NORTH ASIA - SUB-REGIONAL STATUS AND PROJECTION ANALYSIS

CHINA
JAPAN
MONGOLIA
KOREA (DEMOCRATIC PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF)
KOREA (REPUBLIC OF)

Countries: China, Japan, Mongolia, Korea (Rep.), Korea (DPR).

The forest resources

China dominates the north Asia sub-region as its territory covers more than 80 % of the total considered area. The major part of North Asia is under cold temperate climate and subtropical conditions are only found in south China and Japan. Most of the commercial forests are coniferous and located in remote mountainous areas. Japan and both Koreas are well endowed with forest cover. Forests in China and Mongolia are unevenly distributed and cover less than 20% of the national land. Economic policies and past wars have had disastrous effects on natural forests stands. Forests have been over-exploited and shifting cultivation still occurs in less developed areas. However, China has embarked in on-going large programmes of tree farm planting and shelterbelts. In Japan and Korea Rep., poor natural forest lands were converted into productive man-made forests during the past 30 years. Present growing stock is generally low because many natural forests stands have not yet recovered and are still young. Wood growth in Mongolia is very slow due to difficult climatic conditions. The sub-region is prone to natural disasters such floods, storms and fires.

Forest ownership is mainly private in Japan and Korea Rep. However, the ownership pattern in the former communist regime countries is changing rapidly. Long term lease of forests and lands are being allowed for forest logging and planting. Natural forest management is improving with better control on harvesting operations and shifting cultivation. Total forest and wooded land area should increase slightly in the sub-region during the period. That increase will be the direct consequence of the high rate of tree plantations in China and of the efforts to keep down the deforestation rate. Tree plantation area will increase by 35% during the period while the natural forest area will decrease by 5%.

Sector development perspectives

Policy reforms in the forestry sec have been implemented at different period in the countries forming the sub-region. Japan and Korea Rep. should benefit soon from their efforts and domestic supply should increase by 2010. Korea DPR. still has to shift its present forest policy from centrally planned system to meet the forest management standards for sustainable development.

Japan could probably have benefited earlier but domestic wood harvest is not promoted due to policies to rely on wood import for domestic supply and due to lack of incentives to improve silvicultural operations. Despite lay tree plantation programmes and strong policy measures such as promotion of wood substitutes, China will not be self-sufficient in supply within the next twenty years. Harsh climate conditions and new environmental policy will favour forest conservation in Mongolia.

Wood production and fellings

The sub-region is short of industrial roundwood. All countries are compelled to import wood products to meet the increasing demand for industrial wood products, the volumes being small only in Mongolia. Japan particularly has a long tradition of wood use for houses construction and paper consumption. China and Korea Rep. are undergoing rapid economic expansion. Present wood stock and growth cannot cope with the demand for industrial roundwood. Industrial roundwood felling is still higher than the net annual increment. Tree plantations are still young and not yet productive to counterbalance wood import. Although the annual temperature is relatively cold, fuelwood production is somewhat low due to the efforts to reduce wood consumption like in China or related to the economic development like in Japan. Only in China, the total fellings (including industrial roundwood and fuelwood) are higher than the total annual increment but their effects influence the sub-region picture.

In the sub-region, the SI/felling ratio will remain stable but in deficit indicating that a gap between wood production and wood supply. China accounts for 85% of the 2010 felling of the sub-region. In the other countries of the sub-region, the domestic wood production will increase less than the fellings and therefore the relative SI/felling ratio will diminish increasing accordingly the global percentage of wood deficit. Wood production from plantations will increase and represent about 83% of the total industrial roundwood production.

Table II.1 - North Asia - Summary status and projection

		Unit (1000)	1990	1995	2000	2005	2010
Production forests
Production forests area - total		ha	113,463	115,764	118,066	120,371	122,679
	- Natural exploitable forests	ha	82,678	82,259	81,841	81,426	81,014
	- Plantation forests	ha	30,785	33,505	36,225	38,945	41,665
Commercial growing stock - total		m3	9,441,288	9,750,584	9,985,446	10,214,346	10,424,471
	- Natural forests	m3	6,711,998	6,682,308	6,662,676	6,638,058	6,613,514
	- Plantations forests	m3	2,729,290	2,925,920	3,138,590	3,367,300	3,612,050
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	249,453	265,149	280,846	296,546	312,248
	- Natural exploitable forests	m3/year	68,863	68,519	68,176	67,836	67,498
	- Plantations forests	m3/year	180,590	196,630	212,670	228,710	244,750
Fellings ind. round., total		m3/year	220,982	228,313	239,049	256,765	279,717
	- Industrial roundwood removals	m3/year	180,180	185,920	194,575	209,544	229,226
	- Waste and residues	m3/year	40,802	42,393	44,474	47,221	50,491
Other forests and wooded lands
Conservation areas		ha	109,356	204,000	240,000	240,000	280,000
Low productive/open forests		ha	114,005	112,936	111,869	110,804	109,742
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	49,546	49,197	48,848	48,501	48,155
Non forest lands
Commercial tree crops		ha	600	650	700	750	750
Arable lands		ha	102,021	101,077	100,479	99,880	99,329
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	75,751	75,057	74,625	74,191	73,721
Fellings fuel/other wood - total		m3/year	210,949	220,360	230,215	240,537	251,348
Wood stock incr., all sources		m3/year	374,751	389,403	404,320	419,238	434,124
Fellings, all sources		m3/year	431,931	448,673	469,264	497,302	531,066
Forests and other wooded lands		ha	227,468	228,699	229,935	231,175	232,421
Percentage forested lands		%	20	20	20	20	20

