|
|
| Unit of Intervention | Issues: Important factors to consider | Information: Identify vulnerable units for intervention | Policies: Targeting vulnerable units |
(a) Individual |
· individual entitlements · intrahousehold relations · household labor and food allocation |
· objective indicators · subjective indicators · household assets, labor allocation and resource distribution |
· empowering women through improved asset holdings · considering intrahousehold implications of policies · targetting through supplemental feeding programs |
| Household | · household entitlements (assets) · timing of entitlements · sources of uncertainty |
· household consumption and expenditure · household asset position · coping and management strategies |
· facilitate asset accumulation · promote income generating activities · promote microfinance schemes |
| Community | · market integration · social institutions · resources and management |
· community assets · heterogeneity · portfolio of economic activities |
· facilitate channels of communication · participatory infrastructure development · promote sustainability |
| Sub-national | · rural vs. urban · food distribution channels · aggregate risk |
· rural vs. urban entitlements · vulnerability maps · food market structure |
· appropriate food price policy · national disaster preparedness and relief networks · improve food transport systems |
| National | · food supply (national production and imports) · enabling macro environment · social stability and security |
· sources of supply · national statistics · sources of foreign exchange · food aid programs |
· promote equitable growth and poverty reduction · increase agricultural productivity · establish adequate supply channels |
| Regional | · regional risks · regional food commerce · role of international organizations · WFS activities |
· sources of regional risk · comparable national data · regional trade links · degree of regional cooperation |
· regional disaster preparedness · normalization of information collection · promote trade and cooperation · facilitate regional information flow |
| Region/Country | Main Funding and Technical Partners | FIVIMS Activities Completed and/or Planned |
| LAC: Barbados | EC (proposed) | FIVIMS "Start-up Package" * |
| Ecuador | WFP, UNDP, FAO, UNICEF | Work with WFP/VAM |
| Central America Region | Navarra Region, Spain (proposed) | Regional support to national FIVIMS in Central America to be discussed with Navarra delegation October 14-15, as part of "food security support package" under negotiation |
| Haiti | EC (proposed), UNDP | FIVIMS "Start-up Package" * |
| * FIVIMS "Start-up Package": This involves a three phase process over approximately two years: (a) diagnostic study and definition of user information needs;
|
||
Table 3: Selected measures of food insecurity
| Measure/Indicator | (i) Basis |
(a) Limitations |
(i) Usefulness |
| Undernourishment Aggregate |
