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CHAPTER 4: BOTANICAL OILS AS GRAIN PROTECTANTS
The application of oils of botanical origin (vegetable oils) to beans is a method of protection against bruchid beetle attack, which has been confirmed as effective by many workers. The oils examined in this review have been assessed for their insecticidal action on various commodities including rice, maize and wheat. Coconut oil has been found effective against C. chinensis and C. maculatus, for a storage period of six months, when applied to green gram at 1 percent (Doharey , et al. 1990) and also when applied to rice to protect it against R. dominica and S. cerealella (Ambika and Mohandas, 1982). Application of castor oil at 10 mg kg-1 to mung bean prevented damage by C. chinensis introduced 18 months after treatment (Babu , et al. 1989). In all cases the oil rapidly produced adult mortality and prevented F1 emergence.
In addition to action against adult insects, vegetable oils are generally reported to exert ovicidal action. Don-Pedro (1989a) applied groundnut oil at 14 ml kg-1 to cowpea and infested the grains with C. maculatus, observing the carbon dioxide output of the eggs laid on the treated cowpeas. The pattern of carbon dioxide output was similar to that for untreated eggs for the first 72 hours, after which time carbon dioxide output in the untreated eggs rose six fold, whilst the output from the eggs laid on the treated grains remained unchanged. The post-72 hour period coincides with late embryonic development and the growth of the 1st instar larvae. Of the eggs examined, only 3 percent hatched on the treated cowpeas, compared to 76 percent hatch in the untreated controls. It was suggested that egg mortality was caused by the physical properties of the oil coating, blocking respiration, rather than by a specific chemical effect. The larvae, which hatch from the eggs of Callosobruchus species, must penetrate the seed to survive, and are unable to do this unless the egg is firmly attached to the seed surface. Eggs on the oil-treated seeds were found to be less firmly attached than on the controls, thus suggesting that the oil may inhibit successful larval penetration into the seed.
Credland (1992) examined the structure of bruchid eggs and suggested that the funnel structure at the posterior pole of Callosobruchus eggs, may be the major route for gaseous exchange. It was proposed that application of oil to Callosobruchus eggs might occlude the funnel, and thus lead to the death of the developing insect by asphyxiation.
Vegetable oils also affect fungal growth. Highly unsaturated soya bean (Glycine max) oil reduced Aspegillus ruber infection by about half when compared with untreated controls (Hall and Harman, 1991) but saturated oils had minimal effect. The vapour phase of essential oils of oregano (Oreganum vulgare) and thyme (Corydothymus capitatus) and two of their constituents, carvacrol and thymol, affects spore germination and mycelial growth of A. niger, A. ochraceus and A. Flavus (Paster, et al. 1995). Other plant oils such as derived from citrus (Alderman and Marth, 1976), carrot seeds (Batt, et al. 1983) and cinnamon and cloves (Bullerman, et al. 1977) have also been shown to inhibit aflatoxin production.
| ASTERACEAE (COMPOSITAE)
Helianthus annuus L. (Sunflower) |
 |
Wren, 1975
|
| Description | Annual herbaceous plant. Seeds opaque/white in colour, obovate or wedged-shaped, broader and truncate at the apex, convex, compressed on two sides which meet to form two sharp margins. Black variety has black, glossy surface and is larger and thinner than white variety, which often has black, longitudinal stripes. | Uphof, 1968; Wren, 1975 |
| Habitat | Widely distributed in United States, Europe and British Isles. | Wren, 1975 |
| Uses | A culinary oil is produced from the seeds; it is also used for animal fodder. | Doharey , et al 1990 |
| Oil | 2.5 ml/kg applied to Phaseolus
vulgaris protected the beans against attack by A. obtectus
for six months. Damage by A. obtectus following initial artificial
infestation was 6.3 percent compared with 88.7 percent in the untreated
controls.
0.5 percent (w/w) completely protected green gram from damage by C. maculatus and C. chinensis for two months. One percent (v/w) admixed with pigeon pea reduced adult emergence of C. chinensis (26.7 percent) after 100 days exposure compared to the control (112.3 percent). Two percent (w/w) admixed with mung bean reduced the mean oviposition of C. chinensis (4.4 eggs) with respect to the untreated control (31.7 eggs). |
Rheenen , et al. 1989
Khaire , et al. 1992
|
| Seed viability | 2.5 ml/kg applied to P. vulgaris
did not reduce seed viability when stored for three months.
