from old stems after felling;
shallow rooted. Nodes densely armed with 5-10 cm long black spines, leaf
sheath normally with spines; a new leaf normally produced every 2-4 weeks,
typically 10-13 fronds per main stem. Flowers insect pollinated. Fruit
ca.
5 cm in diameter, firm textured, dry and mealy, pale orange to yellow or
red when ripe, skin soft; 1-seeded, seed conical and somewhat angular,
ca. 2 cm long; mesocarp thin, dry, mealy; endocarp thin, hard, black;
kernel white, hard (Menninger, 1977; Johnson, 1983; Purseglove, 1985; FAO,
1986; IBPGR, 1986; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987).
Suited to the wet tropics. Propagation by
seed or from basal suckers, spacing at 5.5 m x 5.5 m. Palms for palm heart
production planted at 1.5-2 m spacing. It begins bearing at 3-4 (-8) years
and continues production for 50-75 years. Usually only 2-4 basal suckers
are allowed to develop, the others being removed. The palm, once established,
requires little care and yields well, with up to five bunches of fruit
per tree, each weighing ca. 14 kg. Fruit takes about 6 months to
mature and will remain on the tree for long periods in good condition;
individual fruits weigh 29-100 g, nuts ca. 3 g. Yield of edible
fruit 3.4 t dry fruit per ha per year. Domesticated seedless varieties
exist, the fruits (pejibaye macho) composed entirely of fibrous pulp (Menninger,
1977; Johnson, 1983; Purseglove, 1985; FAO, 1986; IBPGR, 1986). Palms are
grown as shade trees for cocoa and coffee (IBPGR, 1986).
Bunches of fruits are cut using knives on
long poles or by climbing up the spiny trunk. Yields can be as high as
250 kg per tree and 30 tonnes per ha. Stems may be tapped for a palm wine
(coquillo) and suckers (ratoons) for palm hearts (FAO, 1986; IBPGR, 1986;
Duke, 1993).
Fruits can be stored for 10-14 days in a dry
room. Fruit is sometimes canned. Seed separates readily from pulp after
boiling (Menninger, 1977; IBPGR, 1986).
Staple food for tribes in lowlands of Colombia,
Venezuela and Ecuador. Fruits are boiled in salty water for ca.
3 hours, peeled and after removal of the seeds, eaten, strongly resemble
chestnuts in appearance and flavour; highly nutritious and an important
item of diet for rural people. Extracted starch is used as a substitute
for maize flour for making tortillas, a staple food in Central America;
cooked flesh may also be fermented to produce a beer (chicha). Kernel is
starchy and oily, resembles coconut in flavour. The oily kernels may be
eaten; also a commercial source of oil on boiling. Poor quality fruits
may be fed to pigs (Menninger, 1977; Purseglove, 1985; IBPGR, 1986; FAO,
1986; Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987).
The chestnut-like fruit is regarded as probably
the most nutritionally balanced of tropical fruits; has twice the protein
content of the banana and can produce more carbohydrate per ha than maize.
The composition of the fruit varies enormously from 19-93% mesocarp, 18-66%
dry matter, 3.1-14.7% protein, 2.6-61.7% oil, 33.2-88.8% starch, 1.8% ash
and 1.6% fibre. The boiled flesh contains ca. 48% water, 3% protein,
7% fat, 41% carbohydrate and 0.8% ash. Oil composition is similar to that
of oil palm (Menninger, 1977; Purseglove, 1985; FAO, 1986).
Canned palm hearts exported from Costa Rica.
Leaves used for thatching. Fibre (palmiti) is of commercial importance
in Costa Rica. Outer 2.5-5 cm of stem are a source of a very hard timber
used for carpentry and building, the split stems used for reinforcing concrete;
hardened stems are used for long bows and attractive black floor slabs.
It has potential as an energy crop from developing combustible oil and
alcohol from the starch (Johnson, 1983; FAO, 1986; IBPGR, 1986; Duke, 1993).
Fruit marketed locally. The fresh fruit has
a shelf life of 1 week, suggesting some form of preservation necessary
for longer storage (10-14 days in a dry room, IBPGR, 1986). Canned fruit
introduced in Costa Rica, but a more desirable and improved product required
if canning is to develop further (Johnson, 1983; FAO, 1986).
