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The cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries have no complete substitute for beeswax. At least small quantities will always be needed to maintain quality and specific characteristics. Beekeepers using frame hive technology are their own best clients and use most of what they produce. Industrial needs are largely provided by imports from countries with traditional beekeeping techniques. In many other applications, beeswax is replaced with synthetic waxes and compromises in quality are accepted by the manufacturers because of the reduced cost and greater availability of synthetic waxes. Industrial use of beeswax might increase if availability would increase and become more reliable or if prices could drop significantly. The balance between cheap substitutes, the large needs of beekeepers themselves and quality considerations for uses of beeswax has kept prices stable but relatively low for many years, despite scarcity in supplies. Beeswax prices for imports into the USA went above US$4/kg in the early 1980's, but are now fluctuating between US$2.10 and 3.00/kg wholesale for light-coloured wax, occasionally reaching US$6 - 7/kg. Darker wax is 10 - 20% cheaper. Like honey prices, prices for beeswax may vary considerably from place to place.

Markets and prices for products made from beeswax vary widely from country to country. Generally, the best margin between raw material value and end product price may be obtained in cosmetic preparations and jewellery. Most other applications, including pharmaceuticals, except dermatological and traditional medicinal products, are part of a very different industry which requires much larger investments and higher technologies. In these industries beeswax forms only a minuscule part both of the manufacturing process and of the final product.

The refining of beeswax for export is not common at the moment. Most industrial users prefer to buy crudely rendered and filtered wax directly from local sources because their own processing guarantees better quality control. A reliable processor should be able to establish a good enough reputation to also export refined products. Most companies prefer to buy in larger quantities (5-15 tons).

4.11 Recipes

The recipes described below are taken from various sources. They were chosen to highlight principle ingredients and demonstrate basic methods. They are not the only ways of making the product, nor necessarily the best or most economic. Many variations and substitutions are possible. Specific institutions and trade publications may be contacted for more detailed information. This is particularly true for more recent advances, because of the high degree of specialization and enormous volume of new information. Such details go beyond the possibilities of this publication. Instead, it is hoped that a large variety of ideas can be provided to people with special problems which may help them to develop new products adapted to their cultural, economical and technological environment.

Presentation of a recipe does not guarantee that it will fulfil the desired effect, nor that it will be without side-effects. Anybody using the following recipes should be advised that some of the chemicals are toxic, caustic or damaging to the environment, particularly if discarded improperly. Information should be obtained about the legal requirements concerning use of certain ingredients, precautions to be taken, labelling of finished products and permission to use selected ingredients for the manufactured product.

4.11.1 Bleached wax

Bleached beeswax is preferred for many cosmetic preparations and candles because it permits better colour control of the final product. However, it is lacking in most of the aromatic components.

A non-chemical method for bleaching beeswax is the use of sunlight. The wax is flaked, i.e. cut into small pieces, and exposed to the sun on large trays. It should not be allowed to melt and must be protected from contamination with dirt, dust and other debris. Particularly in tropical climates extra ventilation will be required to avoid melting. Wax left in solar wax extractors will also slowly bleach and slowly turn white.

Berthold (1993) describes a method of bleaching which goes back to the ancient Greeks. The beeswax is flaked and bleached in the sun, then boiled in clean, clear sea water. The scum layer floating on top is skimmed off and the heating repeated. The cooled wax is flaked again and bleached once more in the sun. A final melting in soft fresh water may be necessary to rinse out the salt residues.

Most commercial operations today use chemicals for bleaching wax or special absorbent filters. Among the many possible chemicals are oxalic acid, hydrogen peroxide, orthophosphoric acid, citric acid, sodium dichromat, sodium permanganate, potassium permanganate, ammonium persulfate, benzoyl peroxide and others. After mixing bone charcoal and Fuller's earth or diatomaceous earths into liquid wax and agitating for several hours, impurities are adsorbed and then removed with a filter press.