One percent (v/w) did not reduce seed germination 100 days after application. |
Rheenen , et al. 1989
|
| Constituents | Linoleic acid (58-67 percent). | Rheenen , et al. 1989 |
| Dicaffeoylputrescine and di-4-coumaroylspermidine also reported. | Southon and Buckingham, 1988 |
| BRASSICACEAE (CRUCIFERAE)
Brassica juncea (L.) Czern. & Coss. (Brown mustard, Indian mustard) |
|
Rehm and Espig, 1991 |
| Description | Erect herb growing up to 1 m in height; lower leaves lyrate, upper leaves obovate. Flowers yellow, 3 cm long, finely pitted. | Graf, 1986 |
| Habitat | Europe and Asia. | Uphof, 1968 |
| Uses | The seeds are cultivated for oil extraction and as a condiment. The leaves are eaten as a vegetable in Southern and Eastern Asia. | Dalziel, 1937 |
| Powdered oil seed cake | 7.5 percent (w/w) admixed with maize reduced damage by S. oryzae. | Bowry , et al. 1984 |
| Oil
|
4 ml/kg admixed with chickpea
reduced oviposition and inhibited F1 production of C. chinensis
after an exposure period of 90 days.
7.5 ml/kg admixed with chickpea gave protection from damage for five months following repeated introductions of C. chinensis. 10 ml/kg admixed with chickpea caused 100 percent mortality in adult C. chinensis within four days and prevented F1 production. One percent (w/w) applied to green gram and stored for six months gave complete protection against damage by C. chinensis and C. maculatus. |
Sheokand , et al. 1993
Doharey , et al. 1990 |
| BRASSICACEAE (CRUCIFERAE)
Eruca vesicaria (L.) Cav. subsp. sativa (Mill.)
Thell. (Garden rocket, Ruce, Tarmira) |
 |
Rehm and Espig, 1991; Uphof, 1968 |
| Description | ||
| Habitat | Central Europe, Mediterranean region and Asia; introduced into America and Australia. Widely cultivated especially in Northern India. | Uphof, 1968 |
| Uses | The leaves are used as a salad
and seasoning. It is cultivated for oil production in Asia.
The plant is diuretic, antiscorbutic, stimulant, rubefacient and stomachic. |
Rehm and Espig, 1991
|
| Oil | 0.5 percent (w/v) of oil applied to green gram reduced F1 emergence of C. chinensis by 88 percent and C. maculatus, by 75 percent, when parent insects were added six months after treatment. | Doharey , et al.1990 |
| EUPHORBIACEAE
Ricinus communis L. (Castorbean) |
|
Rehm and Espig, 1991
|
| Description | Shrub, 2.4-3.6 m, small tree 7.0-9.0 m. | Dalziel, 1937 |
| Habitat | Widely distributed, occurs either wild or in a state of semi-cultivation in tropical and non-tropical countries. Found on wasteland and field borders. | Dalziel, 1937 |
| Uses | Castor oil extracted from seeds is used mainly in industry as a lubricant, an additive in rubber, and as a plasticizer in the plastics industry and in traditional medicines. Fermented castor seeds are used as a condiment in eastern Nigeria, and unripe and roasted ripe seeds are eaten in Indonesia. The press cake is poisonous and is only used as a fertiliser. | Rehm and Espig, 1991 |
| Dried ground leaves | 16 g/kg admixed with cowpea caused 100 percent mortality in adult C. maculatus within seven days and reduced F1 emergence. | Okonkwo and Okoye, 1992 |
| Oil | 10 ml/kg admixed with maize
caused 100 percent mortality in adult S. oryzae within 3 hours.
