Annexes

Annex 1: Criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management
Annex 2: The use of a planimeter and the dot-grid for area measurement from maps
Annex 3: Pilot survey for deriving permanent sample plot numbers for a continuous forest inventory
Annex 4: Some details of empirical procedures for determination of the allowable cut
Annex 5: Examples of text showing how forest management plan prescriptions can be drafted
Annex 6: An example of an annual plan of operations
Annex 7: Relationships between feeder road spacing, feeder road density and skidding distance
Annex 8: Conversion of slopes between degrees, slope percentage and gradients
Annex 9: Costs in tropical forest management
Annex 10: Examples of stumpage appraisals based on export log prices
Annex 11: Economic analysis as a forest management tool
Annex 12 Tables of discount multipliers
Annex 13: Example of an environmental impacts checklist for production forest management
Annex 14: Examples of tables that can be used for monitoring and reporting of some forest operations - adaptation to specific local needs may be required

Annex 1: Criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management

A. Inter-Governmental initiatives for action at regional and national levels following UNCED
B. FAO Fact Sheet: Criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management1
C. A Summary of forest management unit level indicators2

A. Inter-Governmental initiatives for action at regional and national levels following UNCED

Since UNCED, criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management have been formulated through several international, national and non-governmental processes. These include:

· The Helsinki Process, which focuses on the development of criteria and indicators for the sustainable management of European forests, including boreal, temperate and Mediterranean-type forests. European countries have agreed upon six common criteria, 27 quantitative indicators and several descriptive indicators for sustainable forest management.

· The Montreal Process has been implemented as a follow-up to the Seminar of Experts on Sustainable Development of Temperate and Boreal Forests (Montreal, Canada, 1993). The initiative focuses on the formulation of criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management in temperate and boreal forests outside Europe. The ten original participating countries, now increased to 12, have agreed on a set of seven, non-legally binding criteria and 67 indicators for sustainable forest management for national implementation.

· The Tarapoto Proposal of Criteria and Indicators for Sustainability of the Amazon Forest, as adopted in February 1995 in Tarapoto, Peru, in a meeting held under the auspices of the Amazon Cooperation Treaty. Within the framework of the Tarapoto initiative, seven criteria and forty-seven indicators have been identified and proposed for national level implementation in the eight participating countries. Criteria and indicators were also identified for the forest management unit level (four criteria and 22 indicators) and of global concern (one criterion and seven indicators).

· The UNEP/FAO Expert Meeting on Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Forest Management in -Dry-Zone Africa (Nairobi, Kenya, November 1995), identified seven criteria and 47 indicators for sustainable forest management. These have been submitted to the 27 participating countries concerned for review, comments, agreement and implementation. This set of criteria and indicators were endorsed by the Tenth Session of the African Forestry and Wildlife Commission, held in South Africa in November/December 1995.

· In the FAO/UNEP Expert Meeting on Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Forest Management (Cairo, Egypt, October 1996), experts from 30 countries identified seven criteria and sixty-five indicators for sustainable forest management, which were subsequently submitted for consideration and endorsement to the 12th Session of the Near East Forestry Commission (Cairo, October 1996).

· The FAO/CCAD Expert Meeting on Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Forest Management in Central America was held in Honduras (Tegucigalpa) in January 1997. Known as the Lepaterique Process of Central America, it developed four criteria and 40 indicators at the regional (Central American) level and eight criteria and 52 indicators at the national level for the consideration of countries in the region. The Expert Meeting elaborated a seven-point Declaration, each point referring back to the criteria defined, for the consideration of the Heads of State of the seven CCAD. This regional meeting was complemented by two FAO/CCAD supported sub-regional meetings and seven national seminars on country-level implementation.

B. FAO Fact Sheet: Criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management¹

¹ FAO Forestry Information Notes: "Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Forest Management"; February 1997.

Forest management encompasses administrative, economic, legal, social, technical and scientific action which affects natural forests and plantations. It implies varying degrees of planned human intervention aimed at safeguarding and maintaining the forest ecosystem and its functions, while favouring socially, environmentally or economically valuable species for the improved and sustained production of goods and environmental services. In technical terms, forest management implies the formulation and implementation of forest management plans which help control and regulate harvesting and sustainable use of specified goods and/or which promote and maintain the environmental functions of the forest. This is achieved through silvicultural and protective measures applied in varying intensity to sustain or to increase the social, ecological and economic value of present-day and subsequent generations of the managed forest stand.

Sustainable forest management is commonly viewed as one of the most important contributions which the forestry sector can make to programmes aimed at the sustainable development of nations. In this regard. Chapter 11 of UNCED, "Combating Deforestation" and the "Forest Principles" strongly emphasised the need to reconcile the productive functions with the protective, environmental and social roles which all types of forests fulfil.

Prior to UNCED, guidelines for the sustainable management of natural tropical forests had been elaborated in 1990 under the auspices of the International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO), followed by the definition of ITTO criteria for monitoring of sustainability in tropical moist forests, published in early 1992. In 1993, these were supplemented by guidelines for the establishment and management of planted tropical forests, and by guidelines on the conservation of biological diversity in tropical production forests.

Following UNCED a number of national, regional and ecoregional initiatives have been taken to develop common criteria by which sustainable forest management can be defined, and to specify related indicators which can be quantified or described and regularly monitored to evaluate the overall effects of forest management interventions, with a view to their gradual improvement. Inter-Governmental activities in this respect have been conducted mainly within the framework of a number of major international processes as described in Annex 1-A.

FAO's Forestry Department has been involved in, or instrumental in catalysing and helping pursue, all the above international initiatives on criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management in accordance with its mandate and priorities, and in line with the Organization's role as Task Manager for Chapter 11 of Agenda 21 of UNCED and focal point for the issue among UN Agencies in the work of the Inter-Governmental Panel on Forests (IPF) of the Commission on Sustainable Development.

In an FAO/ITTO Expert Meeting held in Rome in February 1995, a review was made of possibilities and desirability to harmonise ongoing initiatives related to criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management. While there was general agreement on the need to ensure exchange of information, know-how and experience between ongoing initiatives to ensure comparability between them and to avoid wasteful duplication of efforts, the meeting stressed the need to allow ongoing initiatives to pursue their aims unimpeded, reflecting the different environmental and socio-economic conditions from which they have sprung.