Berthold (1993) described two practical methods of chemical bleaching. The first one uses oxalic acid, a highly poisonous substance which needs to be handled and stored with care. Glasses and rubber or plastic gloves should always be worn. Water should be kept nearby for washing the skin or face in case of accidents. Spills need to be cleaned up immediately and the acid should be stored in well labelled containers beyond the reach of children. Chemicals should not be spilled or discarded into open water (drainage ditches, creeks, ponds and lakes). If there is no other way of discarding them, chemicals should be poured into a hole in the ground, far away from wells, and then covered with soil. Stainless steel, fire proof glass or enamel containers need to be used for heating the wax. Containers should only be partially filled so that the mixture will not boil over, particularly if processing takes place over an open flame.

The wax has to be heated above its melting point for at least 10 minutes and stirred in water, to which approximately one tablespoon of oxalic acid has been added per 4 litres of water. Four litres of the above acid/water mix can be used to bleach up to 10 kg of wax in one batch, but the exact proportions should be determined for the local wax and water conditions. Slightly higher concentrations of citric acid are required and the heating will have to be extended. Since citric acid, however, is much less toxic and dangerous, it should be preferred over oxalic acid. To control the progress of bleaching, a small quantity of the wax is ladled or spooned into cold water. If not sufficiently bleached, heating should continue and/or a very small quantity of acid be added. If sufficiently bleached, the wax should be cooled, re-melted in a larger quantity of clean water and moulded into blocks for sale.

In the second method of bleaching described by Berthold (1993), small quantities of 30-50% reagent grade hydrogen peroxide (this is very caustic) is added to the melted wax and water mixture. The temperature is maintained at 65-70 ⁰C and stirring will expedite the bleaching process. Progress can be checked as in the oxalic acid method. If only low concentration hydrogen peroxide is available, larger quantities will have to be used and the stirring and heating will have to be maintained for longer - up to 30 or even 45 minutes (the concentration of hydrogen peroxide cannot be increased by evaporation). Again, the bleached wax should be re-melted once in clean water to remove all reagents. The exact proportions of hydrogen peroxide, water and the quantity of wax processed, need to be determined by experimentation. As with all recipes, a small batch should be tried first, before processing larger quantities.

Oxalic acid is also used for bleaching wood and is often available in wood stores and hardware stores. Other compounds sold for wood bleaching are unsuitable and cannot be used instead. Pharmacies (drug stores) might stock both oxalic acid and hydrogen peroxide, but these are likely to be of very low concentration. Beauty salons may also stock hydrogen peroxide and chemical supply houses should have both chemicals. If beeswax has to be processed at all, solar bleaching is still the least expensive, least dangerous and least toxic procedure.

The basic elements of a candle are the solid wax as fuel for the flame and a wick, which serves to bring the molten wax to the flame. Oil lamps work on the same principle, but they need a container to hold the liquid fuel.

The best material for the wick is a fibre which burns with very little ash at low temperatures. Pure cotton thread is the best. Several thin cotton threads should be braided or plaited together until the desired thickness is reached. Twisting of the threads is not recommended, since they might unwind during burning and then create an irregular flame consuming much more fuel. Commercially produced candle wick can often be purchased in speciality shops.

The wick needs to be in the centre of the candle for even burning. The diameter of the wick in proportion to candle diameter is important to maximize the light obtained from the quantity of wax and to prevent wax dripping down the side of the candle. Thicker candles need thicker wicks, but thick candles with a relatively thin wick burn longer and give less light, since the flame is shaded by the remaining edges of the candle. The precise ratio depends on the purpose of the candle and should be determined by experiment.

Beeswax for candles needs to be extremely clean and free of all impurities (propolis or pollen) otherwise the candle will sputter while burning, give irregular light and possibly be splattering hot beeswax. Beeswax purchased from most beekeepers must usually be reprocessed at least once more in clean water.

There are various pigments available from specialty suppliers for colouring wax and some natural dyes will also work. Regular paint pigments are often insoluble in fat or burn incompletely and so should not be used. Normal food colouring does not work very well as it will leave residues, might clog the wick or produce stains. If only applied as a thin outer layer it may be acceptable but special fat soluble pigments give much better results.

Figure 4.7 : A display of homemade candles from West Africa (from left to right): stained candle moulded in PVC pipe, coloured wax with trimmed tip, candle still inside of bamboo mould, 2 candles rolled from wax foundation sheets, decorated candle from plastic cup mould, candle from bamboo mould (bottom).