10 ml/kg admixed with pigeon pea caused 100 percent mortality in adult A. obtectus and C. maculatus within 18 hours. 10 ml/kg admixed with mung bean and stored for 18 months prevented
the emergence of F1 adult 12.5 ml/kg admixed with cowpea seed caused 60 percent mortality in adult C. maculatus within four days and prevented the production of F1 adults. When treated cowpeas (12.5 ml/kg) were stored for three months, adult mortality increased to 90 percent after an exposure period of four days. One percent (v/w) admixed with pigeon pea, prevented adult emergence of C. chinenis and significantly reduced percentage weight loss compared to the control after an exposure period of 66 days and 100 days respectively. |
Salas, 1985
Khaire , et al. 1992 |
| Seed extract | Chlorophorm seed extract caused significant adult mortality in T. castaneum. | Triwati, 1989 (cited in Rauf and Harahap, 1991) |
| Plant material | 3 ml/kg admixed with wheat caused 92 percent mortality in adult S. oryzae within 72 hours; reduction in damage by the F1 generation was slight compared to the untreated control. | Pal , et al.1988 |
| Seed viability | 3 ml/kg applied to wheat seed did not reduce seed viability 45 days after application. | Pal , et al. 1988 |
| One percent (v/w) admixed with pigeon pea did not reduce seed viability 100 days after application. | Khaire , et al. 1992 |
|
| 10 ml/kg applied to mung bean and stored for 18 months reduced seed viability by 25 percent. | Babu , et al. 1989 | |
| 10 ml/kg reduced maize seed germination by 62 percent | Salas, 1985 | |
| Antifungal activity | 2:10 (w/v) sap in liquid rice flour medium completely inhibited aflatoxin production of A. flavus (NNRL-3240) after an inoculation period of ten days. | Bilgrami , et al. 1980 |
| Constituents | The seeds contain 2.8 to 3 percent
toxic substances; principle toxin is an albumin called ricin.
Also contains undecylenic acid and ricinine.
|
Duke, 1985
Ayensu, 1981 |
| Toxicity | Poisoning of livestock and humans by castor beans has been reported. Ingestion of two to four seeds may cause serious poisoning and human fatalities. | Kingsbury, 1964 |
| FABACEAE (LEGUMINOSAE)
Arachis hypogaea L. (Groundnut, peanut) |
 |
Rehm and Espig, 1991 |
| Description | Cultivated annual approximately 30 cm long; obovate or elliptic leaves. | Thulin, 1983 |
| Habitat | Widespread in tropical and sub-tropical countries, predominating in seasonally arid areas. | Feakin, 1973 |
| Uses | One of the most important food crops in the tropics and subtropics. Oil is used for cooking and nuts are eaten or can be processed into peanut butter. | Rehm and Epsig, 1991 |
| Oil | 4 ml/kg admixed with chickpea
reduced oviposition and inhibited adult emergence of C. chinensis
after an exposure period of 30 days.
5 ml/kg admixed with cowpea reduced damage by 0.5 percent oil applied in ether to black gram reduced the number of eggs laid by C. chinensis and prevented the emergence of F1 adults. 10 ml/kg admixed with maize caused 97 percent mortality in adult S. oryzae within 24 hours and reduced F1 emergence by 98 percent after 60 days. 10 ml/kg admixed with either maize or sorghum caused 100 percentadult mortality of C. pusillus and R. dominica two weeks after application. One percent (v/w) admixed with pigeon pea significantly reduced adult emergence of C. chinensis and percentage weight loss compared to the control after an exposure period of 100 days. 56 ml/kg admixed with dried trout reduced emergence of adult D. maculatus to 31 percent compared with 70 percent in the controls. |
Sheokand , et al. 1993
Cockfield, 1992 Sujantha and Punnaiah, 1984
Obeng-Ofori, 1995 Khaire , et al. 1992 Don-Pedro, 1989b |
| Seed viability | 0.25 percent to 0.75 percent
oil applied to black gram did not reduce seed viability (no exposure period
given).