Table II.2 - North Asia: Changes between 1995 and 2010 related to some parameters

Unit	in 000 ha
	Forests. and w. lands			Nat. exploit. forests			Plantation forests
Country	1995	2010	%	1995	2010	%	1995	2010	%
China	176,791	181,204	2.497	65,160	64,187	-1.5	20,250	27,000	33
Japan	24,718	24,718	0	6,468	6,468	0.0	9,535	10,285	8
Mongolia	13,727	13,685	-0.31	5,631	5,589	-0.8	30	110	267
Korea Rep.	6,292	6,230	-0.99	2,200	2,135	-3.1	2,100	2,400	14
Korea Dem.	7,172	6,584	-8.2	2,800	2,635	-6.2	1,570	1,870	19
Total	233,113	232,421	-0.3	82,259	81,014	-1.5	33,485	41,665	24

Unit	000m3						Unit
	Total fellings			Stock Increment			Ratio S.I./fellings		Weight*
Country	1995	2010	%	1995	2010	%	1995	2010	%
China	390,227	449,188	15.11	293,924	331,622	12.8	0.8	0.7	85
Japan	39,940	56,703	41.97	68,860	73,210	6.3	1.7	1.3	11
Mongolia	1,446	1,827	26.31	2,660	2,761	3.8	1.8	1.5	0.3
Korea Rep.	8,904	13,095	47.08	11,092	12,168	9.7	1.2	0.9	2
Korea Dem.	8,156	10,253	25.71	12,867	14,364	11.6	1.6	1.4	2
Total	448,673	531,066	18.36	389,403	434,124	11.5	0.87	0.82	100

Unit	000 ha
	Total country land area
Country	Year 1990
China	932,641
Japan	36,460
Mongolia	156,650
Korea Rep.	9,902
Korea Dem.	12,054
Total	1,147,707

* Countries relative weight related to fellings by year 2010

CHINA

The forest resources

China's forests and wooded lands cover only 18% of the total land. Forests are unevenly distributed and mainly found in three major areas (in the Northeast, Southwest and South); the natural forest resources are often located in remote areas and mountain ranges. Coniferous type forests (pine, larch, spruce, fir) represent about half of the total forest area, broadleaf forests either temperate (paulownia, poplar) or tropical (mahogany) are the other half. Forests in China have gone through a long degradation process caused by over exploitation, mismanagement and conversion into agriculture. Therefore, mature and productive natural forest areas have dropped significantly and the quality of the stands is presently generally low. Lack of data series and reliable information makes it difficult to understand the past evolution of forests. Accessible mixed-coniferous forests in the north have been heavily logged and 75% (in area) and 45% (in growing stock) of the timber forests are reported as young or middle-aged stands.

Population pressure, rapid modernisation of the country's infrastructure are creating an unprecedented demand for all natural resources and wood supply cannot cope with the present requirements. The highly uneven distribution of remaining forests and the inadequate transportation capacities are aggravating regional shortages. All mature forests continue to be in the state ownership and managed through a network of forest bureau. After a long period of state monopoly, presently about 60% of the forested lands are either managed by households with contractual arrangements or are directly owned by peasant families. All arable land including land for tree crops is allocated to households for a period of fifty years. Communal forests and waste lands are contracted to individuals for management.

Erosion problems are dramatic; floods and windstorms are devastating on the plains and the Loess plateau. For the rural population (67%), the main economic activity is related to subsistence agriculture. Tree crops often play an important role for cash income.

Since 1950, the country has been engaged in a tremendous effort in revegetation. At the beginning, mass tree planting campaigns and compulsory afforestation programmes were credited with unprecedented tree plantations achievements; however, the emphasis on quantity requested by the centrally planned system was not matched by quality. Privatisation transformed most of the Chinese countryside and new plantings are reportedly relatively more successful. Farmlands and pasture lands are protected by shelterbelts. Afforestation projects and massive shelterbelts programmes are presently being designed and implemented under privatised contract management. But prolonged droughts, extensive pest and fire damage are reducing the tree plantation impacts and production expectations.

China is listed as one of the mega-diversity countries in the world as it contains full ranges of major habitats from the permafrost regions in the Northeast to the humid tropical climates in the South. About 5.3% of the total land area has been classified as natural reserves to protect biodiversity.

Forestry sector development

China started reforms a long time ago; in 1979 new policies introduced a rural responsibility system for natural resources management. In 1985, a new Forestry Law and a set of managing regulations was promulgated providing guidance to the private sector for sector development. Due to the heterogeneity and size of the country, forestry development will be implemented and expanded progressively at district level. A planning process (NFAP) has been carried out so far in the Simoa district (Province of Yunan) as a first experimental exercise.

As the wood shortfall is unlikely to be made up rapidly by new plantation production, strict measures have been taken to curb tree felling including widespread campaigns for the use of coal instead of fuelwood and for the use of substitute materials in place of wood in construction. China's planners have set self-sufficiency in roundwood supply to the year 2040.

Projected development

The annual felling is significantly in excess of increment and this situation should remain for some time although China is making strong efforts to limit forest degradation and wood consumption. Based on various sources of information, the increase of industrial roundwood removals is estimated at 1% per year. The deficit between wood supply and consumption would be met through wood imports for industrial forest products including roundwood (or substitute) and by forest stock depletion for fuelwood or use of non-wood biomass fields. China is a leader in biogass use and also has coal as a substitute. Fuelwood consumption is assumed to be low as wood supply is very scarce in populated areas. Due to the poor quality of early tree plantations, their contribution to wood supply will be relatively low.