· aggregate food intake versus nutritional requirements. · assumptions about distribution. |
· based on aggregate supply. · difficult to determine nutritional requirements · distributional assumptions |
· estimate of global and regional food insecurity · cross-country comparisons · highlights problem of food insecurity |
| Undernourishment Micro-level |
· household or individual food intake | · difficult to determine nutritional requirements · problems with measuring food intake · captures short-term food insecurity and not long-term or vulnerability |
· more precise measure of food intake · able to link food security with poverty and assets · allows prediction of food insecurity |
| Undernutrition | · anthropometric measures such as wasting, stunting, underweight | · unable to separate food intake and health, etc. effects · high data requirements |
· captures long-term effects of food insecurity · able to link food security with poverty and assets · allows prediction of food insecurity |
| Coping strategies | · analyzes strategies to counter food insecurity | · location specific nature of risk-coping · difficult to monitor beyond micro level |
· better understanding of responses to food insecurity · provides information for intervention |
| Indirect | · predict food security based on sets of characteristics | · dependent on understanding of characteristics of food insecure | · lower information requirements · can predict which individuals are vulnerable |
| Subjective | · high information requirements limit widespread application · not conducive to statistical analysis |
· better and more detailed information · greater understanding of needs of food insecure |
| Country | Number of undernourished |
Proportion of undernourished |
||||
| 1979-81 | 1990-92 | 1995-97 | 1979-81 | 1990-92 | 1995-97 | |
| LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN | 46.0 | 58.6 | 53.4 | 13 | 13 | 11 |
| NORTH AMERICA | 3.1 | 4.4 | 5.1 | 5 | 5 | 6 |
| Mexico | 3.1 | 4.4 | 5.1 | 5 | 5 | 6 |
| CARIBBEAN | 4.6 | 7.3 | 9.3 | 19 | 25 | 31 |
| Cuba | 0.3 | 0.3 | 2.1 | 3 | 3 | 19 |
| Dominican Rp | 1.4 | 2.0 | 2.1 | 25 | 28 | 26 |
| Haiti | 2.6 | 4.5 | 4.7 | 47 | 63 | 61 |
| Jamaica | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 8 | 12 | 11 |
| Trinidad Tob | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 5 | 12 | 11 |
| CENTRAL AMERICA | 4.5 | 4.8 | 5.6 | 20 | 17 | 17 |
| Costa Rica | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 8 | 6 | 7 |
| El Salvador | 0.8 | 0.6 | 0.6 | 17 | 12 | 10 |
| Guatemala | 1.2 | 1.3 | 1.7 | 18 | 14 | 17 |
| Honduras | 1.1 | 1.1 | 1.2 | 31 | 23 | 21 |
| Nicaragua | 0.8 | 1.1 | 1.4 | 26 | 29 | 31 |
| Panama | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0.5 | 22 | 18 | 17 |
| SOUTH AMERICA | 33.8 | 42.1 | 33.3 | 14 | 14 | 10 |
| Argentina | 0.2 | 0.7 | 0.5 | * | * | * |
| Bolivia | 1.4 | 1.7 | 1.8 | 26 | 25 | 23 |
| Brazil | 18.2 | 19.4 | 16.2 | 15 | 13 | 10 |
| Chile | 0.7 | 1.1 | 0.7 | 7 | 8 | 5 |