Despite its qualities, pejibaye is a minor
crop cultivated by the small-holder rather than on a plantation scale;
rarely grown outside Central and northern South America and the Caribbean
(IBPGR, 1986). Its local importance as a staple food suggests that it could
be introduced elsewhere in the humid tropics (FAO, 1986). Fruit quality
and absence of spines were characters selected during domestication, otherwise
very little work has been done on improvement. Priority in any breeding
programme is suggested for fibre production because it is already a commercial
proposition. Other programmes may consider oil production, protein and
carotene rich pulp for human and animal consumption, and flavour (IBPGR,
1986).
Babassu palm grows wild in disturbed areas
throughout more than 100-150 000 km2 from the Atlantic Ocean
to Bolivia and especially in Maranhao, Bahia and northern Minas Gerais
and Mato Grosso. The annual rainfall is 1 200-2 500 mm with a 4-6 months
dry season. Soils range from well-drained upland soils to gallery forest,
although in severely flooded areas it occurs in elevated, non-flooded areas.
A high light demander, and therefore only dominant in disturbed areas (Menninger,
1977; FAO, 1986; Clay and Clement, 1993)
Solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, monoecious,
feather palm with trunk up to 30 plus m tall. Leaves 10-25, pinnate, up
to 9 m long. Inflorescences variously male, female or bisexual. Bunches
of fruit up to 1 m long, weighing 14-90 kg and containing (100-)200(-600)
fruits; fruit ellipsoid, 5-15 cm long, 4-9 cm, in diameter resembling a
small coconut, weighing 150-200 g; epicarp fibrous, 1-4 mm thick; mesocarp
mealy, dry, 2-12 mm thick; endocarp woody, 35-75 mm in diameter, containing
(1-)3-6(-11) seeds; seeds ellipsoid, flattened, 26 cm x 1-2 cm (Menninger,
1987; FAO, 1986; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987; Clay and Clement, 1993).
Collected solely from the wild. Groves thinned
to ca. 100 trees per ha in order to increase yields. Seeds may remain
dormant within the nut for years provided they are not attacked by Coleopteran
larvae. Fire or heat may be necessary to break dormancy; separate kernels
may germinate within a few months. Early growth is slow, concentrating
initially on an extensive root system and consequently requiring large
bags if grown in a nursery. The palms begin to bear when 8-12 years old.
Populations reduced to 80 juvenile and young fruiting palms considered
suitable for intercropping and grazing by livestock. The use of fertilizers
to increase productivity is still at the trial stage (FAO, 1986; Clay and
Clement, 1993).
Fallen nuts collected after drying for a few
weeks; they may also be dislodged from the bunches with sticks or the whole
bunch cut down. The fine silicate crystals falling off the fruit can cause
serious eye damage to the collectors. Wild groves can yield 1.5-2.5 tonnes
per ha but, where the groves are thinned yields range from 730 tonnes
per ha with an average of 16 tonnes. Individual trees with 7 bunches, each
bunch of 600 nuts and weighing up to 90 kg are known (FAO, 1986; Clay and
Clement, 1993).
Present harvesting practice results in only ca.
25% of a potential 8 million MT fruit crop being harvested. More efficient
harvesting involves cutting the mature infructescences just after the fruits
have begun to fall, in addition to the gathering of fallen fruit. The introduction
of a more effective transport system involving transport to collecting
points by pack animals and onward by trucks to the village processing area
is necessary (Pinheiro and Ferro Franzão, 1995).
Nuts extremely hard, difficult to crack. Skilled
workers manually place nut in a cleft of stones and split open with a heavy
hatchet, the operation repeated several times to release all kernels. In
an alternative method nut is rested on an axe head held between the feet
and hit with a heavy cudgel. A skilled worker can obtain 5-8 kg of whole
kernels (Pinheiro and Ferro Franzão, 1995) or 2.3 kg of clean kernels
(Clay and Clement, 1993) a day by this method (Menninger, 1977; FAO, 1986).
A village scale cooperative industry is being
developed using simple dehusking machines to separate the husk and mesocarp
from the endocarp, and a breaking machine to crack the endocarp to extract
the seeds, and a machine to separate broken endocarp from the kernels.