Candles can be made by various processes (see Figure 4.7). The most suitable techniques for home use or small scale manufacturing involve using candle moulds or wax sheets to roll candles. In all cases, extreme care needs to be taken since beeswax is highly flammable and because of its high heat capacity, can cause severe burns when dropped onto bare skin. Wax for candle making should always be heated in a water bath (see VlProblemsV! below). Stainless steel or glass containers are recommended, but tin cans may be used for small quantities.

Plain or patterned wax sheets are rolled around a central, wax impregnated wick. The wick has to be soaked in hot wax for a while and cooled in a very straight shape by suspending it with a weight attached at the bottom. The size, height, thickness and length of the wax sheet determines the shape and size of the candle. Frequently, the patterned foundation sheets for beekeeping are used (see Figure 4.7). No special moulds or complicated procedures are involved: it is a very clean and simple process which is easy to carry out.

The sheets are very easy to make. A smooth, wetted, wooden board dipped a few times into molten wax will make two sheets at a time (one on each side of the board). If only small quantities of wax are available, the liquid material can be poured into a flat mould made with a rectangular frame laid on a smooth surface (a wooden board, aluminum sheet or thick glass). The mould or board should be treated with soapy water or diluted honey to prevent the wax sticking to it. It will also be easier to remove the wax if the mould is flexible. A warm mould will facilitate spreading of small quantities of wax to provide a thin sheet. The mould surface can be sculpted to give the candle surface a special decorative effect like, for example, with beekeeping foundation sheets.

The most common process for making candles uses moulds to give the wax its final shape. All kinds of patterns can be used; moulded candles do not have to be round. They can be square, triangular, oval, egg shaped, conical, all kinds of other geometric shapes or simply an irregular, carved design. In principle, the mould has to withstand the temperature of the molten wax (up to 100⁰C), should not expand or shrink too much with changing temperature and should be easy to remove from the hardened candle.

For round stick candles, the choice of a mould depends on the size of the desired candle and the materials available. Pre-manufactured metal moulds are available from some specialized suppliers, but any round tube of the right internal diameter can be used: galvanized steel, aluminum, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), some types of rubber and bamboo. To facilitate removal of the candle, the PVC or bamboo could be carefully slit on one side. Held together with wire or string during the pouring, it can be opened a little to remove the candle. A small seam of wax might be left on the candle, but this can be carefully scraped off.

The longer the mould, the more difficult it will be to remove the candle. For solid, one-piece moulds and candles of 2 to 3 cm in diameter, a length of 12 to 15 cm is most practical. If a freezer or refrigerator is available, the moulds and candles may be cooled for a few hours. Cold wax will shrink away from the mould and can be pushed out easily.

The moulds need to be prepared so that the wax will not stick to their surface. Diluted honey or soap can be used as a coating. Silicones are also suitable but Vaseline (petroleum jelly) is not since it will be melted by the wax and will mix into the outer layer. Any coating that is used will have to be wiped off the finished candle with a damp cloth without wetting the wick.

To secure the wick in the centre of the mould, one end is tied to a small stick using a slip khot. The wick is threaded through the mould without touching the coated walls and the stick is placed into two notches cut in the rim of the mould to hold the wick in the centre of the tube. The loose end of the wick is tied tightly to another stick fitting into the notches on the opposite end of the mould. Ensure that the wick is in the centre of the tube.

One end of the mould is covered with a leaf, foil, clay or stick and placed into sandy ground. The mould should be warmed as much as possible in a stove, near a fire or inside a solar wax melter. Its temperature should be as close to that of the molten wax as possible. A few minutes after all the wax has melted in the water bath, it can be poured slowly into the hot moulds. The hotter the wax, the better is the final result, but it should not be boiling. Wax in the pouring container should not be allowed to cool down too much. Once poured, the mould may be covered so that no dirt enters. Moulds and candles should cool down as slowly as possible, e.g. in a warm room without draughts and direct sunlight.

After about two hours, thin candles (2-3 cm diameter) should have cooled down enough to remove them from the mould. The sticks are removed from both ends, making sure not to pull the wick from the centre of the candle. The mould is opened, refrigerated or the candle pushed out immediately. Any mould coating is carefully wiped off. The wick is cut to a length of 1 cm on the burning end and trimmed and cleaned at the other end. The candle should be stored in a cool, dark place and be wrapped in some clean paper or plastic bag to keep it from getting dusty and dirty. Newspaper should not be used because the print might transfer onto the candle.