China will continue to invest in its forestry sector development mainly through large scheme plantations. Less expensive operations like better management of the productive but also the so-called unproductive forests could be promoted to release the present tight situation. However, China faces major structural constraints for sector development such as inefficient technologies, technical staff availability, low degree of commercialisation of forests products and poor economy. As suggested by the Chinese planners, despite all efforts more time is needed to improve the present situation.

References

AFOCEL - Technical papers 1994 no 3 - 1994

Buongiorno J., Zhang Y., Zhang D. in "China's Economic and Demographic Growth, Forest Products Consumption, and Wood Requirements: 1949 to 2010" - Forest Products Journal April 1997.

China's agricultural reforms: experiences and achievements of the agricultural sector in the market reform process by Andrew Watson, Chinese Economy Research Unit, Centre for Asian Studies, University of Adelaide, January 1994, Paper presented at FAO Workshop, Fuzhou, China, 21-26 March 1994

China's Country report on forestry - Asia Pacific Outlook Study - Feb. 1997

China Fact Book - China Technical Association of the Paper Industry and Pulp and Paper International

Chinese Academy of Forestry - "The marketing of Wood Products in China" - Hong YANG, Junli SHI.

FAO - Forest Resources Assessment 1990; FAO forestry technical paper 124 - Global synthesis.

FAO - Notes on the 3rd National Forest Inventory (84-88) in China.

Lyons M.J. - China - The awakening giant - in Asia Pacific Forest Industries - Jan/Feb. 1994.

MoF - Forestry Action Plan for China's Agenda 21. - May 1995.

MoF - Forestry Development and Environment Protection in China - 1992.

MoF - Forestry development in China (Abstract) - 1995.

Smil Vaclav - "Afforestation in China" in Afforestation, policies, planning and progress - edited by Mather A.- Belhaven Press - 1993.

World Bank - Staff Appraisal Report - Forest resource development and protection project. May 1994.

Table II.3 - China: Status and Projection

		Unit (1000)	1990	1995	2000	2005	2010
Production forests
Production forests area - total		ha	83,486	85,410	87,334	89,260	91,187
	- Natural exploitable forests	ha	65,486	65,160	64,834	64,510	64,187
	- Plantation forests	ha	18,000	20,250	22,500	24,750	27,000
Commercial growing stock - total		m3	6,122,407	6,083,263	6,212,498	6,353,015	6,504,703
	- Natural forests	m3	5,042,406.6	5,017,320	4,992,233	4,967,272	4,942,436
	- Plantations forests	m3	1,080,000	1,201,500	1,336,500	1,485,000	1,647,000
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	160,389	173,628	186,867	200,108	213,350
	- Natural exploitable forests	m3/year	52,389	52,128	51,867	51,608	51,350
	- Plantations forests	m3/year	108,000	121,500	135,000	148,500	162,000
Fellings ind. round., total		m3/year	187,500	196,875	206,719	217,055	227,907
	- Industrial roundwood removals	m3/year	150,000	157,500	165,375	173,644	182,326
	- Waste and residues	m3/year	37,500	39,375	41,344	43,411	45,581
Other forests and wooded lands
Conservation areas		ha	51,000	51,000	60,000	60,000	70,000
Low productive/open forests		ha	91,840	91,381	90,924	90,469	90,017
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	45,920	45,690	45,462	45,235	45,008
Non forest lands
Commercial tree crops		ha	600	650	700	750	750
Arable lands		ha	93,000	92,038	91,401	90,763	90,173
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	75,300	74,606	74,171	73,735	73,263
Fellings fuel/other wood - total		m3/year	184,849	193,352	202,246	211,549	221,281
Wood stock incr., all sources		m3/year	281609	293924	306500	319078	331622
Fellings, all sources		m3/year	372349	390227	408965	428604	449188
Forests and other wooded lands		ha	175,326	176,791	178,258	179,729	181,204
Percentage forested lands		%	18.8	19.0	19.1	19.3	19.4
Parameters for projection to 2010
Deforestation factor		%	0.1	Deforestation factor		FRA 95
Forest plantation progr.		ha	450	000 ha per year
Removals - ind. roundwood		m3	150,000	157,500	165,375	173,644	182,326
Conservation areas		ha	51,000	51,000	60,000	60,000	70,000
Commercial tree crops		ha	600	650	700	750	750
Range conversion factor		%	60
Other/range/barren lands		ha	664,041	663,162	662,282	661,399	660,514
Removals increase per year*		%/year	1

* see country profile - Projected development comments

Table II.4 - China: Known/estimated parameters

	Unit (1000)	1990	Sources
Areas
Total country land (without water)	ha	932,641	FAO - 1995
Forests and other wooded lands	ha	175,000	MinFor/AP report*
Natural exploitable forests	ha	65,160	GFSS - 1995
Plantations forests	ha	18,000	AP report**
Conservation areas	ha	51,000	AP report/MinFor
Low productive/open forests	ha	91,840	estimated
Arable lands	ha	93,000	FAO - 94
Commercial tree crops	ha	600	Rubberwood/estimated
Other/range/barren lands	ha	664,041	estimated
Commercial Growing stock, CGS
CGS natural exploitable forests	m3/ha	77	TFAP
CGS plantation forests	m3/ha	60	estimated
Mean Annual Increment (MAI)
MAI natural exploitable forests	m3/ha/year	0.8	estimated
MAI plantations forests	m3/ha/year	6	estimated
MAI low prod./open forests	m3/ha/year	0.5	estimated
MAI commercial tree crops	m3/ha/year	1.5	estimated
MAI arable lands	m3/ha/year	0.8	estimated
Fellings and Removals
Industrial roundwood removals	m3/year	150,000	Diverse sources/estimated
Waste and residues	% of ind.rem.	25	estimated
Fuel/other wood consumption	m3/inh/year	0.16	FAO
Population	000 inh	1,155,305	UN - 94
Increase per year	%	0.92	UN - 94