0.5 percent to 1 percent (v/w) admixed with pigeonpea did not reduce seed germination 100 days after application. 10 ml/kg applied to either maize or sorghum did not reduce the seed viability two months after initial application. |
Sujatha and Punnaiah, 1984
Khaire , et al. 1992 Obeng-Ofori, 1995 |
| FABACEAE (LEGUMINOSAE) Glycine max (L.) Merr. (Soya bean) |
 |
Rehm and Espig, 1991 |
| Description | Bushy, hairy annual 20-200 cm tall; ovate to lanceolate leaves; 5-8 white or lilac flowers borne on a raceme. | Thulin, 1983 |
| Habitat | Probably of East Asian origin but now widely cultivated; prefers a humid climate. | Thulin, 1983 Roecklien and Leung, 1987 |
| Uses | Cultivated for its edible seeds, rich in protein and oil. The oil is also used in pharmacy and other industries. | Rehm and Espig, 1991 |
| Oil | 5 ml/kg applied to chickpea
seed did not prevent egg laying by adult C. chinensis but reduced
the emergence of F1 by 98 percent after a period of 50 days.
5 ml/kg of highly saturated oil on P. vulgaris reduced oviposition and larval development by Z. subfasciatus after an exposure period of seven and 28 days respectively. 10 ml/kg applied to wheat stored for two months caused 67 percent mortality in adult S. granarius within seven days and prevented the emergence of Fl adults. 10 ml/kg applied to chickpea seed caused 100 percent mortality in adult C. chinensis within four days, and prevented the emergence of F1 adults. 10 ml/kg of either maize or sorghum caused 100% adult mortality in C. pusillus and R. dominica after an exposure period of two weeks. 10 ml/kg applied to pigeon pea seed caused 100% mortality in adult C. maculatus and 97 percent mortality in A. obtectus within 1 hour; and it also prevented egg laying. 10 ml/kg applied to maize seed caused 100 percent mortality in adult S. oryzae within 3 hours and prevented F1 production |
Singal and Singh, 1990 Hall and Harman, 1991
Salas and Hernandez, 1985 Salas, 1985 |
| Seed viability | 5 ml/kg applied to maize had
no effect on seed viability.
5 ml/kg of highly saturated oil did not effect seed viability, vigour, field emergence or adsorption of moisture by humid air three months after application. 10 ml/kg applied to maize seed reduced germination by 25 percent compared to the untreated controls (no exposure period mentioned). 10 ml/kg applied to cowpea seed and stored for three months did not reduce seed viability. 10 ml/kg applied to pigeon pea seed had no effect on seed viability. 10 ml/kg applied to either maize or sorghum did not reduce seed viability two months after application. |
Salas, 1985
Singal and Singh, 1990 Das, 1986 Salas and Hernanadez, 1985 Obeng-Ofori, 1995 |
| GRAMINEAE (SUB FAMILY ANDROPOGONOIDEAE) Zea mays L. (Maize, corn) |
|
Rehm and Espig, 1991
|
|
| Description | A large cultivated, annual grass reaching 3 m; monoecious with plume-like male flowers, female flowers produce cob. | Chevallier, 1996 | |
| Habitat | Originated in Central and South America, widely cultivated in Asia, Europe, Africa and especially the Americas. | Rehm and Espig, 1991 | |
| Uses | A staple food in many African and Central American countries; is also used for the production of vegetable oil and fructose corn syrup, and as an animal fodder. | Rehm and Espig, 1991 | |
| Oil | 2.5 mg/kg admixed
with cowpea caused 98.5 percent mortality in adult C. maculatus
within three days, and almost completely prevented F1 emergence.
7.5 ml/kg admixed with cowpea and stored for 12 weeks, significantly reduced the number of eggs laid by C. rhodesianus, and reduced the emergence of F1 adults to 26 percent, compared with 72 percent in the untreated controls. 10 ml/kg admixed with wheat caused 97 percent mortality in adult S. granarius within two weeks after application, declining to 53 percent, 60 days after treatment. >99 percent reduction in adult F1 emergence occurred at both exposure periods. 10 ml/kg admixed with maize caused 60 percent and 100 percent adult mortality in C. pusillus and R. dominica respectively after an exposure period of two weeks. F1 emergence and the percentage weight loss as a result of both species were prevented at this concentration and exposure period. 14 ml/kg admixed with wheat did not significantly reduce the number of eggs laid by S. zeamais but prevented the emergence of F1 adults. |
El-Sayed , et al. 1989
Giga and Munetsi, 1990
Don-Pedro, 1989c |
|
| Seed viability |
10 ml/kg of oil
admixed with wheat seed reduced the germination rate by 65 percent after
four months storage.