If the mould cools down too fast or was not hot enough during pouring, the centre of the open end of the candle might sink. It may be refilled with liquid wax immediately after the first pouring has started to solidify and showed first symtoms. The same conditions may also lead to cracked candles. If either occurs, preventive measures include pouring the wax even hotter (but still without boiling it), prewarming the moulds bettered pouring the wax during the warmest time of the day (preferably in the sun) and cooling the moulds slowly in a warm, draught-free place.

If the solidified wax contains small droplets of water, the candle will sputter during burning as with the inclusion of dirt. To avoid this problem, freshly cleaned and processed wax may be heaated for a little longer  before dipping or pouring the candles. A period of 5 to 10 minutes close to l00°C should be enough and is said to also improve the non-drip quality of the candle.

The larger the operation becomes, the more important proper control of the temperature conditions will become.

Odd shaped candles cannot be pushed out of a mould without opening it. they have to be carved individually, or a mould has to be prepared out of at least which, when tied together, has one open end into which the wax can be poured. Therefore they have to be carved individually, or a mould has to be prepared out of at least two pieces which, when tied together has one open end into which the wax can be poured. A simpler alternative is to produce two half caldles in separate moulds and then "glue" the halves toghether with molten wax. Otherwise, the same methods and cautions apply as for stick candles.

The moulds can be made around a clay, wood or wax model with resins, silicone rubber, clay or metal, using techniques similar to those employed in metal casting and dentistry.

Figure 4.8 : Various shaped candles and packaging. A dipped candle is laying on the bottom.

Very nicely shaped classic candles can be made by repeatedly dipping a weighted or stiffened wick into a liquid wax bath at 65 ⁰C. An additional layer of wax is built with each dip. If the temperature of the wax is regulated correctly, this method produces excellent candles, but requires considerable skill and patience. Only very high quality candles and those for special ceremonial purposes are now made this way. Candles have to be immersed fast, left long enough to warm the solid wax and be withdrawn at just the right speed to avoid ripples on the candle and drippings on the bottom. Between dips, candles have to cool for a few minutes. Eason (1991) gives a simple and very clear account on how to dip beeswax candles. Very skilled craftsmen can also pour hot wax over the wick in order to build up thick candles.

For industrial processes candles can also be pressed, extruded or drawn. To make pressed candles the wax is first powdered by atomizing (by spraying a fine mist) liquid wax during cooling. The powder is then pressed into the desired forms. For extrusion, a hollow tube with a wick in its centre is drawn from a perforated metal sheet and cut into the desired lengths. For drawn candles a continuous wick is intermittently drawn through liquid wax and holes of increasing diameter in metal sheets.

In some countries sculptured candles are popular (see Figure 4.8). Thick candles can be sculpted into various artistic shapes, such as animals or ceremonial or religious symbols for birthdays or other special occasions. They can also be decorated with surface materials such as sand and may be painted in different colours. Sculptured casting moulds can be made with silicone rubber so that particular shapes can be produced in larger numbers.

Although cheap paraffin wax candles are available in most rural areas, the manufacture of beeswax candles can be an additional incentive for beekeepers or for women to get started in beekeeping. In areas with no readily accessible market for beeswax, it is all too often thrown away after honey processing. Under these circumstances, even cheap candles made by mixing paraffin wax with beeswax are an improvement which can provide an additional source of income or avoid extra expenses on lighting. Once larger quantities of wax are saved by beekeepers or beer makers, other markets can be accessed. Beeswax mixed with even the smallest quantity of paraffin or other synthetic wax should never be given back to bees in the form of foundation sheets or comb starters, because all wax subsequently produced from these colonies will be adulterated.

For those interested in more details, the book of Coggshall and Morse (1984) is highly recommended. Other practical details can be found in a variety of publications, mostly bee journals. Some very simple illustrated methods are shown in the Peace Corps beekeeping manual (Gentry et al., 1985; Gentry, 1988) and in an ITDG (1978) publication. The following literature describes particular processes in more detail: the making of reusable and sculptured moulds from silicone rubber (Rigby and Hepburn, 1981), hand dipping of candles (Driesche, 1983), general tricks of the trade (Vinci, 1981; Furness, 1974 and 1986; Coutare and Guzzi, 1989) and supply sources for the UK (Higginbottam, 1974) The basic principles are all the same, but differences usually arise in the material selected for moulds, many of which have been mentioned in these publications.