The above, general conclusion, was also reached at the Inter-Governmental Seminar on Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Forest Management, organized by the Government of Finland in support of the work of the IPF, known as the ISCI Seminar (Helsinki, Finland, August 1996). Participants in the ISCI Seminar, held in collaboration with FAO, included representatives of the ongoing initiatives on criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management and of implementing countries, as well as other concerned governmental and non-governmental organizations. The meeting helped further international dialogue and advance related issues in preparation of the final sessions of the IPF in September 1996 and February 1997.

C. A Summary of forest management unit level indicators²

² In this comparative summary: "yes" means that the indicator is mentioned explicitly in the initiative, "+" means that the indicator is not fully expressed although it may have been implicitly considered, "no" signifies that there is no explicit or implicit reference to the indicator.

1. EXTENT OF FOREST RESOURCES AND GLOBAL CARBON CYCLES
		ITTO3	TARA	CIFOR	ATO	CCAD
INDICATORS
	* Area of Forest Cover	yes	+	+	yes	+
	* Wood Growing Stock	no	+	+	+	+
	* Successional Stage	+	+	+	+	no
	* Age Structure	no	+	no	+	no
	* Rate of Conversion of Forest to Other Use	+	+	no	no	yes
2. FOREST ECOSYSTEM HEALTH AND VITALITY EXTERNAL INFLUENCE INDICATORS
		ITTO	TARA	CIFOR	ATO	CCAD
	* Deposition of Air Pollutants	no	no	yes	no	no
	* Damage by Wind Erosion	no	no	+	+	no
FOREST VITALITY INDICATORS
	* Incidence of Defoliators	+	+	no	no	no
	* Reproductive Health	no	no	no	+	no
FOREST INFLUENCE INDICATORS
	* Insect/Disease Damage	+	yes	no	no	+
	* Fire and Storm Damage	+	+	no	+	+
	* Wild Animal Damage	+	+	no	no	no
ANTHROPOGENIC INFLUENCE INDICATORS
	* Competition from Introduction of Plants	+	no	no	no	no
	* Nutrient Balance and Acidity	+	no	no	no	no
	* Trends in Crop Yields	no	+	no	+	no

³ ITTO: International Tropical Timber Organization; TARA: Tarapoto Process; CIFOR: Center for International Forestry Research; ATO: African Timber Organization; CCAD: Comisión Centroamericana de Ambiente y Desarrollo (Central American Commission for Environment and Development).

3. BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY IN FOREST ECOSYSTEMS

ITTO

TARA

CIFOR

ATO

CCAD

ECOSYSTEM INDICATORS

* Distribution of Forest Ecosystems

no

no

no

+

no

* Extent of Protected Areas

yes

yes

yes

yes

yes

* Forest Fragmentation

+

no

+

+

+

* Area Cleared Annually of Endemic Species

+

+

+

+

+

* Area and Percentage of Forest Lands with Fundamental Ecological Changes

yes

yes

+

yes

yes

* Forest Fire Control and Prevention Measures

no

no

no

no

yes

SPECIES INDICATORS

* Number of Forest Dependent Species

no

no

no

+

+

* Number of Forest Dependent Species at Risk

no

+

+

yes

yes

* Reliance of Natural Regeneration

+

yes

+

yes

yes

* Resources Exploitation Systems Used

+

+

+

+

+

* Measures in situ Conservation of Species at Risk

no

+

+

+

+

GENETIC INDICATORS

* Number of Forest Dependent Species with Reduced Range

+

no

no

+

+

4. PRODUCTIVE FUNCTIONS OF FORESTS

ITTO

TARA

CIFOR

ATO

CCAD

INDICATORS

* Percentage of Forests/Other Wooded Lands Managed According to Management Plans

yes

yes

yes

yes

yes

* Growing Stock

yes

+

+

yes

yes

* Wood Production

yes

yes

yes

yes

yes

* Production of Non-Wood Forest Products

yes

+

no

yes

yes

* Annual Balance Between Growth and Removals of Wood Products

yes

yes

yes

yes

yes

* Level of Diversification of Sustainable Forest Production

+

yes

+

yes

yes

* Degree of Utilization of Environmentally Friendly Technologies

+

yes

yes

yes

yes

5. PROTECTIVE FUNCTIONS OF FORESTS

ITTO

TARA

CIFOR

ATO

CCAD

INDICATORS

* Soil Conditions

yes

yes

+

yes

yes

* Water Conditions

yes

yes

+

yes

+

* Management for Soil Protection

yes

yes

+

yes

yes

* Watershed Management

yes

yes

+

yes

yes

* Areas Managed for Scenic and Amenity Purposes

+

no

no

+

yes

* Areas and Percentage of Forest Lands Managed for Environmental Protection

+

+

+

+

+

* Infrastructure Density by FMU Category

no

no

yes

no

yes

6. SOCIO-ECONOMIC FUNCTIONS AND CONDITIONS

ITTO

TARA

CIFOR

ATO

CCAD

INDICATORS FOR ECONOMIC BENEFITS

* Value of Wood Products

+

+

+

+

+

* Value of Non-Wood Products

+

+

no

+

+

* Value from Primary and Secondary Industries

+

no

no

no

no

* Value from Biomass Energy

+

no

+

no

no

* Economic Profitability of SFM

yes

yes

+

+

yes

* Efficiency and Competitiveness of Forest Products Production, Processing and Diversification

+

+

no

no

yes

* Degree of Private and Non-Private Involvement in SFM

+

+

+

+

yes

* Local Community Information and Reference Mechanisms in SFM

no

no

+

no

yes

INDICATORS FOR THE DISTRIBUTION OF BENEFITS

* Employment Generation/Conditions

yes

yes

yes

yes

yes

* Forest Dependent Communities

yes

yes

yes

yes

yes

* Impact on the Economic Use of Forests on the Availability of Forests for Local People

yes

yes

yes

yes

yes

* Quality of Life of Local Populations

yes

yes

+

yes

yes

* Average per capita Income in Different Forest Sector Activities

+

+

+

+

+

* Gender-focused Participation Rate in SFM

+

+

+

+

yes

7. POLITICAL, LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK

ITTO

TARA

CIFOR

ATO

CCAD

INDICATORS

* Legal framework that ensures participation by local governments and private landowners

+

yes

+

+

yes

* Technical and regulatory standards of management plans

+

+

yes

+

yes

* Cadastral updating of the FMU

yes

no

yes

+

yes

* Percentage of investment on forest management for Forest Research

no

+

no

no

yes

* Rate of investment on the FMU level activities: regeneration, protection, etc.