Note:

* Forests and wooded lands = 175 million ha
Forested land 128 million ha
Open woodland 18 million ha
Shrub forest land 29 million ha
** = adapted from the China's country report on Forestry - 1997

JAPAN

The forest resources

Japan's forest cover is more than 67% of the national land area. However, the per capita forest area is just about 0.2 ha (world average 0.8 ha). Climate in Japan varies from temperate cold in the North to sub-tropical in the South. 70% of Japan is mountainous and most of the mountains are under forests. Natural forests count for about 55% of the forested land and are made up especially of broad-leaved trees like Fagus spp, and Quercus spp. Mature forests are found in remote areas which are largely designated as protected forests. Low productive natural forests have been converted into man-made forests (45% of the forested land). Most species of man-made forests are coniferous trees such as Cryptomeria, Chamaecyparis, Larix and Pinus spp. Reforestation programmes were promoted after the World War II following large scale disasters occurring in river basins due to deforestation and due to widespread shortage of timber. These programmes were implemented under profit sharing contracts with forest owners. About 58% of the forests belong to individuals, corporations, temples, local authorities. The remainder 42% are national forests and put under the jurisdiction of the governmental Forest Agency. The majority of natural and man-made stands are about 30 to 50 years old.

Presently, the share of the domestic wood in the total supply of wood is only 25%. Large amount of wood imports, increasing cost of logging and transportation, tree diseases and low level of domestic prices are adding negative effects for adequate forest management and development. Moreover, mountainous areas have experienced rapid depopulation. Although the growing stock is rising with the maturing of post-war plantations, much of the forest resource is neglected and private and national forests are deteriorating through lack of effective management.

Non wood forest products and charcoal production are important income sources for forests owners and these products are recognised as one of the driving forces for rural development in mountainous areas. The public has recently shown growing interest in forests and demand for preservation of natural forests has been rising. As of 1991, a conservation forests system including 779 areas and covering about 358,000 ha has been established while an aggregate of 8,9 million ha of forests are under protection.

Forestry sector development

The former forest planning system, strongly oriented towards timber production, was reviewed in 1991 and the new Forest Law gives more emphasis to forest protection by introducing the River Basin Management System. 60% of the forests are kept under some protection status. The declining profitability of forestry in recent years has discouraged forest owners from undertaking forestry operations such as thinning and even the state forestry agency know funding problems as many national forests are declared as nonproductive. Small and scattered units of production and distribution are increasing the cost of locally processed wood although domestic wood demand for houses construction is still expanding. Policy actions are taken presently to enhance interest in forestry and wood industries and to promote activities in upstream villages to ensure sound management.

Projected development

Natural forests conversion into highly productive man-made forests will continue steadily. The increasing protection status of the forests and the abandonment of remote villages will not favour the adequate management of both natural and planted forests. While potential domestic wood supply is increasing; industrial roundwood fellings will remain constant up to the year 2000 when it is assumed that local harvesting will increase significantly. Forest policy in Japan is directly dependent from the international wood market and supply. Unexpected shortage of wood or the emergence of new competitors in the international market could have major impacts on wood import prices and quantities. The growing stock, considered as a strategic wood reserve for Japan, will reach upper level particularly in planted forests. SI/felling ratio will remain highly positive during the considered period.

References

Afforestation - Policies, planning and progress by A. Mather - "Modern development of afforestation in Japan - process and results" by Yoshihisa Fujita 1992.

FAO - Forest Resources Assessment 1990; FAO forestry technical paper 124 - Global synthesis.

Forestry Agency - Forestry White Paper - 1994

Forests and Forestry in Japan - 1994 - Japan FAO Association.

Table II.5 - Japan: Status and projection

		Unit (1000)	1990	1995	2000	2005	2010
Production forests
Production forests area - total		ha	15,753	16,003	16,253	16,503	16,753
	- Natural exploitable forests	ha	6,468	6,468	6,468	6,468	6,468
	- Plantation forests	ha	9,285	9,535	9,785	10,035	10,285
Commercial growing stock - total		m3	2,160,774	2,399,844	2,473,754	2,541,464	2,583,174
	- Natural forests	m	730,884	730,884	730,884	730,884	730,884
	- Plantations forests	m3	1,429,890	1,487,100	1,545,810	1,606,020	1,667,730
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	65,412	66,912	68,412	69,912	71,412
	- Natural exploitable forests	m3/year	9,702	9,702	9,702	9,702	9,702
	- Plantations forests	m3/year	55,710	57,210	58,710	60,210	61,710
Fellings ind. round., total		m3/year	29,040	27,500	27,500	33,000	44,000
	- Industrial roundwood removals	m3/year	26,400	25,000	25,000	30,000	40,000
	- Waste and residues	m3/year	2,640	2,500	2,500	3,000	4,000
Other forests and wooded lands
Conservation areas		ha	345	51,000	60,000	60,000	70,000
Low productive/open forests		ha	8,965	8,715	8,465	8,215	7,965
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	1,793	1,743	1,693	1,643	1,593
Non forest lands
Commercial tree crops		ha	0	0	0	0	0
Arable lands		ha	4,100	4,100	4,100	4,100	4,100
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	205	205	205	205	205
Fellings fuel/other wood - total		m3/year	12,354	12,440	12,527	12,615	12,703
Wood stock incr., all sources		m3/year	67,410	68,860	70,310	71,760	73,210
Fellings, all sources		m3/year	41,394	39,940	40,027	45,615	56,703
Forests and other wooded lands		ha	24,718	24,718	24,718	24,718	24,718
Percentage forested lands		%	68	68	68	68	68
Parameters for projection to 2010
Deforestation factor		%	0	Deforestation factor		FRA 90
Forest plantation progr.		ha	50	000 ha per year
Removals - ind. Roundwood		m3	26,400	25,000	25,000	30,000	40,000
Conservation areas		ha	345	51,000	60,000	60,000	70,000
Commercial tree crops		ha	0	0	0	0	0
Range conversion factor		%	0
Other/range/barren lands		ha	7,642	7,642	7,642	7,642	7,642