Figure 4.9 : Special, moulded, carved and painted candles from displays in Germany (Mungersdorff, Koln)

Only one very basic recipe for making a very simple cream is given here. All other recipes can be found in Chapter 9.

Most skin creams are used to provide moisture to the skin, keep the skin moist and for replacing some of the oils of the skin. A basic cream therefore contains water, an oil and a wax to make the mixture creamy and allow even distribution of the water. Since water does not mix with oils or wax, an emulsifier (in this case borax) must be added. The emulsifier changes the acids of the wax into soaps which then mix well with water. The proportions of the ingredients can vary but not more than 6.8% borax, on the weight of wax, should be used. Since borax is not very soluble in the mixture and if too much is added, the cream will have a rough texture (Crane, 1990).

Many different vegetable or mineral oils can be used but the disadvantage of vegetable oils is that they become rancid within a few weeks. Such oils are widely available and some of them have additional beneficial characteristics. Whichever oils are used, they should be as clean as possible usually of higher than food grade. The water that is used should be the best available. Rain or fresh spring water is considered best, but filtered well water or clean pipe water may also be used. Heavily chlorinated pipe water may be harmful and the calcium in hard water reacts unfavourably with beeswax and other cosmetic ingredients. Clean and uncontaminated water is becoming increasingly rare in all parts of the world so special attention should be paid to this important ingredient. Industrial cosmetics are usually made with distilled or de-ionised water.

4.11.4 Grafting wax for horticulture

Mix one part melted beeswax with one part of resin and enough lard or tallow to make the mixture pliable Some finely ground charcoal may be added to protect the wound against sunlight. The mixture may be spread warm or applied in thin strips (Crane, 1990).

Melt equal portions of resin and beeswax in a double boiler or water bath and mix well. After cooling roll the mixture into sticks and store them (individually wrapped) in a cool place. Another recipe recommends a mixture of equal parts resin, beeswax and lard, prepared in the same way.

Since some growth hormones have been discovered in beeswax, the above formulations may actually be better than some commercial preparations.

Judging by the variation in recipes, it is obvious that there are many ways of preparing a wood finish or polish suitable for particular application. Turpentine is the most commonly available natural solvent for wax, but other oils may be substituted to avoid the rather strong odour of turpentine. Suitable alternatives are orange, lemon or linseed oil, naphtha or other liquid refined petroleum fractions and to a lesser degree, other refined vegetable oils. The wax content can range from 5 to 50% and occasionally even more. The consistency of the paste or oil may change, but can be corrected with appropriate adjustments in the proportions of each ingredient, e.g. less oil or more wax if it is too liquid.

Paste furniture polish:

2) Ingredients (in parts by volume):

Melt and mix equal parts of turpentine, linseed oil and beeswax in a water bath. Stir well and when cool spoon into wide mouthed labelled jars or flat tin cans.

Liquid furniture polish:

2) Ingredients (in parts by volume or weight):

In order to improve the quality of this and other above polishes, try to get better refined ingredients, particularly turpentine or oils.

All recipes for spray application of beeswax were found to either contain highly toxic chemicals or those which are destructive to the upper atmosphere of the earth and are, therefore not described here.

Figure 4.10: Furniture polish spray with beeswax and a polish paste based mostly on beeswax.

Floor Polish

2) A cheaper product for wooden floors and cement or tiled floors may be prepared as follows:

Heat 2.5 parts of water and add the wax to it. Mix the potash with the rest of the water and pour it into the mixture of wax and water. Heat until it becomes a milky fluid. A similar product may be made by using soap instead of potash and less water.

Shoe polish, cream type

Black - Acid Black, Brown - Bismarck Brown G, Red - Crocein Scarlet, Orange-Orange II, and Yellow - Metanil Yellow.

If one or the other waxes are not available, they can be replaced with beeswax. The consistency of the final polish may change slightly, but this should not alter significantly the performance of the product.