+

+

yes

yes

yes

* Technical, Human and Financial Resources

+

+

no

+

yes

Annex 2: The use of a planimeter and the dot-grid for area measurement from maps

This annex provides examples in the use of planimeter and dot-grid methods for area measurement on maps as described in Part 11, Section 1.2.1: Practical Methods for Measurement of Areas from Maps.

Planimeter Measurement of Area

Areas measured on a map are scaled up according to the map scale, as follows:

MA=Pu* Ms²* 0.00001

where,

MA = mapped area (square metres),
Pu = planimeter reading (number of units),
Ms = map scale.

For example, a planimeter reading of 114 (the difference between "beginning" and "end" readings on the planimeter's vernier) on a map having a scale of 1:25,000 equals an area of 712,500 square metres. This can easily be converted to hectares by dividing by 10,000, giving an area of 71.25 hectares. Using the vernier reading of 114, the area is computed as follows:

712,500sq.metres = 114* 25,000² * 0.00001

The area is converted to hectares by dividing 712,500 by 10,000, giving 71.25 hectares. The benefit of this approach is that small areas (results expressed in square metres) as well as large areas (results expressed in hectares) can be calculated.

Dot Grid Measurement of Area

The dot grid sheet is placed on an irregularly shaped part of a map, such as a forest type, and the number of dots which occur within the area to be measured are counted. The map scale must be known. There are two procedures for converting an average dot count to area, as follows:

(a) Where a square grid has been printed on a map, as in national topographical maps, for example, 1:50,000 scale maps.

* derive the area of each grid-square from the scale of the map. For example, a 1:25,000 scale map may have grid-squares printed at 400 metre intervals. Thus the area of each grid-square is 0.4 km × 0.4 km = 0.16 km², or, 0.16 km² × 100 = 16 ha.

* the area, in hectares, of a dot-grid count on a map is calculated using the following formula:

where,

MA = mapped area (hectares)
D = the average number of dots counted on a map,
d_c = number of dots per cm² on the dot grid
G = grid-square area (hectares).

* this a worked example using the following assumptions:

- a 1:50,000 scale map having grid-squares printed at 400 metre intervals, the area of each grid-square is 16 ha.

- a dot grid having 36 dots per grid, i.e. 6 dots x 6 dots on each side of a grid-square.

The area of a piece of land having and a dot-grid count of 74 is derived as:

Map Area (ha) = (74/36)* 16 = 32.9 ha

(b) Where there is no grid-square on a map:

* derive the area, in hectares or square metres, of each square centimetre of the dot-grid according to the map scale that is being used, as follows:

D₁= Ms²/10000
D₂= Ms²/100000000

where:

D1 (m²) and D2 (ha) = dot-grid area (m² or hectares)
Ms² = map scale.

* the area of a dot-grid count of an irregular area on a map, in hectares, is calculated using the following formula:

MA = (D/d_c)* D_g

where,

MA = area in hectares
D = the average number of dots counted on a map
d_c = number of dots per cm² on the dot-grid
D_g = dot-grid area (hectares).

* This is a worked example using the following assumptions:

-a 1: 5,000 scale map; the area of each square centimetre, in hectares, is 5,000², 100,000,000 = 0.25 ha

- a dot grid having 25 dots per square centimetre, i.e. 5 dots × 5 dots on each side of a square centimetre.

The area of a piece of land on a map having a scale of 1:25,000 having a dot-grid count of 129 is derived as:

Map Area (ha) = (129/25)* 0.25= 6.66 ha

Annex 3: Pilot survey for deriving permanent sample plot numbers for a continuous forest inventory

This annex provides basic guidance for planning a pilot survey for deriving the numbers of permanent sample plots which should comprise a continuous forest inventory. A pilot survey should be planned and conducted where there is insufficient data about a particular forest from earlier inventory data.

A pilot field study in representative parts of a forest where a continuous forest inventory is proposed should involve five or more temporary plots, each 1 ha in area. These should be established and measured in the same manner as for permanent plots described in this handbook.

The coefficient of variation for volume should be used to provide a guide to the number of PSPs required because volume is the variable of greatest management interest. The coefficient of variation (CTv) is calculated as:

where,

SE_v = the standard error of the mean volume calculated in the pilot study,
x_v = the mean calculated volume.

The standard error of the mean volume (SEv) is calculated as:

where,

d = the standard deviation of the mean calculated volume in the pilot study,
n = the number of pilot study samples.

The confidence interval (CIv) of the mean volume is calculated as:

CIy = x_v ± tSE_v

where,

t = Student's "t" statistic for (n-1) degrees of freedom.

The number of PSPs (N) required to achieve a specified level of precision in a forest inventory can be calculated from the equation:

where,

p = the acceptable limit of precision, e.g. for 5%, p =0.05

This is the most simple but not the only approach for deriving Permanent Sample Plot numbers.

Annex 4: Some details of empirical procedures for determination of the allowable cut

This annex provides some details on empirical procedures for determination of the allowable cut that, because of their detailed nature, are not explained in Part II, section 3.6.1. The four procedures are:

* A combination of area and the felling cycle.
* A combination of area, volume and the felling cycle.
* A combination of volume and forest increment.
* A consideration of volume only.

A. A Modification of the Area, Volume and the Felling Cycle Yield Determination Procedure Applied in Philippines Dipterocarp Forests

This procedure recognises the variability in size and distribution of large trees in different forest types and considers an estimate of the volume which can be cut, derived from a yield table.