Table II.6 - Japan: Known/estimated parameters

	Unit (1000)	1990	Sources
Areas
Total country land (without water)	ha	36,460	FRA-90
Forests and other wooded lands	ha	24,718	FRA-90
Natural exploitable forests	ha	6,468	GFSS-1995
Plantations forests	ha	9,285	AP report
Conservation areas	ha	345	Forestry Agency
Low productive/open forests	ha	8,965	estimated
Arable lands	ha	4,100	FAO - 94
Commercial crops	ha	0
Other/range/barren lands	ha	7,642	estimated
Commercial Growing stock, CGS
CGS natural exploitable forests	m3/ha	113	Japan/FAO
CGS plantation forests	m3/ha	154	Japan/FAO
Mean Annual Increment (MAI)
MAI natural exploitable forests	m3/ha/year	1.5	estimated
MAI plantations forests	m3/ha/year	6	estimated
MAI low prod./open forests	m3/ha/year	0.2	estimated
MAI commercial crops (wood)	m3/ha/year	0	estimated
MAI arable lands	m3/ha/year	0.05	estimated
Fellings and Removals
Industrial roundwood removals	m3/year	26400	Forestry Agency
Waste and residues	% of ind.rem.	10	estimated
Fuel/other wood consumption	m3/inh/year	0.1	FAO
Population	000 inn	123537	UN - 94
Increase per year	%	0.14	UN - 94

MONGOLIA

The forest resources

Mongolia is a vast and very sparsely populated territory. The total forest cover is about 10% and the major part of the land area consists of steppes in the broad central belt which has little to no forest cover. The high altitude (1600 m on average) and the relatively high latitude exacerbate the semi-arid continental climate resulting in long cold winters. The mean temperature is below the freezing point during about seven to nine months in a year. The country is divided into three main topographical zones: the mountains located in the north and west, the river basin where the major farming regions are located and the steppes which cover three-fourths of the national territory. About 70% of the forest resources are found in the northern part of the country. Larch, cedar, pine (Pinus sibirica), birch, fir, aspen are the main species. Excessive past exploitation practices of natural forests have caused major environmental degradation. Forest management is based on a long cutting cycle (more than 100 years). Much of the commercial forests are located on steep slopes and difficult to access. Wood waste is high, potential markets are at great distance and road connections are poor. A large portion of the forests is regularly damaged by wild fires. Until 1990, all land and the associated resources were the property of the state. From 1993, under the new constitution and the draft Land Law, private ownership of land (lease of forest lands) has been possible.

About 80% of the country land is suitable for extensive animal husbandry (cattle, horses, camel, goats, sheep). Intensive crop cultivation is limited by the short growing season. The forests are closely integrated with pasture land and the forest role is important in relation to soil protection, shelterbelts for hay-making, construction material for cattle barns, fodder and fuelwood. Due to the severe weather conditions and livestock, reforestation activities are difficult although it is reported that larger areas of forest lands need to be reforested or improved.

About 50% of the forests in Mongolia are strictly protected to limit soil erosion and exploitation is only allowed to meet local needs. Mongolia has a long tradition in nature conservation and a network of special forests including national conservation parks and nature reserves has been established.

Forestry sector development

Since 1990, the country's economy has undergone a major structural transformation moving form a centrally planned economy to a free market economic system based on policies of privatisation. All laws and regulations, the organisational structure and the financing system related to forestry have to be adapted to economic goals. All production units of forest industry have been privatised. A new forest Law in compliance with the law on Environmental Protection was adopted in March 1995. This aims to regulate the protection of the forests and enhance forest regeneration. Forest sector development is being geared toward the sustainable management of the resources. Forestry conditions are peculiar due to the adverse climate conditions, fragile soils, low density of the population and low ratio of forested area. The key elements of the strategy for development will be forest resources protection, sustainable utilisation of forests and generation of financing resources through licence fees and royalties, privatisation of State interest and research.

Projected development

Although protection laws will help to control and hopefully slowdown the level of forest damage (over-exploitation and fires), the forest area in Mongolia will slowly decrease mainly as a consequence of overgrazing. Due to the inaccessibility of the productive forests, and the present conservation measures, forest harvest will decrease progressively down to an estimated sustainable level of production. Forest are in Mongolia should remain unchanged in the near future. Protection laws will help control and hopefully slow down the level of forest damage (over-exploitation and fires). MAI figures are low due to climatic conditions. Forest management will slowly improve as new economic rules are progressively integrated. Forestry development could be impeded by lack of financial and human resources.

References

Academy of Science - Information Mongolia 1990

FAO - Forest Resources Assessment 1990 - no 124 - Global Synthesis (1995)

FAO - NFAP update no 32 - 1995

FAO - Yearbooks - Production (1994) - Forestry Products (1994)

MoF - "Country report - Mongolia" prepared by Hijaba Yhkanbai for the workshop in Fuzhou (China) March 1994 on the reforms of the forestry sector towards a market orientation.