| Colombia | 6.2 | 6.1 | 4.9 | 22 | 17 | 12 |
| Ecuador | 0.9 | 0.8 | 0.6 | 12 | 8 | 5 |
| Guyana | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 13 | 24 | 16 |
| Paraguay | 0.4 | 0.8 | 0.6 | 13 | 18 | 13 |
| Peru | 4.9 | 8.9 | 4.6 | 28 | 40 | 19 |
| Suriname | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 17 | 11 | 9 |
| Uruguay | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 3 | 7 | 4 |
| Venezuela | 0.6 | 2.2 | 3.3 | 4 | 11 | |
Absolute number of undernourished increased |
Absolute number did not change |
Absolute number of undernourished decreased |
|
| Proportion of undernourished increased | Mexico Caribbean Cuba Guatemala Nicaragua Costa Rica Venezuela |
||
| Proportion did not change | Central America |
||
| Proportion of undernourished decreased | Dominican Rep. Haiti Honduras Panama Bolivia |
Jamaica Trinidad Tob. El Salvador |
LAC |
| Country | Survey Year | Age Range (years) | Wasting |
Stunting | Underweight | ||||
| <2SD | Rural/ Urban ratio | <2SD | Rural/ Urban ratio | <2SD | Rural/ Urban ratio | ||||
| Haiti | 1994-95 | Urban | 0-4.99 | 7,8 | 1,0 | 24,2 | 1,5 | 22,1 | 1,3 |
| Rural | 0-4.99 | 7,9 | 35,1 | 29,8 | |||||
| Nicaragua | 1993 | Urban | 0-4.99 | 1,8 | 1,1 | 15,5 | 1,9 | 7,7 | 1,9 |
| Rural | 0-4.99 | 2,0 | 29,5 | 14,3 | |||||
| 1997-98 | Urban | 0-4.99 | 1,8 | 1,4 | 19,0 | 1,7 | 9,9 | 1,5 | |
| Rural | 0-4.99 | 2,6 | 31,5 | 14,7 | |||||
| Dominican Rep. | 1991 | Urban | 0-4.99 | 1,3 | 1,2 | 12,0 | 1,9 | 7,6 | 1,9 |
| Rural | 0-4.99 | 1,5 | 22,8 | 14,1 | |||||
| 1996 | Urban | 0-4.99 | 1,3 | 0,9 | 7,3 | 2,1 | 3,9 | 2,2 | |
| Rural | 0-4.99 | 1,2 | 15,2 | 8,5 | |||||
| Bolivia | 1996 | Urban | 0-4.99 | 1,2 | 1,2 | 21,1 | 1,8 | 5,9 | 1,9 |
| Rural | 0-4.99 | 1,4 | 37,7 | 11,1 | |||||
| 1998 | Urban | 0-4.99 | 1,1 | 1,5 | 18,9 | 2,0 | 5,1 | 2,2 | |
| Rural | 0-4.99 | 1,6 | 37,8 | 11,0 | |||||
| Honduras | 1991-92 | Urban | 0-4.99 | 1,3 | 1,3 | 23,7 | 1.8 | 11,5 | 1,9 |
| Rural | 0-4.99 | 1,7 | 43,7 | 21,8 | |||||
| 1996 | Urbana | 0-4.99 | 1,2 | 1,2 | 20,9 | 2,2 | 10,1 | 3,0 | |
| Urbanb | 0-4.99 | 2,0 | 0,7 | 34,0 | 1,3 | 23,2 | 1,3 | ||
| Rural | 0-4.99 | 1,4 | 45,0 | 30,0 | |||||
| Peru | 1991-92 | Urban | 0-4.99 | 1,5 | 1,3 | 21,6 | 2,2 | 6,4 | 2,8 |
| Rural | 0-4.99 | 1,9 | 48,1 | 17,6 | |||||
| 1996 | Urban | 0-4.99 | 0,8 | 2,1 | 16,2 | 2,5 | 3,9 | 3,5 | |
| Rural | 0-4.99 | 1,7 | 40,4 | 13,7 | |||||
| Guatemala | 1987 | Urban | 0.25-2.99 | 1,3 | 1,0 | 47,0 | 1,3 | 25,2 | 1,4 |
| Rural | 0.25-2.99 | 1,3 | 62,0 | 36,2 | |||||
| 1995 | Urban | 0-4.99 | 2,7 | 1,3 | 35,3 | 1,6 | 18,2 | 1,7 | |
| Rural | 0-4.99 | 3,5 | 56,6 | 30,6 | |||||
| Venezuela | 1987 | Urban | 0-4.99 | 1,4 | 1,4 | 3,6 | 2,1 | 3,4 | |
| Rural | 0-4.99 | 2,0 | 7,7 | 7,8 | |||||
| Paraguay | 1990 | Urban | 0-4.99 | 0,2 | 2,5 | 8,9 | 2,0 | 2,8 | 1,5 |
| Rural | 0-4.99 | 0,5 | 17,9 | 4,3 | |||||
| Colombia | 1986 | Urban | 0.25-2.99 | 1,5 | 0,7 | 25,1 | 1,3 | 10,0 | 1,5 |