Two separate formulae can be applied depending upon whether a forest is being managed under a management plan, or whether a management plan is not in operation. The AAC formulae are as follows:

* For forests not having an approved management plan:

where

V_o = 25% of Vol A (70 to 80 cm dbh) + 55% of Vol B (60 to 70 cm dbh) + Vol C(> 80 cm dbh)
f = recovery factor (a factor of 0.7 is commonly used)
n_z = felling cycle (in years) × 2

* For forests having an approved management plan:

where

V_r = the volume (m³) which can be cut, determined from yield tables.

In either of the area, volume or felling cycle methods the AAC may exceed the sustainable yield for a limited period in an overstocked forest, such as a natural forest which has not previously been cut, during an adjustment to an equilibrium level of production. Conversely, the AAC in an under-stocked forest should be less than the sustainable yield, to allow for restructuring towards larger and older size classes. Local research is necessary to determine the desirable amount of over - and under-cutting and the theoretical structure of a normal forest.

The question of which trees should be cut is determined not by the yield determination formula but by the stocking, species composition and diameter class distribution characteristics of a specific forest management unit and the silvicultural system being applied. The characteristics of a forest are determined by a 100 per cent inventory in those compartments where cutting is proposed.

Yield planning can also be determined on the basis of five-year felling blocks. Five consecutive, annual cutting areas which are physically adjacent to each other can be grouped together into a felling block. Volume data derived from a complete (100 per cent) or a partial (5 or 10 per cent) inventory covering a five-year felling block are also grouped and a yield for the five-year period can be calculated. This approach provides some flexibility, year by year, in managing a harvest.

B. The Cotta Yield Determination Procedure Based on a Combination of Volume and Forest Increment

An alternative method of yield determination which requires a confident knowledge of increment but avoids the need to derive a theoretical normal forest structure is the Cotta Method. It enables the allowable cut for a forest being managed under an irregular shelterwood silvicultural system to be determined. The method is applied to a specific area of a forest, such as a periodic block, having a known volume of wood and where harvesting is planned over a specified number of years.

In equation form the Cotta Method is as follows:

where:

I_p = volume increment (m³) for a specified area of forest and for a specified number of years, known as the regeneration period,

V_comm ⁼ the average volume (m³) of commercial species above a specified stem diameter for a specified area of forests

P_years ⁼ the length of the regeneration period, in years.

This method has been used for many years for yield regulation in irregular shelterwood forests in India.

Annex 5: Examples of text showing how forest management plan prescriptions can be drafted

This annex provides several examples of text on how forest management plan prescriptions can be written and presented. In order to give emphasis and to show that prescriptions are clear instructions for action they can be written in bold, bold and italics or in CAPITALS.

Example 1:

Authority and Date of Plan Approval

[Name of forest] forest reserve is managed by the Conservator of Forests, acting under the authority of the Minister of Forests.

Administering Authority

This management plan will be administered by the Divisional Forest Officer, [name of district] District.

Term

The term of this plan will be ten years commencing 1 January, 1993 and concluding on 31 December, 2002.

Example 2a:

FIRE PROTECTION:

TO EFFECTIVELY PROTECT THE FOREST FROM WILDFIRE AND FIRES WHICH MIGHT OCCUR AS PART OF SHIFTING CULTIVATION OR OTHER AGRICULTURAL LAND CLEARING BY TAKING THE FOLLOWING STEPS:

* IMPLEMENTING A FOREST FIRE PREVENTION AND CONTROL PLAN FOR THE [specified] DISTRICT,

* HOLDING NOT LESS THAN ONE SHORT COURSE EACH YEAR FOR TRAINING REPRESENTATIVES OF RURAL COMMUNITIES ADJOINING THE FOREST IN BASIC FIRE SUPPRESSION PRACTICES.

* PUBLIC EDUCATION DURING THE DRY SEASON, USING POSTERS, RADIO, TELEVISION, NEWSPAPERS AND TALKS TO SCHOOLCHILDREN AND VILLAGES ON THE DANGERS OF WILDFIRE TO FORESTS AND PEOPLE WORKING AND LIVING IN FORESTS.

Example 2b:

Fire suppression plans for the [forest name] will be prepared not later than [specific date] and, upon approval by the Operations Director [or other senior person], will be annexed to and become a part of this Management Plan. Each plan will specify the following:

* Definition of area supported by a topographical map at 1:50,000 scale;

* Access routes by vehicle, road and track network, aircraft landing points;

* Location of existing water points and proposals for construction of new water points;

* Vegetation fire hazard class map, identifying "levels of risk" for each broad vegetation zone;

* Equipment resources statement and specifications for procurement of new equipment;

* Specific training arrangements for company and other appropriate personnel;

* A programme of public relations and education will be carried out during each dry season directed at strengthening public awareness of the need for protection of forests from wildfire.

Example 3:

COMMUNITY CONSULTATION AND COOPERATION:

In cooperation and consultation with members of rural communities having a traditional interest in [specified] forest, active steps will be taken to secure effective forest protection from wildfire and forest degradation through encouragement of active community participation in the implementation of this plan through the following activities:

* Conducting one workshop in [nominated] districts each year to promote awareness on the importance of forest protection from clearance and fire,

* Preparation of not less than two forest conservation and protection leaflets and one poster which are specific for this [specified] forest.

Example 4:

Land Management:

· Primary mapping support for implementation of prescriptions in this Management Plan shall be the [national series, 1:50,000 scale, series x, y, and z. Extracts of [national series] maps are attached to this plan.

· Detailed maps shall be generated using GIS technology by the [concession company or other nominated agency], as required, in order to support the intent of specific prescriptions referred to in this Management Plan.

· New aerial photography will be acquired not later than 31 March [year] to facilitate geographic, ecological and forest protection planning. Photography will be acquired which is consistent with industry standards applying at the time, and will also be compatible with remote sensing techniques in use at the time.

Example 5:

Biological Diversity Conservation:

· Existing knowledge on biological diversity amongst plants and animals in the [forest name] forest will be collated, summarized and documented, on contract, not later than 31 December 1999. for a specific date]. This work will identify and make recommendations for:

* New Special Protection Areas or modifications to existing areas;
* New biodiversity studies within the forest.