10 ml/kg of oil admixed with either maize or sorghum, did not reduce seed viability two months after application. |
Qi and Burkholder, 1981
|
|
| LINACEAE
Linum usitatissimum L. (Linseed, flax) |
|
Rehm and Espig, 1991
|
| Description | Annual herb, 20-80 cm high; branched stems bearing alternate leaves, narrow, lanceolate, 2.5 cm long with three principle veins. Flowers borne at the apices of branches, 1.5 cm, generally blue, more rarely red or white, 5 petals. Fruit in a spherical capsule, indehiscent in cultivated varieties. Seeds 4-6 mm long, oval, glossy, brownish-yellow to brown. | Flück, 1976 |
| Habitat | Widely cultivated; not known in wild state. | Flück, 1976 |
| Uses | Linseed oil is used in painting materials and in linoleum; the seeds are eaten and processed cakes are used as fodder. | Rehm and Espig, 1991 |
| Oil seed cake | 7.5 percent (w/w) applied to
maize seed in a choice-chamber produced a repellent effect against S. oryzae and reduced the number of eggs laid. Five percent (w/w) admixed with wheat significantly reduced the number of adult S. cerealella emerging from eggs placed on the treated grains. |
Bowry , et al. 1984
Verma , et al. 1983 |
| Oil |
1 ml/kg oil admixed with wheat
reduced grain damage by adult S. oryzae to 10 percent compared
with 72 percent in the untreated control, over a 90-day storage period.
3 ml/kg oil admixed with wheat seed caused 99% mortality in adult S. oryzae within 72 hours and slightly reduced damage by F1 insects |
Singh and Mall, 1991
Pal , et al. 1988 |
| Seed viability | Five percent (w/w) admixed with wheat did not reduce germination (exposure period unknown). | Verma , et al. 1983 |
| MALVACEAE
Gossypium spp. (Cotton) |
|
Rehm and Espig, 1991
|
| Description | Cultivated forms of the species
are divided into four species: G. herbaceum and G. arboreum
(Old World species), and G. hirsutum and G. barbadense (New
World species).
Perennial although normally only cultivated for one year; growing to about 2.5 m; leaves and stems are mostly hairy; all parts of plants bear glands which produce gossypol, visible as dark spots; lobed leaves; white or pink flowers; seed capsules surrounded by white fluffy tufts. |
Rehm and Espig, 1991
|
| Habitat | Originates in Africa (G.
herbaceum) and South Asia (G. arboreum) and America (G.
hirsutum and G. barbadense); widely cultivated in warm temperate and tropical climates. |
Rehm and Espig, 1991; Chevallier, 1996 |
| Uses | The oil extracted following cotton production is used for culinary purposes. | Rehm and Espig, 1991 |
| Oil | 0.25 percent (w/w) applied to
green gram prevented the emergence of adult F1 C .chinensis.
10 ml/kg applied to wheat stored for two months caused 40 percent mortality in adult S. granarius within seven days and prevented the emergence of F1 adults. 10 ml/kg applied to either maize or sorghum resulted in 100 percent
adult mortality of C. pusillus and |
Sujatha and Punnaiah, 1985
Qi and Burkholder, 1981
Obeng-Ofori, 1995 |
| Blend of soya oil and cotton seed oil | 7.5 ml/kg applied to cowpea
seed and stored for 12 weeks reduced the emergence of adult F1 C. rhodesianus to 53 percent compared to 72 percent for the untreated controls. |
Giga and Munetsi, 1990 |
| Seed viability | 0.25 percent (w/w) applied to
green gram did not reduce seed viability.