Local presses are then used to extract the oil and small kilns to make
charcoal and to extract tars (Clay and Clement, 1993; Pinheiro and Ferro
Franzão, 1995).
Whole kernels sometimes are chewed but usually
pounded for the cold extraction of a milk substitute or hot extraction
with boiling water for oil. Kernel contains 60-70% oil which is rich in
lauric acid, similar in composition to that of Cocos nucifera (coconut)
and Elaeis guineensis (African oil palm). Fresh oil is used for
cooking, refined oil for margarine. The starchy mesocarp is used locally
as an emergency flour substitute (FAO, 1986; Clay and Clement, 1993).
Kernels contain 1.2% water, 66.1% oil, 7.2%
protein, 6% fibre, 2% ash and 14.5% carbohydrates (FAO, 1986).
Broken kernels are fed to pigs as they are
unsuitable for oil extraction by the oil factories because the oil quickly
becomes rancid. Most of the industrial meal is exported to Europe for dairy
cake. Seed oil is excellent for soap production because of its high (45%)
lauric acid content. The epicarp (ca. 15% of the fruit) is a primary
fuel source. The mesocarp (ca. 20% of the fruit) is a potential
source of industrial starch, glucose or alcohol. The endocarp (ca.
59% of the fruit) is an important source of high grade charcoal for the
steel industry as well as source of distillation by-products such as tar,
acetic acid, methane, etc.; also has a potential use as a substrate for
hydroponics. Nut waste is also used locally as a fuel for cooking and to
repel insects. Palm hearts edible, the waste being fed to horses. Peduncle
can be tapped for palm wine. Trunks used for construction purposes. Leaves
used for thatch and basketry; leaf petioles used for laths for windows
and adobe walls; unfortunately the reduvid or kissing bug that transmits
the vector of Chagas disease that normally shelter in the crevices of the
leaf petioles would move to the house walls. Decayed stems and leaves used
for mulch. Leaves and liquid endosperm used in local medicine (Menninger,
1977; FAO, 1986; Clay and Clement, 1993; Pinheiro and Ferro Franzão,
1995).
Present kernel production is insufficient
for developing an efficient seed oil industry (Pinheiro and Ferro Franzão,
1995).
An important source of oil for margarine and
cooking oil during the First World War and again during the Second World
War, when kernel exports peaked at 40 000 tonnes (26 000 tonnes oil). Exports
fell to zero by the mid-1960s, although, depending on the international
prices, occasional exports are still processed. Since 1965, the Brazilian
soap and cosmetic industries have absorbed all babassu oil production (ca.
150 000 tonnes in 1985). It is also Brazil's major source of lauric acid.
The potential for developing babassu plantations to provide charcoal for
the pig-iron foundries requires investigation; the fine grained charcoal
has the disadvantage of requiring pressing and gluing into briquettes before
shipping and use. It is an extremely important palm in the subsistence
economy, being a source of income, food and oil, timber, fibre, medicine,
etc., for the indigenous population. Little attention has been paid to
developing the species because of the availability of large, albeit low
yielding, natural populations. There is a considerable potential for improving
yields by selection and develop appropriate agronomic practices, especially
in the drier areas that are unsuitable for other oil producing palms. The
labour intensive, low productivity kernel extraction is the limiting factor
in developing a commercial oil industry (FAO, 1986; Mabberley, 1987; Clay
and Clement, 1993; Pinheiro and Ferro Franzão, 1995).
Fig 18. Pachira aquatica. 1: leaf and fruit. 2: seeds.
Fig 19. Canarium indicum. 1: branch with leaves and flowers. 2: fruit.
Fig 21. Couepia longipendula. 1: fruit. 2: leaves and flowering branchlet.
Fig 29. Argania spinosa. 1: fruiting branch. 2: fruit.
Fig 31. Cola nitida. 1: leaves. 2: inflorescence. 3: fruit. 4: seed.
Photo 3: Shea butter
tree, Vitellaria paradoxa
Photo 4: flowers of Vitellaria paradoxa
Photo 5: A grove of Bactris gasipaes
Photo 6: Fruits of Bactris gasipaes ready for marked
Photo 7: Babassu (Orbignya phalerata) palm in fruit
Photo 8: Crude process
of making charcoal from babassu shell.