· New studies directed at expanding knowledge on biological diversity amongst plants and animals within the forest for nominated parts of the forest] will be invited not later than 30 June of each year from universities, research institutions and from other suitably qualified agencies and from individuals. Funding may be provided from year to year by the [company or government forestry agency] in order to support contract implementation of this prescription.

Example 6a:

ANNUAL ALLOWABLE CUT:

THE MAXIMUM ANNUAL CUT FROM NATURAL FORESTS COMPRISING [name] FOREST [reserve or concession] WILL BE 9.800 CUBIC METRES [or a specified volume] COMPRISING:

* LOGS: 5,000 CUBIC METRES
* FUELWOOD/PULPWOOD 4,800 CUBIC METRES

Example 6b:

* THE MAXIMUM ANNUAL ALLOWABLE CUT OF ALL LOG TYPES WILL BE: 10,000 cubic metres

* THE MINIMUM ANNUAL ALLOWABLE CUT OF ALL LOG TYPES WILL BE: 7,500 cubic metres.

Example 7:

Logging - General Prescriptions:

* During the term of this management plan logging will be permitted only in compartments [to be listed].

* Selection cutting practice will be applied in accordance with approved Ministry of Forestry Manual Instructions for Harvesting in Natural Forests.

* A minimum cutting cycle of 35 years will be followed for all selection logging harvesting.

* No tree having a dbh less than 60 cm will be permitted to be cut.

Example 8:

MONITORING AND REPORTING:

* PROGRESS IN IMPLEMENTATION OF THIS MANAGEMENT PLAN WILL BE MONITORED AND REPORTED ON AT 31 DECEMBER [or at a specified date] EACH YEAR.

* REPORTS OF ACHIEVEMENTS MADE UNDER THIS MANAGEMENT PLAN WILL BE FORWARDED TO THE DEPUTY CONSERVATOR OF FORESTS, WORKING PLANS BRANCH AT HEADQUARTERS NOT LATER THAN 1 FEBRUARY OF THE FOLLOWING YEAR [or at a specified date].

Annex 6: An example of an annual plan of operations

An Annual Plan of Operations is derived from an approved long-term management plan and should operate for only one year. A general structure, or format, for an Annual Plan of Operations, based on the use of tables, is shown in this annex and can be adapted to specific local forest management situations.

In this example, only the first page and pages for selected specific topics are shown in order to show general principles of how an annual plan can be developed.

FORMAT for an ANNUAL PLAN of OPERATIONS

Basic Reference Information:
Forest Name or Concession:
Name:.......................................................................
Location:....................................................................
Long-term Management Plan:
Forest Name:.............................................................................................
Period of Operation: 19/...... to 20/.......
Date of Plan Approval:...............................................................................
Long term Goal:
.....................................................................................................................
Objectives:..................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
Area:
Total Forest Area:.....................................................	.................ha
Productive Forest:......................................................	..................ha
Non Productive land:...................................................	..................ha
Protected Forest Area:...............................................	...................ha
AAC (Wood):
Maximum:.........................................m3......................	..................ha
Minimum:.........................................m3.......................	...................ha
AAC (Non-wood):
Maximum:...................................... m3 or kg.............	...................ha
Minimum:...................................... m3 or kg...............	..................ha
Other Forest Data:......................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................

Forest Boundary Definition Plan (it can be adapted for Boundary Maintenance)

Boundary Feature			Total Boundary Length	Last Year		Plan for the Current Year
				Plan	Achievements
			Km %	Km	Km %	Km %
1. Natural Boundaries:
	1.1 Rivers
	1.2 Shorelines
	1.3 Ridges (hills/mountains)
	1.4 Other Natural Boundaries		(specify)
2. Formed Boundaries:
	2.1 Roads
	2.2 Other Forests
		* Protection Forests
		* Nature Reserves
		* National Parks
		* Wildlife Reserves
	2.2 Other Concessions
	2.3 Other Tenures
Totals:

Pre-Harvest Inventory (100% Cruising) Plan

Location and Area of Inventory	Achievements Last Year	Plan for the Current Year
Cruising Dates	...../....../19.....	...../....../19....
1.1 Block Name, or number
1.2 Compartment numbers
1.3 Areas Surveyed
2.1 Block Name, or number
2.2 Compartment numbers
2.3 Areas Surveyed
3.1 Block Name, or number
3.2 Compartment numbers
3.3 Areas Surveyed
Total Area Surveyed (Cruised)

Notes:

* This table should be supported by a map showing proposed inventory locations.

** Flexibility in the use of this table is suggested as the needs of different forests will differ depending on individual circumstances.

Cutting Plan

Location of the Compartment	Last Year's Achievements			Cutting Plan for this Year
	Vol. (m3)	Area (ha)	No. of Trees Cut	Vol. (m3)	Area (ha)	No. of Trees Cut

Note: This table should be supported by a harvesting map showing proposed cutting locations.

Silviculture (Tending) Plan:

Location of the Compartments	Achievements of Previous Year		Planned for this Year (ha)
	Area (ha)	%
1. Operation I, e.g. weeding (to be defined for each forest management area)
2. Operation II, e.g. thinning {to be defined for each forest management area)
3. Operation III, e.g. 2nd thinning (to be defined)

Annex 7: Relationships between feeder road spacing, feeder road density and skidding distance

Examples of the use of the Feeder Road Density/Skidding relationship:

where;

D = the feeder road density in metres per ha.
s = the average skidding distance in metres.
a = a "road efficiency" factor, varying between:

5 and 9, depending on terrain;
4 - 5 for flat land,
5 - 7 for hilly land,
7 - 9 for steep terrain,
9 or more for very steep, rough terrain.

Example 1: A road density is 80 metres (0.08 km) per ha in undulating topography, where the factor a = 6. The average skidding distance is:

s=6/0.08 = 75 metres

Example 2: If the average skidding distance is 200 m (0.2 km) in hilly topography where the "road efficiency" factor is estimated to be 6.5, the feeder road density is estimated to be:

D= 6.5/0.2= 32.5m per ha

Annex 8: Conversion of slopes between degrees, slope percentage and gradients

This annex shows how slopes expressed in one unit of slope can be converted to another.