10 ml/kg applied to either maize or sorghum did not reduce seed viability two months after application. |
Sulatha and Punnaiah, 1985
Obeng-Ofori, 1995 |
| Constituents | Include: furfurol, quercetin, betaine, choline, phytosterine, various terpenes and formic, acetic, succinic, salicylic, palmitic, butyric, valerianic and capronic acids. Seeds contain gossypol. | Oliver-Bever, 1986 |
| Toxicity | Gossypol is toxic and, cumulatively, may cause anorexia and circulatory problems. It also has aspermicidal action and is used for human contraception in China. | Oliver-Bever, 1986 |
| OLEACEAE
Olea europaea L. (Olive tree) |
|
Rehm and Espig, 1991
|
| Description | Evergreen tree, up to 10 m in height; deeply grooved grey trunk; small leathery leaves; clusters of small, greenish-white flowers and green fruit ripening to black. | Chevallier, 1996 |
| Habitat | Native to Mediterranean region; cultivated mainly in Mediterranean area and the Middle East. | Rehm and Espig, 1991 |
| Uses | Edible fruit also used to produce a culinary oil. | Rehm and Espig, 1991 |
| Oil | 10 ml/kg admixed with maize
caused 100% mortality in adult S. oryzae within 3 hours.
10 ml/kg admixed with pigeon pea caused 100 percent mortality in adult C. maculatus and 96 percent mortality in adult A. obtectus within 1 hour. 15 ml/kg admixed with mung bean reduced damage by C. maculatus, four months after application, by at least 95 percent compared with the untreated control. |
Salas, 1985
|
| Constituents | Include cinchonidine, cinchonine and hydrocinchonine. | Duke, 1985 |
| PALMACEAE
Cocos nucifera L. (Coconut palm, Cocotier, Cocotero, Kokospalme) |
|
Rehm and Espig 1991
|
| Description | Palm trees grow to about 24 m, often with curved trunks, thickened at base; leaves form a crown at to of trunk, individually up to 6 m long, pinnate with 90 cm segments, leathery and glossy. Flowers in large inflorescence up to 90 cm long; male and female flowers separated; large fruit to 30 cm, nut enclosed in fibrous husk. | Perry and Hay, 1982 |
| Habitat | Originates from the Melanesian region, which is still the main areas of cultivation; now grown in all parts of the tropics usually along or near coastlines. | Rehm and Espig 1991; Perry and Hay, 1982 |
| Uses | Products produced from the palm include coconut oil, copra, coconut flakes, animal fodder and coir. | Rehm and Espig, 1991 |
| Oil | 20 mg/kg of oil admixed with mung beans reduced the number of eggs laid by adult C. chinensis and prevented emergence of F1 adults. 100 mg/50 g seed caused 73 percent adult mortality within 24 hours. | Morallo-Rejesus , et al. 1990 |
| 4 ml/kg admixed with chickpea reduced oviposition and inhibited adult emergence in C. chinensis after an exposure period of 30 days. | Sheokand , et al. 1993 | |
| Application of 0.5 percent oil
to green gram reduced the number of eggs laid by two pairs of C. chinensis
by 50 percent compared to the untreated control, and totally prevented
emergence of F1 adults.
5 ml/kg admixed with 50 g samples of cowpeas reduced the numbers of
eggs laid by adult 5 ml/kg admixed with chickpeas prevented emergence of F1 C. chinensis adults and reduced the percentage damage to 0.8 percent. |
Sujatha and Punnaiah, 1985
Messina and Renwick, 1983
|
|
| One percent (w/w) applied to
paddy rice protected the grains for six months against introduced infestations
of R.. dominica and S. cerealella.
One percent coconut oil (w/w) admixed with green gram prevented F1 adult emergence of C. maculatus and C. chinensis. One percent gram seed caused 100 percent mortality in adult C. chinensis within three days and prevented egg laying. |
Ambika Devi and Mohandas, 1982
|
|
| 10 ml/kg admixed with maize
caused 100 percent mortality in adult S. oryzae within 3 hours
and prevented reproduction and F1 emergence.
