A major drawback to existing approaches is a lack of a systems perspective. The new approaches suggested recently have successfully minimized this drawback. These are:
· the Agricultural Knowledge and Information System (AKIS);
· the Agricultural Technology Management System Model (ATMS); and
· ISNAR's Research and Technology Transfer Linkages Framework (RTTL).
Agricultural Knowledge and Information System
Proposed by Roling (1989), AKIS examines the research-extension interface from a knowledge-system perspective, with basic, applied and adaptive research, subject-matter specialists, village-level workers and farmers all seen as components of the system. '... an AKIS is the set of agricultural institutions, organizations, persons and their linkages and interactions, engaged in the generation, transformation, transmission, storage, retrieval, regulation, consolidation, dissemination, diffusion and utilization of knowledge and information, with the purpose of working synergically to support opinion formation, decision making, problem solving and/or innovation in a given sector, branch, discipline or other domain' (Roling, 1989: 1-2).
User control and flow of information and influence from the users of technology are considered essential ingredients of the system. AKIS contains the interface of both top-down and bottom-up flows in linkage processes (Figure 7, based on Roling, 1989).
Figure 7 AKIS: an agricultural research and extension linkage system
AKIS, for effective linkage, stresses similarities in culture, language, socio-economic status of the personnel, etc., so as to facilitate communication. AKIS proposes the use of institutional go-betweens to bridge the information and ideological gaps between research and extension. The functions of these go-betweens are to maintain liaison with research so as to keep abreast of new technical developments and help translate field problems into researchable questions; to establish linkages with input suppliers to improve the chances that the right inputs will be available as and when needed; and to provide technical support to field staff and pick up field problems from them.
Knowledge management is considered a key to the successful running of AKIS. It requires nudging the widely differing institutions, often under different administrative arrangements, both public and private, into compatible and complementary system roles. Knowledge management also requires system articulation, thorough understanding of the functions to be performed in the system, proper management of interfaces, balancing the power of the various institutions and users, an effective management information system, and proper management of resource flows.
Agricultural Technology Management System model
ATMS comprises 'all institutions, individuals and their interdependent relationships aimed at the generation, assessment and diffusion of improved agricultural technologies in order to increase agricultural production and incomes' (Javier, 1989). This model helps in identifying opportunities for improving the overall management of agricultural technology activities in a country. The model adopts a systems approach (Figure 8, based on Elliot, 1977), with the technology sector at its core. The technology sector has generating, transfer, and utilization components. The system operates in a politico-bureaucratic structure which is composed of representatives of government and decision-makers. The system has an interface with an exogenous system of technology generating and transferring institutions. The structural conditions under which it operates include world markets for inputs and outputs, the resource base of the country and the initial distribution of resources and economic and political power within the country. The behaviour of the technology sector is limited by the policy environment.
Figure 8 ATMS: the agricultural technology management system
ITGS = international technology generating system. ITTS = international technology transfer system TGS = technology generating system. TTS = technology transfer system. TUS = technology using system
ATMS operates on the premise that the component parts of the system, individually and collectively, are amenable to adjustment and manipulation to varying degrees, which will allow the system to adapt to its constraints or to attack the constraints themselves.
Research and Technology Transfer Linkages Framework
RTTL was developed by ISNAR and specifically designed for the study of linkages. This model considers three broad sets of contextual factors - political, technical and organizational - which condition the choice, operation and effectiveness of linkage mechanisms among participants within the national agricultural technology system. It also attempts to introduce the notion of performance indicators.
The political environment is very narrowly defined to mean institutional politics, and technical factors are those related to the specific type of activities and methodologies associated with technology development and delivery. The organization and management factors involve such issues as the division of tasks, resources, authority among different organizations, units and individuals, and the internal management and informal dynamics of the organizations and their components. The political and technical factors influence the linkage mechanisms and the performance of the technology system directly. In addition, they exert their influence indirectly through the organizational factors. The performance criteria considered in the model are: integration, technology availability and relevance, responsiveness and sustainability.
Approaches for improving research and extension linkages in ATMS and RTTL include both formal and informal linkages.
The formal linkage mechanism could be at individual or institutional level. At individual level, the formal linkages are integration of functions and the appointment of linkage officers; at institutional level, the linkages are integration of functions, creation of linkage units, integration through regular joint activities and integration through ad hoc activities.