· Slope % = tangent (slope in °)*100

examples:

(a) a slope of 36.4% = tan. 200 × 100
(b) a slope of 30.5% = tan. 170 × 100

· Slope ° = cotangent (slope in %/100)

examples:

(a) a slope of 7.97% = cot.(14.0/100)
(b) a slope of 21.8% = cot.(40.0/100)

· Slope %= Gradient* 100

where, gradient is expressed as a fraction, e.g. 1:4, or 1/4

examples:

(a) a slope of 25% = (1/4)*100 = 0.25*100

- for a gradient of 1:4

(b) a slope of 12.5% = (1/8)*100= 0.125*100

- for a gradient of 1: 8

Gradient = 100/Slope %

examples:

(a) a gradient of 1 in 15 (or 1: 15)

=100/15=6.6% slope

(b) a gradient of 1 in 20 (or 1: 20)

= 100/20 = 5% slope

Annex 9: Costs in tropical forest management

A. Determination of the Point of Minimum Total Cost

This example shows how the minimum total daily cost for an enrichment planting operation can be determined. In this example, the sum of two cost elements - the average cost of walking per day (from an access road) and the average cost of planting per day - are minimized. The assumptions are:

(a) The planting crew comprises 10 people.

(b) The payment rate per person is $0.50 per hour ($5/hour for the 10 person crew).

(c) The average labour cost for enrichment planting is $2.00 per ha.

(d) The total distance walked each day is a two-way trip and increases by 400 meters each day.

(e) The area planted per crew member per day decreases by one hectare per day as the walking distance increases by 400 meters per day.

Col. 1 - a physical unit (meters), changing by a constant amount.

Col. 2 - a physical unit (time), changing by an amount that is related, in this example, to Col. 1.

Col. 3 - crew size (10) × $5 ($0.50 × 10) × fraction of an hour (y minutes/60)

Col. 4 - a physical unit (area), changing by an amount that is related, in this example, to Col. 1.

Col. 5 - area planted/day/10 person crew × $2 per hour. Col. 6-Col. 3+ Col. 5.

From inspection, we see the total daily cost of walking time from a roadside to a planting site increasing as the distance walked increases. The area planted each day and the daily cost of planting steadily decreases as the walking distance increases. The minimum total daily cost ($15.83) is obtained when the crew walk about 700 meters to reach the planting area, a two-way trip of about 1,400 meters. This minimum daily cost of $15.83 is derived as follows:

{$0.50/hour x 10 (crew size)} × {fraction of an hour (70 min/60 min)}+ {$10 (planting cost/crew/day)} = ($5 × 70 min/60 min)+ $10 = $15.83

Total Distance Walked per person/day (meters)	Time Walked per person/day (minutes)	Total Walking Cost. per day/crew ($)	Area Planted/crew/day (ha)	Planting Cost per crew/day ($)	Total Cost per day ($) col.(3)+ (5)
(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)
200	20	1.66	8	16.00	17.66
600	35	2.92	7	14.00	16.92
1000	50	4.17	6	12.00	16.17
1400	70	5.83	5	10.00	15.83
1800	95	7.92	4	8.00	15.92
2200	140	11.67	3	6.00	17.67
2600	180	15.00	2	4.00	19.00
3000	220	18.33	1	2.00	20.83
3200	240	20.00	1.5	1.00	21.00

Another output of the analysis is the sensitivity of the total cost to deviations from the minimum cost point. In this example, there is little real change in total cost when the distance walked increases to about 2,200 meters. It appears that the total daily cost increases steeply from this point. This minimum cost point should only be used as a general guideline as other practical management issues, such as the reading spacing and rate at which planting need to be achieved, must also be considered.

B. Break-even Cost Analysis

An example of break-even cost for manual and bulldozer road construction that involves some cut-and-fill work. The assumptions are:

(a) The variable cost of manual labour is $0.60/m³

(b) A fixed cost for the manual method is $10 for installing a simple lunch camp.

(c) The variable cost of bulldozer work is $0.30/m³

(d) A fixed cost of moving a bulldozer and fuel trailer to the site is $120.

(e) Machine work is method 1 (C1) and manual work is method 2 (C2).

Using the equation:

the break-even point is O = 367 per m³. It is derived as follows:

O = (120 - 10), (0.60 - 0.30) = $367 per m³.

It becomes increasingly more cost-efficient to use a bulldozer when the volume of fill moved exceeds $367 per m³. Conversely, manual construction can be expected to be more cost-efficient if the volume of fill is less than 367m³.

Annex 10: Examples of stumpage appraisals based on export log prices

A. A Simple Example

This simple example illustrates how a stumpage appraisal can be carried out based upon log export prices. It shows how fixed and variable costs both contribute towards the cost structure of the stumpage appraisal.

Price and Cost Variables		Price and Average Costs ($/m3)	Costs ($/m3)
			Variable Costs	Fixed Costs
Export Price of Logs		200
Less port handling charges		15	15
Less road transport costs
	- road construction	10		10
	- transport overhead	3		3
	- hauling, loading	22	22
	- normal profit on capital	6		6
Log Value on Roadside/Landing		144
Less log production costs
	- logging overhead	6		6
	- felling and awarding	19	19
	- normal profit on capital	6		6
Derived Stumpage Value		$113/m3

B. A Comparative Example

This example illustrates how a stumpage appraisal can be used to compare the derived stumpage values, based upon log export prices, for two separate options, when the price and cost variables are different for each option.

Price and Cost Variables		Price and Aver age Costs ($/m3), Option A	Price and Average Costs ($/m3), Option B
Export Price of Logs		200	220
Less port handling charges		15	15
Less road transport costs
	- road construction	10	14
	- transport overhead	3	4
	- hauling, loading	22	25
	- normal profit on capital	6	6
Log Value on Roadside/Landing		144	156
Less log production costs
	- logging overhead	6	6
	- felling and yarding	19	22
	- normal profit on capital	6	6
Derived Stumpage Value		$113/m3	$122/m3

C. A Stumpage Appraisal Based on Plywood Production

This example illustrates how a stumpage appraisal can be derived from the market prices of processed products. In this example, the prices of plywood and pulp chips are used. The same approach can be applied to sawn timber.