10 ml/kg admixed with maize and stored for 60 days caused 97 percent mortality in adult S. oryzae within 24 hours and reduced F1 production by 99 percent. 10 ml/kg admixed with pigeon pea caused 97.5 percent mortality in adult A. obtectus and 100 percent mortality in C. maculatus within 1 hour. It has also prevented reproduction and F1 emergence. |
Salas, 1985
Ivbijaro and Agbaje, 1986
|
|
| 14 ml/kg did not reduce the number of eggs laid by C. maculatus on cowpeas 12 hours after treatment, although it completely prevented emergence of F1 adults. | Don-Pedro, 1989d | |
|
|
56 ml/kg applied to dried trout reduced the development of progeny and emergence of adults in D. maculatus to 42 percent following release of parents on the treated surface; this compared to 70 percent in the untreated controls. At 112 ml/kg, the emergence of F1 adults was completely prevented. | Don-Pedro, 1989b
|
| Seed viability | Green gram treated with 0.5
percent coconut oil had a germination rate of 96 percent.
Maize seed treated with 5 ml/kg and stored for six weeks had a germination rate of 94 percent. One percent coconut oil applied to paddy rice and stored for six months reduced the germination rate to 39 percent compared with 56 percent for the untreated controls. The germination rate of maize seed treated with 10 ml/kg of coconut oil was 54 percent.. Chickpeas treated with 5 percent coconut oil had a germination rate of 98 percent after three months of storage. |
Sujatha and Punnaiah, 1985
Ivbijaro , et al. 1985
Salas, 1985
|
| Constituents | Coconut oil contains high proportions
of saturated fatty acids, especially lauric acid.
Trimyristin, triaurin, tripalmitin, tristearin and other glycerides have also been recorded. |
Messina and Renwick, 1983
Jouhar and Poucher, 1991 |
| PALMACEAE
Elacis guineensis Jacq. (African oil palm, Palmier à huile, Palmera de aceite, Ölpalme) |
|
Rehm and Espig, 1991 |
| Description | Tall palm, reaching 18 m or more; ringed trunk crowned by graceful pinnate fronds up to 5 m long; ridged, narrow leaves. | Graf, 1986 |
| Habitat | Native to tropical West Africa; also cultivated in Malaysia, Indonesia, South and Central America. | Rehm and Espig, 1991 |
| Uses | Edible oil. | Uphof, 1968 |
| Oil | 0.25 percent (w/w) applied to green gram reduced the number of eggs laid by C. chinensis by 57 percent; it also prevented F1 emergence. | Sujatha and Punnaiah, 1985 |
|
|
4 ml/kg admixed with chickpea
reduced oviposition and inhibited F1 emergence after an exposure period
of 30 days.
4 ml/kg admixed with chickpea prevented adult F1 emergence in C. chinensis; oviposition was only reduced by 30 percent |
Sheokand , et al. 1993
Sube , et al. 1991 |
| 5 ml/kg admixed with bambara
groundnut reduced percentage hatch of C. maculatus immediately
after application, although at this application rate, parents were heavily
coated with oil.
5 ml/kg admixed maize resulted in 100 percent adult mortality of R. dominica and C. pusillus after an exposure period of two weeks. |
Pereira, 1983
|
|
| 10 ml/kg applied to maize or
sorghum caused 100% mortality in adult R. dominica when tested
immediately after treatment. It also prevented the emergence of F1 adults.
10 ml/kg applied to maize caused 66 percent mortality in adult S. oryzae within 24 hours, 60 days after treatment; it reduced F1 emergence by 92 percent. 1 ml/100 g gram seed caused 100 percent mortality in adult C. chinensis within three days and reduced egg hatching of F1 by 96 percent. One percent (v/w) admixed with pigeon pea reduced adult emergence of C. chinensis (40 percent) and percentage weight loss (34.5 percent) relative to the control (112.3 percent and 59 percent respectively) after an exposure period of 100 days. |
Kumar and Okonronkwo, 1991
Ivbijaro , et al. 1985
|
|
| 14 ml/kg applied to wheat produced a 97 percent reduction in F1 adult emergence of S. zeamais immediately after treatment. | Don-Pedro, 1989c | |
| 112 ml/kg applied to dried trout significantly reduced the number of F1 emerging D. maculatus larvae when parent insects were retained on the treated surface for ten days. | Don-Pedro, 1989b |
|
| Acetone extract | 4 m l of acetone extract applied to a disc of filter paper (9 cm diameter) caused 100 percent adult mortality of C. pusillus and R. dominica after an exposure period of 24 hours. | Obeng-Ofori, 1995 |
| Seed viability | Seed germination was reduced
by 4 percent, six weeks after treatment with oil at 5 ml/kg maize.