4.11.6 Cravons

Another source (Gala Books, 1971) describes using 4 parts of wax, 1 part of tallow and 1 part of lampblack and, for most other colours, a mixture of 2 parts wax, 1 part tallow and 1 part chrome yellow, prussian blue or 4parts zinc white. Ordinary paint pigments may also be used. These mixes are usually pressed into the right shape. They may also be rolled into sticks and wrapped in paper. Tallow is rendered beef fat and it can be obtained from butcher's shops, slaughterhouses etc.

4.11.7 Leather preserves

2) Another liquid recipe uses equal parts of turpentine and wax, plus a fat soluble dye. The wax component can be varied according to availability or the final consistency required of the polish.

3) Minrath (1957) suggested 200 g of montan wax, 160 g paraffin wax and 30 g of stearic acid in an equal quantity of turpentine (390g) . Any one or all of the waxes can be replaced by beeswax.

4) Ingredients (in parts by weight) adapted from Minrath (1957):

In order to waterproof paper or textiles, an emulsion has been patented which also provides good air permeability and abrasion resistance. For this purpose, a colloidal emulsion is produced (see 9.4.3 and 9.4.4) by homogenizing melted beeswax (2 parts), fatty acids (3-5 parts) and paraffin wax (15-18 parts) in an alkaline solution of soapy water (Pan and Matsumoto, 1975). The paper or textiles can be brushed with the solution or dipped into it.

Beeswax has been used in paints since antiquity. The famous mirror wall at Sigiriya, in Sri Lanka was painted with a mixture containing resins, egg white and beeswax, polished to a very high sheen. It can still be observed after more than 500 years. Some of the wall paintings in Pompeii, Italy, prepared with coloured beeswax are still admirable after almost 2000 years.

A simple mix of 10% resin melted together with beeswax can be coloured according to need with natural dyes or oil soluble pigments and be painted while warm and liquid (Brown, 1989 see 1981). This provides a permanent, waternroof decoration.

For beekeeping, hive boxes can be weatherproofed by dipping them in hot linseed oil to which 5 to 10% of beeswax have been added. A much cheaper method which is not recommended because it is so dangerous has been described by a beekeeper in Argentina. It involves heating petrol (gasoline) in which old combs and hive scrapings have been melted. The hive bodies can be dipped into the hot fuel or be brushed with it.

Immerse at least 2 kg of old comb and hive scrapings per 20 litres of fuel and careftilly stir. After 15 minutes remove from the fire, skim the scum off the su~ace and start painting or dipping. If the liquid has cooled too much (to below 55 ⁰C) reheat and continue. The proportion of comb can be increased and/or 5 to 10% of linseed oil may be added. Before use, allow the boxes to dry and air for a couple of weeks.

Worker bees scouting for new home sites in preparation for, or during swarming, apparently react positively to the presence of wax and (to a lesser degree) to propolis. Smearing or melting beeswax inside a bait hive or swarm trap makes it more attractive. Only imitations of the Nasanov pheromone, a volatile attractant (hive odour) secreted by the honeybee workers, are more attractive. A successfully tested pheromone lure is made of equal parts of citral, geraniol, neuronic and geranic acids, preferably enclosed in slow release formulations.

4.11.12 Topical ointment for burns

By adding a few drops of propolis extract with the aloe, preservation should be prolonged and healing of wounds may be improved.

A base cream for treating wounds and skin diseases in animals was described by Vidyaev (1968) as consisting of mineral oil (boiled in order to reduce the water content) to which pine gum resin was added together with beeswax. The mixture was filtered and powdered calcium carbonate added before cooling. No proportions were given in the English abstract, nor were results of application described. However, cream-like consistency can be obtained with proportions copied from the above recipes and resin content may be from 2 to 10%. Addition of propolis extract (at 1-2%) would probably increase the effects of this basic cream.

Beeswax itself, when slightly softened by kneading in ones hands, sticks to many materials and surfaces. It can therefore be used to temporarily hold light objects together.

The following recipe is referred to as Turners' cement and can be used with a variety of materials, wood, metal and clay pots. Its performance may not compete with other specialized adhesives, but is a cheap alternative when nothing else is available.

Melt the beeswax in a water bath and add the resin and the pitch. when everything has melted, stir in the brick dust and leave it to cool. Warm the adhesive before applying it.

4.11.15 Determination of saponification cloud point ((1uoted from ITCg 1978)

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