Price and Cost Variables	Values ($/m3) Products	Values ($/m3) Logs
Selling Price of Plywood	480
Equals selling price of plywood/m3 of logs used (recovery factor; 0.5 m3/m3 of logs)		240
Selling Price of Pulp Chips	60
Equals selling price of chips/m3 of logs used (recovery factor; 0.3 m3/m3 of logs)		18
Equals selling price of plywood and chips per m3 logs used		258
Less plywood manufacturing costs converted to a per m3 of log input basis		90
Less log handling, hauling, logging costs		60
Equals Conversion Return		108
Less allowance for profit and risk (on logging and plywood manufacture)		40
Equals Appraised Stumpage Value		$68/m3

Annex 11: Economic analysis as a forest management tool

A. A Practical Example of Discounting

Discounting can be used for finding future values of the present values of costs or benefits. Using the basic formula for discounting shown in Chapter 4, the steps involved in discounting a future value to a present value are as follows:

where:

PV = present value.
FVⁿ = a future value in year;
i = discount rate.
n = number of years.

Assuming an interest rate of 6 per cent, the present value of a $ 1,000 payment occurring three years from now is calculated as follows:

Step 1:

Step 2:

Step 3:

PV = $1,000 * 0.8396 = $839.60

B. An Example of a Spreadsheet Designed for a Tropical Forest Management - Discounted Cash Flow Analysis - PART I

TITLE OF ANALYSIS	YEAR
ITEMS	-1	0	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12	13	14	15
REVENUE
AMOUNTS (m3 or kg/ha)
Non-wood Products (kg/ha)	10										10
Sawlogs (m3/ha)		15
Veneer Logs (m3/ha)		20
VALUES ($/m3 or kg)
Non-wood Products ($/kg)	$8										$8
Sawlogs ($/m3)		$18
Veneer Logs ($/m3)		$35
BENEFITS ($/ha)
Non-wood Products ($/ha)	$80	$ 0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$80	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0
Sawlogs ($/ha)	$ 0	$270	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0
Veneer Logs ($/ha)	$ 0	$700	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0
REVENUE ($/ha)	$80	$970	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$80	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0
COSTS ($/ha)
Planning	$20	$10	$ 10				$1				$1				$10	$10
Planting (inc. Treestocks)			$120
Release Weeding				$60
Thinning								$30									$30
CFI			$5			$5			$5			$ 5			$ 5
Climber Cutting	$35
Log Harvesting		$500
Non-wood Harvesting		$2				$2				$12				$ 2
Diagnostic Sampling				$12
Road Maintenance		$15	$ 5	$ 3							$ 3					$ 3
Fire Protection	$0.5	$10	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$05	$0.5
Watershed Management			$ 5		$5		$ 5		$ 5		$ 5		$ 5		$ 5		$ 5
Admin-Overheads	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$05	$05	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$05
TOTAL COSTS ($/ha)	$56	$538	$146	$76	$6	$8	$7	$31	$11	$13	$10	$6	$6	$3	$21	$14	$36
NET CASH FLOW ($/ha)	$24	$433	($146)	($76)	($6)	($8)	($7)	($31)	($11)	($13)	$70	($6)	($6)	($3)	($21)	($14)	($36)

NET PRESENT VALUES:

Discount Rates	8%	9%	10%	11%	12%	13%	14%	15%	16%	17%	18%	19%	20%
Values	$221	$213	$208	$204	$200	$198	$196	$194	$192	$191	$189	$188	$187

B. An Example of a Spreadsheet Designed for a Tropical Forest Management - Discounted Cash Flow Analysis - PART II

TITLE OF ANALYSIS	YEAR
ITEMS	16	17	18	19	20	21	22	23	24	25	26	27	28	29	30	31	32
REVENUE
AMOUNTS (m3 or kg/ha)
Non-wood Products (kg/ha)			10									10
Sawlogs (m3/ha)															15
Veneer Logs (m3/ha)															20
VALUES ($/m3 or kg)
Non-wood Products ($/kg)			$8									$8
Sawlogs ($/m3)															$18
Veneer Logs (($/m3)															$35
BENEFITS ($/ha)
Non-wood Products ($/ha)	$ 0	$ 0	$80	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$80	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0
Sawlogs ($/ha)	$ 0	$ 0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$270	$0	$0
Veneer Logs ($/ha)	$ 0	$ 0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$700	$0	$0
REVENUE ($/ha)	$ 0	$ 0	$80	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$0	$80	$0	$0	$970	$0	$0
COSTS ($/ha)
Planning			$ 1				$1				$1				$20	$10	$10
Planting (inc. Treestocks)
Release Weeding																	$10
Thinning
CFI	$5			$5			$5			$5			$5			$5
Climber Cutting														$35
Log Harvesting															$500
Non-wood Harvesting	$12				$2				$12				$2				$2
Diagnostic Sampling
Road Maintenance					$3							$3		$15	$5	$ 3
Fire Protection	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5
Watershed Management		$5		$5		$5		$5		$5		$5		$5		$5
Admin. Overheads	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5	$0.5
TOTAL COSTS ($/ha)	$18	$6	$2	$11	$6	$6	$7	$6	$13	$11	$2	$9	$8	$56	$526	$24	$23
NET CASH FLOW ($/ha)	($18)	($6)	$78	($11)	($6)	($6)	($7)	($6)	($13)	($11)	($2)	$71	($8)	($56)	$444	($24)	($23)

NET PRESENT VALUES:

Discount Rates	8%	9%	10%	11%	12%	13%	14%	15%	16%	17%	18%	19%	20%
Values	$221	$213	$208	$204	$200	$198	$196	$194	$192	$191	$189	$188	$187