UN - World Population Prospects: the 1994 revision

Table II.7 - Mongolia: Status and projection

		Unit (1000)	1990	1995	2000	2005	2010
Production forests
Production forests area - total		ha	5,675	5,681	5,687	5,693	5,699
	- Natural exploitable forests	ha	5,645	5,631	5,617	5,603	5,589
	- Plantation forests	ha	30	50	70	90	110
Commercial growing stock - total		m3	751,385	752,916	853,882	751,813	750,349
	- Natural forests	m3	750,785	748,908	747,036	745,168	743,305
	- Plantations forests	m3	600	700	840	1,020	1,240
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	1,754	1,789	1,825	1,861	1,897
	- Natural exploitable forests	m3/year	1,694	1,689	1,685	1,681	1,677
	- Plantations forests	m3/year	60	100	140	180	220
Fellings ind. round., total		m3/year	1,092	588	700	700	700
	- Industrial roundwood removals	m3/year	780	420	500	500	500
	- Waste and residues	m3/year	312	168	200	200	200
Other forests and wooded lands
Conservation areas		ha	7,011	51,000	60,000	60,000	70,000
Low productive/open forests		ha	8,066	8,046	8,026	8,006	7,986
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	807	805	803	801	799
Non forest lands
Commercial tree crops		ha	0	0	0	0	0
Arable lands		ha	1,321	1,321	1,321	1,321	1,321
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	66	66	66	66	66
Fellings fuel/other wood - total		m3/year	784	858	940	1,029	1,127
Wood stock incr., all sources		m3/year	2,626	2,660	2,694	2,727	2,761
Fellings, all sources		m3/year	1,876	1,446	1,640	1,729	1,827
Forests and other wooded lands		ha	13,741	13,727	13,713	13,699	13,685
Percentage forested lands		%	9	9	9	9	9
Parameters for projection to 2010
Deforestation factor		%	0.05	Deforestation factor
Forest plantation progr.		ha	4	000 ha per year
Removals - ind. roundwood		m3/year	780	420	500	500	500
Conservation areas		ha	7,011	51,000	60,000	60,000	70,000
Commercial tree crops		ha	0	0	0	0	0
Range conversion factor		%	100
Other/range/barren lands		ha	141,588	141,602	141,616	141,630	141,644

Table II.8 - Mongolia: Known/estimated parameters

	Unit (1000)	1990	Sources
Areas
Total country land (without water)	ha	156,650	FRA - 90
Forests and other wooded lands	ha	13,741	FRA - 90
Natural exploitable forests	ha	5,645	MoF-est. (50% of forest lands)
Plantations forests	ha	30	MoF-estimated (50%)
Conservation areas	ha	7,011	MoF
Low productive/open forests	ha	8,066	estimated
Arable lands	ha	1,321	MoF
Commercial crops	ha	0
Other/range/barren lands	ha	141,588	estimated
Commercial Growing stock, CGS
CGS natural exploitable forests	m3/ha	133	MoF
CGS plantation forests	m3/ha	20	estimated
Mean Annual Increment (MAI)
MAI natural exploitable forests	m3/ha/year	0.3	estimated
MAI plantations forests	m3/ha/year	2	estimated
MAI low prod./open forests	m3/ha/year	0.1	estimated
MAI commercial crops (wood)	m3/ha/year	0	estimated
MAI arable lands	m3/ha/year	0.05	estimated
Fellings and Removals
Industrial roundwood removals	m3/year	780	MoF
Waste and residues	% of ind.rem.	40	estimated
Fuel/other wood consumption	m3/inh/year	0.36	FAO
Population	000 inh	2,177	UN - 94
Increase per year	%	1.9	UN - 94

KOREA (DEMOCRATIC PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF)

Recent information related to the North Korean forestry sector is rather limited. Some estimates are based on comparison with neighbouring countries.

The forest resources

Mountains and valleys characterize most of the People's Republic of Korea. Forests occupy about 75% of the land area. The climate is cool and continental. Forests remain important as a source of fuelwood. The major part of the forests is coniferous. The principal species are Pinus densiflora, Quercus mongolica and Larix olgensis. Average standing volume is reportedly very low due to past over-exploitation. Shifting cultivation was practised until very recently. Planted tree species are mainly Larix sp., Pinus koraiensis and Pinus rigida. All forest lands belong to the State.

Forestry sector development

Forest law reflects land nationalisation. Forest-related legislation as well as the forest administration in the country have developed in the context of a centrally planned economy. Forest policy is oriented towards timber production. Three institutions are responsible for the management of the forests: the Land Administration General Bureau in charge of the plantation forests programmes; the Ministry of Forestry responsible for the natural forest management; and the Academy of Sciences responsible for forestry research.

Projected development

Forest sector development in DPR Korea is relatively limited as the economic perspectives are relatively poor. Deforestation rates and the fuelwood supply consumption will remain relatively high due to population increase and the large forested area. Forest area will decrease significantly. The ratio between Wood Stock Increment and fellings will remain positive during the considered period thanks to plantations production. Felling of industrial roundwood will increase in line with the expected country economic development.

References

FAO - Forest Resources Assessment 1990 - no 124 Global synthesis.

Forestry abstracts:

- Research reports of the forestry research Institute Seoul no 50 - 1994.

- The forestry conditions in the Korea Democratic people's Republic - 1987 - Muller, F.B..