10 ml/kg did not reduce the seed viability of maize or sorghum after an exposure period of two months. One percent (v/w) admixed with pigeon pea did not reduce seed germination 100 days after application. |
Ivbijaro , et al. 1985 Obeng-Ofori, 1995
Khaire , et al. 1992 |
| PEDALIACEAE
Sesamum orientale L. (Sesame, Gingelly, Til, Sim-sim, Benniseed) |
 |
Rehm and Espig, 1991 |
| Description
|
Herb, up to 60 cm in height; rough lanceolate leaves, 12 cm long; two-lipped, 3 cm, pink or white flowers in leaf axils. | Graf, 1986
|
| Habitat | Originates from summer-rainfall areas of tropical Africa; also cultivated in the Middle East, India and China. | Rehm and Espig, 1991 |
| Uses | The fresh leaves are used as a vegetable. Shelled seeds are used in baking, as a condiment, and in medicines. Cake is used for animal fodder. | Rehm and Espig, 1991 |
| Oil | 0.25 percent applied in ether to green gram reduced egg laying by adult C. chinensis by reducing adult longevity; the emergence of F1 adults was completely prevented. | Sujatha and Punnaiah, 1985 |
| 0.5 percent applied in ether
to black gram reduced egg laying by adult C. chinensis and completely
prevented the emergence of F1 adults.
0.5 percent (w/w) applied to green gram reduced the number of eggs laid by C. maculatus and prevented F1 emergence. |
Sujatha and Punnaiah, 1984
|
|
| One percent (w/w) applied to
chickpea and stored for six months significantly reduced egg laying by
C. chinensis and prevented seed damage.
1 ml/100 g applied to gram caused 100 percent mortality in adult C. chinensis within three days and completely prevented egg laying and the emergence of F1 adults. |
Choudhary, 1990
|
|
| 10 ml/kg applied to chickpea
caused 100 percent mortality in adult C. chinensis within four
days and prevented egg laying.
10 ml/kg applied to pigeon pea caused 92.5 percent mortality in adult A. obtectus and 98.5 percent mortality in adult C. maculatus within 1 hour; it also prevented F1 emergence. 10 ml/kg applied to maize caused 100 percent mortality in adult S. oryzae within 3 hours. |
Das, 1986
|
|
| 14 ml/kg applied to wheat reduced the number of eggs laid by S. zeamais and prevented the emergence of F1 adults. | Don-Pedro, 1989c | |
| Seed viability | 0.25 percent oil applied to
green gram did not reduce germination.
10 ml/kg reduced the germination of maize seed by 20 percent compared to the control. |
Sujatha and Punnaiah, 1985
Salas, 1985 |
| Vegetable oil (unspecified) |
Pohtograph unavailable
|
|
| Oil | 5 ml/kg on maize caused 100
percent mortality in adult R. dominica and D. distinctus
and prevented emergence of F1 adults, immediately after application.
10 ml/kg was required to produce the same response in both species on
wheat and sorghum. Wheat and sorghum treated with 10 ml/kg caused 100
percent mortality of adult D. distinctus and prevented F1
production, three months after treatment.
5 ml/kg on P. vulgaris reduced damage by 5 ml/kg of mixed vegetable oil on P. vulgaris reduced oviposition and larval development by Z. subfasciatus 10 ml/kg of vegetable oil (either groundnut, rape seed or sunflower) admixed with wheat grain caused 60-80 percent mortality in S. granarius after 14 days. The oil treatment combined with pirimiphos-methyl (at half the recommended dose) was as effective as the full recommended dose alone. |
Kumar and Okonronkwo, 1991
Tembo and Murfitt, 1995 |
| Seed viability | 10 ml/kg on maize, wheat and
sorghum seed did not significantly reduce germination.
5 ml/kg of mixed vegetable oil did not effect seed viability, vigour, field emergence or adsorption of moisture by humid air. |
Kumar and Okonronkwo, 1991
Hall and Harman, 1991 |