Annex 12 Tables of discount multipliers

A. Years 1 to 10

Rate %	1	2	3	4	5	0	7	8	9	10
5	0.9524	0.9070	0.8638	0.8227	0.7835	0.7462	0.7107	0.6768	0.6446	0.6139
6	0.9434	0.8900	0.8396	0.7921	0.7473	0.7050	0.6651	0.6274	0.5919	0.5584
7	0.9346	0.8734	0.8163	0.7629	0.7130	0.6663	0.6228	0.5820	0.5439	0.5083
8	0.9259	0.8573	0.7938	0.7350	0.6806	0.6302	0.5835	0.5403	0.5002	0.4632
9	0.9174	0.8417	0.7722	0.7084	0.6499	0.5963	0.5470	0.5019	0.4604	0.4224
10	0.9091	0.8264	0.7513	0.6830	0.6209	0.5645	0.5132	0.4665	0.4241	0.3855
11	0.9009	0.8116	0.7312	0.6587	0.5935	0.5346	0.4817	0.4339	0.3909	0.3522
12	0.8929	0.7972	0.7118	0.6355	0.5674	0.5066	0.4523	0.4039	0.3606	0.3220
13	0.8850	0.7831	0.6931	0.6133	0.5428	0.4803	0.4251	0.3762	0.3329	0.2946
14	0.8772	0.7695	0.6750	0.5921	0.5194	6.4556	0.3996	0.3506	0.3075	0.2697
15	0.8696	0.7561	0.6575	0.5718	0.4972	0.4323	0.3759	0.3269	0.2843	0.2472
16	0.8621	0.7432	0.6407	0.5523	0.4761	0.4104	0.3538	0.3050	0.2630	0.2267
17	0.8547	0.7305	0.6244	0.5337	0.4561	0.3898	0.3332	0.2848	0.2434	0.2080
18	0.8475	0.7182	0.6086	0.5158	0.4371	0.3704	0.3139	0.2660	0.2255	0.1911
19	0.8403	0.7062	0.5934	0.4987	0.4190	0.3521	0.2959	0.2487	0.2090	0.1756
20	0.8333	0.6944	0.5787	0.4823	0.4019	0.3349	0.2791	0.2326	0.1938	0.1615

B. Years 11 to 20

Rate %	11	12	13	14	15	16	17	18	19	20
5	0.5847	0.5568	0.5303	0.5051	0.4810	0.4581	0.4363	0.4155	0.3957	0.3769
6	0.5268	0.4970	0.4688	0.4423	0.4173	0.3936	0.3714	0.3503	0.3305	0.3118
7	0.4751	0.4440	0.4150	0.3878	0.3624	0.3387	0.3166	0.2959	0.2765	0.2584
8	0.4289	0.3971	0.3677	0.3405	0.3152	0.2919	0.2703	0.2502	0.2317	0.2145
9	0.3875	0.3555	0.3262	0.2992	0.2745	0.2519	0.2311	0.2120	0.1945	0.1784
10	0.3505	0.3186	0.2897	0.2633	0.2394	0.2176	0.1978	0.1799	0.1635	0.1486
11	0.3173	0.2858	0.2575	0.2320	0.2090	0.1883	0.1696	0.1528	0.1377	0.1240
12	0.2875	0.2567	0.2292	0.2046	0.1827	0.1631	0.1456	0.1300	0.1161	0.1037
13	0.2607	0.2307	0.2042	0.1807	0.1599	0.1415	0.1252	0.1108	0.0981	0.0868
14	0.2366	0.2076	0.1821	0.1597	0.1401	0.1229	0.1078	0.0946	0.0829	0.0728
15	0.2149	0.1869	0.1625	0.1413	0.1229	0.1069	0.0929	0.0808	0.0703	0.0611
16	0.1954	0.1685	0.1452	0.1252	0.1079	0.0930	0.0802	0.0691	0.0596	0.0514
17	0.1778	0.1520	0.1299	0.1110	0.0949	0.0811	0.0693	0.0592	0.0506	0.0433
18	0.1619	0.1372	0.1163	0.0985	0.0835	0.0708	0.0600	0.0508	0.0431	0.0365
19	0.1476	0.1240	0.1042	0.0876	0.0736	0.0618	00520	0.0437	0.0367	0.0308
20	0.1346	0.1122	0.0935	0.0779	0.0649	0.0541	0.0451	0.0376	0.0313	0.0261

C. Years 21 to 30

Rate %	21	22	23	24	25	26	27	28	29	30
5	0.3589	0.3419	0.3256	0.3101	0.2953	0.2812	0.2678	0.2551	0.2429	0.2314
6	0.2942	0.2775	0.2618	0.2470	0.2330	0.2198	0.2074	0.1956	0.1846	0.1741
7	0.2415	0.2257	0.2109	0.1971	0.1842	0.1722	0.1609	0.1504	0.1406	0.1314
8	0.1987	0.1839	0.1703	0.1577	0.1460	0.1352	0.1252	0.1159	0.1073	0.0994
9	0.1637	0.1502	0.1378	0.1264	0.1160	0.1064	0.0976	0.0895	0.0822	0.0754
10	0.1351	0.1228	0.1117	0.1015	0.0923	0.0839	0.0763	0.0693	0.0630	0.0573
11	0.1117	0.1007	0.0907	0.0817	0.0736	0.0663	0.0597	0.0538	0.0485	0.0437
12	0.0926	0.0826	0.0738	0.0659	0.0588	0.0525	0.0469	0.0419	0.0374	0.0334
13	0.0768	0.0680	0.0601	0.0532	0.0471	0.0417	0.0369	0.0326	0.0289	0.0256
14	0.0638	0.0560	0.0491	0.0431	0.0378	0.0331	0.0291	0.0255	0.0224	0.0196
15	0.0531	0.0462	0.0402	0.0349	0.0304	0.0264	0.0230	0.0200	0.0174	0.0151
16	0.0443	0.0382	0.0329	0.0284	0.0245	0.0211	0.0182	0.0157	0.0135	0.0116
17	0.0370	0.0316	0.0270	0.0231	0.0197	0.0169	0.0144	0.0123	0.0105	0.0090
18	0.0309	0.0262	0.0222	0.0188	0.0160	0.0135	0.0115	0.0097	0.0082	0.0070
19	0.0259	0.0218	0.0183	0.0154	0.0129	0.0109	0.0091	0.0077	0.0064	0.0054
20	0.0217	00181	0.0151	0.0126	0.0105	0.0087	0.0073	0.0061	0.0051	0.0042