Topa G., - World Food Programme exploratory mission - Travel report - 1991

Table II.9 - Korea P.D.R. - Status and projection

		Unit (1000)	1990	1995	2000	2005	2010
Production forests
Production forests area - total		ha	4,327	4,370	4,414	4,459	4,505
	- Natural exploitable forests	ha	2,857	2,800	2,744	2,689	2,635
	- Plantation forests	ha	1,470	1,570	1,670	1,770	1,870
Commercial growing stock - total		m3	144,510	204,851	215,905	226,449	237,631
	- Natural forests	m3	85,710	83,996	82,316	80,670	79,056
	- Plantations forests	m3	58,800	68,220	78,240	88,860	100,080
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	11,677	12,220	12,764	13,309	13,855
	- Natural exploitable forests	m3/year	2,857	2,800	2,744	2,689	2,635
	- Plantations forests	m3/year	8,820	9,420	10,020	10,620	11,220
Fellings ind. round., total		m3/year	1,150	1,150	1,380	1,610	1,610
	- Industrial roundwood removals	m3/year	1,000	1,000	1,200	1,400	1,400
	- Waste and residues	m3/year	150	150	180	210	210
Other forests and wooded lands
Conservation areas		ha	0	0	0	0	0
Low productive/open forests		ha	3,043	2,802	2,561	2,320	2,079
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	609	560	512	464	416
Non forest lands
Commercial tree crops		ha	0	0	0	0	0
Arable lands		ha	1,700	1,740	1,779	1,818	1,857
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	85	87	89	91	93
Fellings fuel/other wood - total		m3/year	6,532	7,006	7,514	8,058	8,643
Wood stock incr., all sources		m3/year	12,371	12,867	13,365	13,864	14,364
Fellings, all sources		m3/year	7,682	8,156	8,894	9,668	10,253
Forests and other wooded lands		ha	7,370	7,172	6,975	6,779	6,584
Percentage forested lands		%	61	59	58	56	55
Parameters for projection to 2010
Deforestation factor		%	0.4	Deforestation factor		estimated
Forest plantation progr.		ha	20	000 ha per year
Removals - ind. roundwood		m3/year	1,000	1,000	1,200	1,400	1,400
Conservation areas		ha	0	0	0	0	0
Commercial tree crops		ha	0	0	0	0	0
Range conversion factor		%	80	estimated
Other/range/barren lands		ha	2,984	3,143	3,300	3,457	3,613
G stock nat. for. increase		%/year	0	0	0	0	0

Table II.10 - Korea D.P.R.: Known/estimated parameters

	Unit (1000)	1990	Sources
Areas
Total country land (without water)	ha	12,054	FRA - 90
Forests and other wooded lands	ha	7,370	FRA - 90
Natural exploitable forests	ha	2,857	GFSS
Plantations forests	ha	1,470	FRA - 90
Conservation areas	ha	0	Forestry Agency
Low productive/open forests	ha	3,043	estimated
Arable lands	ha	1,700	FAO - 94
Commercial tree crops	ha	0
Other/range/barren lands	ha	2,984	estimated
Commercial Growing stock, CGS
CGS natural exploitable forests	m3/ha	30	MoF - estimated
CGS plantation forests	m3/ha	40	estimated
Mean Annual Increment (MAI)
MAI natural exploitable forests	m3/ha/year	1	estimated
MAI plantations forests	m3/ha/year	6	estimated
MAI low prod./open forests	m3/ha/year	0.2	estimated
MAI commercial crops (wood)	m3/ha/year	0	estimated
MAI arable lands	m3/ha/year	0.05	estimated
Fellings and Removals
Industrial roundwood removals	m3/year	1,000	estimated
Waste and residues	% of ind.rem.	15	estimated
Fuel/other wood consumption	m3/inh/year	0.3	FAO - 1994
Population	000 inh	21,774	UN - 94
Increase per year	%	1.45	UN - 94

KOREA (REPUBLIC OF)

The forest resources

The Republic of Korea's forest cover is about 67%. However, the per capita forest area is relatively low at 0.12 ha. The climate can be classified as temperate and the topography where forests are located is often mountainous. Forests are largely coniferous (45%). The main forest tree species are Pine (Pinus koraiensis, P. Densiflora, P. Thunbergi), Larch, Oak, Fir, Birch and Poplar. Most of the forests are privately owned (71%); the remainder belongs to public bodies (8%) or the State (21% - National forests). Many privately owned forests are small with nearly 90% of them being less than 5 hectares. Forests were heavily degraded during the wars in the 1950s. Some deforestation continues because of reclamation and urban development. The growing stock in natural forests is still low and young. Due to the poor forest condition, large afforestation programmes have been carried out during the past two decades and about 30% of the total forest lands have been covered with man-made forests through pan-national community forestry programmes at village level. Fires and diseases are significant problems. Some of the main problems of forest management are low prices for domestic timber, poor implementation of silvicultural works, shortage of labour, waste of thinning products and inadequacy of forest roads.

The Republic of Korea has for long been short of domestic wood supply. Presently the domestic timber supply is about 20 % of the total demand and large amounts of timber are imported to face the rapid economic development of the country. Some non wood forest products like chestnuts, pine mushrooms are significant and even feature among export commodities.

The Republic of Korea has raised people's awareness about forest conservation and protection and 46 natural recreation forest zones have been established. Private owners are subsidised to develop their forests for recreation purposes, an increasingly important forest function due to growing prosperity.

Forestry sector development

In 1994, the Forest Law was revised to adapt legislation and forestry to the new criteria for sustainable forest management; accordingly, a new forest policy was formulated in 1995. Low output and growing stock of the young forests would be insufficient to meet domestic timber demand for the near future. The general objectives of the past forest plans were to return devastated forests to the status of closed forests through strict protection. Presently, more emphasis is geared to raising income from utilisation of sustainably managed forest resources. Lack of suitable lands and incentives will slow down the planned man-made forests programmes. Some measures like building a network of forests roads, research to utilise small logs, development of forest owners associations to modernise forest operations and technical and financial assistance to forest owners should accelerate Korean forestry development. Korea is also investing in plantations abroad, particularly in tropical Asia and the Pacific, as a way to secure future supplies.

Projected development

Open forests in the Republic of Korea will decrease slightly due to the pressure of human settlements. The exploitable natural forests area will remain constant and limited tree planting will be done on unproductive open forest areas. Total forest and wooded land should remain stable. The growing stock will remain relatively low but should increase steadily due to the effects of the past protection and plantation measures. Industrial roundwood fellings will be far less than the net annual increment although some felling increase is expected at the beginning of the next century; the forests have still to mature and the country will anyway not meet the high timber demand. Wood production outside productive forests is relatively limited due to the type of agriculture used in rice production countries. Fuelwood and local timber supply are mainly from productive forests. Unexpectedly, the SI/felling ratio will continue to be positive and consequently, the growing stock will increase. However, the SI/felling ratio will decline as forests mature and domestic wood supply increases.

References

FAO - Forest Resources Assessment 1990; FAO forestry technical paper 124/128 - Global synthesis and tropical forest plantations resources.

FAO - Yearbooks production - 1994; Forest products yearbooks - 1994.

Forestry Resources Management - Symposium - Tokyo (1989) - Asian Productivity Organization.

MoF - Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission - 16th session - Myanmar 1995 - National Progress Report on Forestry - 1993/1995.

Table II. 11 - Korea Rep.: Status and projection

		Unit (1000)	1990	1995	2000	2005	2010
Production forests
Production forests area - total		ha	4,222	4,300	4,378	4,456	4,535
	- Natural exploitable forests	ha	2,222	2,200	2,178	2,156	2,135
	- Plantation forests	ha	2,000	2,100	2,200	2,300	2,400
Commercial growing stock - total		m	262,212	309,710	329,407	341,604	348,614
	- Natural forests	m3	102,212	101,200	110,207	114,064	117,833
	- Plantations forests	m3	160,000	168,400	177,200	186,400	196,000
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	10,222	10,600	10,978	11,356	11,735
	- Natural exploitable forests	m3/year	2,222	2,200	2,178	2,156	2,135
	- Plantations forests	m3/year	8,000	8,400	8,800	9,200	9,600
Fellings ind. round., total		m3/year	2,200	2,200	2,750	4,400	5,500
	- Industrial roundwood removals	m3/year	2,000	2,000	2,500	4,000	5,000
	- Waste and residues	m3/year	200	200	250	400	500
Other forests and wooded lands
Conservation areas		ha	51,000	51,000	60,000	60,000	70,000
Low productive/open forests		ha	2,091	1,992	1,893	1,794	1,695
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	418	398	379	359	339
Non forest lands
Commercial tree crops		ha	0	0	0	0	0
Arable lands		ha	1,900	1,878	1,878	1,878	1,878
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	95	94	94	94	94
Fellings fuel/other wood - total		m3/year	6,430	6,704	6,989	7,286	7,595
Wood stock incr., all sources		m3/year	10,735	11,092	11,450	11,809	12,168
Fellings, all sources		m3/year	8,630	8,904	9,739	11,686	13,095
Forests and other wooded lands		ha	6,313	6,292	6,271	6,250	6,230
Percentage forested lands		%	64	64	63	63	63
Parameters for projection to 2010
Deforestation factor		%	0.2	Deforestation factor		MoF - FoCom - 1995
Forest plantation progr.		ha	20	000 ha per year
Removals - ind. roundwood		m3/year	2,000	2,000	2,500	4,000	5,000
Conservation areas		ha	51,000	51,000	60,000	60,000	70,000
Commercial tree crops		ha	0	0	0	0	0
Range conversion factor		%	100
Other/range/barren lands		ha	1,711	1,732	1,753	1,774	1,794
G stock nat. for. increase*		%/year	0	0	10	15	20

* increase as a result of the improvement of the natural forest management.

Table II. 12 - Korea Rep.: Known/estimated parameters

	Unit (1000)	1990	Sources
Areas
Total country land (without water)	ha	9,902	FRA - 90
Forests and other wooded lands	ha	6,291	FRA - 90
Natural exploitable forests	ha	2,200	GFSS - 1995
Plantations forests	ha	2,000	Asian Prod. Org.
Conservation areas	ha	0	Forestry Agency
Low productive/open forests	ha	2,091	estimated
Arable lands	ha	1,900	FAO - 94
Commercial tree crops	ha	0
Other/range/barren lands	ha	1,711	estimated
Commercial Growing stock, CGS
CGS natural exploitable forests	m3/ha	46	Mop - FoCom - 1995
CGS plantation forests	m3/ha	80	estimated
Mean Annual Increment (MAI)
MAI natural exploitable forests	m3/ha/year	1	estimated
MAI plantations forests	m3/ha/year	4	estimated
MAI low prod./open forests	m3/ha/year	0.2	estimated
MAI commercial crops (wood)	m3/ha/year	0	estimated
MAI arable lands	m3/ha/year	0.05	estimated
Fellings and Removals
Industrial roundwood removals	m3/year	2,000	MoF - FoCom - 1995
Waste and residues	% of ind.rem.	10	estimated
Fuel/other wood consumption	m3/inh/year	0.15	FAO - 1994
Population	000 inh	42,869	UN - 94
Increase per year	%	0.85	UN - 94