| Rural | 0.25-2.99 | 1,0 | 31,4 | 14,9 | |||||
| 1995 | Urban | 0-4.99 | 1,0 | 2,1 | 12,5 | 1,5 | 6,6 | 1,7 | |
| Rural | 0-4.99 | 2,1 | 19,1 | 11,4 | |||||
| Jamaica | 1989 | Urban | 0-4.99 | 3,4 | 1,0 | 6,8 | 1,5 | 5,9 | 1,4 |
| Rural | 0-4.99 | 3,4 | 10,1 | 8,1 | |||||
| Trin. and Tab. | 1987 | Urban | 0.0-2.99 | 2,4 | 1,9 | 5,0 | 0,9 | 4,4 | 1,9 |
| Rural | 0.0-2.99 | 4,6 | 4,6 | 8,2 | |||||
| El Salvador | Urbanc | 0-4.99 | 0,3 | 6,0 | 13,6 | 2,1 | 7,2 | 1,9 | |
| Urbana | 0-4.99 | 1,2 | 1,5 | 20,1 | 1,4 | 9,1 | 1,5 | ||
| Rural | 0-4.99 | 1,8 | 28,1 | 14,0 | |||||
| El Salvador | Urbanc | 0-4.99 | 0,3 | 6,0 | 13,6 | 2,1 | 7,2 | 1,9 | |
| Urbana | 0-4.99 | 1,2 | 1,5 | 20,1 | 1,4 | 9,1 | 1,5 | ||
| Rural | 0-4.99 | 1,8 | 28,1 | 14,0 | |||||
| 1994 | Urbanc | 0-4.99 | 0,0 | 7,7 | 4,5 | 1,8 | 11,2 | ||
| Urbana | 0-4.99 | 5,7 | 0,4 | 21,0 | 1,6 | 12,6 | 1,6 | ||
| Rural | 0-4.99 | 2,4 | 34,4 | 20,1 | |||||
| Brazil | 1996 | Urban | 0-4.99 | 2,3 | 1,1 | 7,8 | 2,4 | 4,6 | 2,0 |
| Rural | 0-4.99 | 2,6 | 19,0 | 9,2 | |||||
| Costa Rica | 1996 | UrbanC | 1-6.99 | 2,2 | 1,4 | 6,6 | 1,0 | 4,0 | 1,7 |
| Urbana | 1-6.99 | 1,5 | 2,1 | 5,1 | 1,3 | 4,2 | 1,6 | ||
| Rural | 1-6.99 | 3,1 | 6,5 | 6,7 | |||||
| Ecuador | 1986 | Urband | 0-4.99 | 41,8 | 1,1 | 31,7 | 1,3 | ||
| Urbane | 0-4.99 | 50,2 | 1,4 | 35,1 | 1,5 | ||||
| Rurald | 0-4.99 | 47,1 | 41,1 | ||||||
| Rurale | 0-4.99 | 69,8 | 51,9 | ||||||
| Source: WHO Global Database on Child Growth and Malnutrition.
|
|||||||||
Country |
Survey year |
Age Range (yrs) |
Urban a Stunting |
Numberb Stunted
in urban |
Rurala Stunting prevalence |
Numberb Stunted
in rural areas |
Percentage of all stunted children in urban areas |
Percentage of all stunted children in rural areas |
Haiti |
1994-95 |
0-4.99 |
24.2 |
77.7 |
35.1 |
275.2 |
22 |
78 |
Nicaragua |
1993 |
0-4.99 |
15.5 |
46.0 |
29.5 |
103.3 |
30.8 |
69.2 |
1997-98 |
0-4.99 |
19 |
67.9 |
31.5 |
126.0 |
35 |
65 |
|
Dom. Rep. |
1991 |
0-4.99 |
12 |
58.3 |
22.8 |
105.5 |
35.6 |
64.4 |
1996 |
0-4.99 |
7.3 |
38.0 |
15.2 |
66.0 |
36.6 |
63.4 |
|
Bolivia |
1996 |
0-4.99 |
21.1 |
135.0 |
37.7 |
188.9 |
41.7 |
58.3 |
1998 |
0-4.99 |
18.9 |
138.4 |
37.8 |
180.9 |
43.3 |
56.7 |
|
Honduras |
1991-92 |
0-4.99 |
23.7 |
70.3 |
43.7 |
235.7 |
23 |
77 |
1996 |
0-4.99 |
25.3 |
91.1 |
45 |
254.8 |
26.3 |
73.7 |
|
Peru |
1991-92 |
0-4.99 |
21.6 |
385.8 |
48.1 |
533.4 |
42 |
58 |
1996 |
0-4.99 |
16.2 |
297.6 |
40.4 |
430.3 |
40.9 |
59.1 |
|
Guatemala |
1987 |
0.25-2.99 |
47 |
212.6 |
62 |
590.1 |
26.5 |
73.5 |
1995 |
0-4.99 |
35.3 |
198.0 |
56.6 |
640.7 |
23.6 |
76.4 |
|
Venezuela |
1987 |
0-4.99 |
3.6 |
70.4 |
7.7 |
40.7 |
63.4 |
36.6 |
Paraguay |
1990 |
0-4.99 |
8.9 |
25.8 |
17.9 |
69.8 |
27 |
73 |
Colombia |
1986 |
0.25-2.99 |
25.1 |
675.6 |
31.4 |
485.1 |
58.2 |
41.8 |
1995 |
0-4.99 |
12.5 |
404.3 |
19.1 |
289.7 |
58.3 |
41.7 |
|
El Salvador |
1993 |
0-4.99 |
17.2 |
52.7 |
28.1 |
111.5 |
32.1 |
67.9 |
Brazil |
1996 |
0-4.99 |
7.8 |
917.5 |
19 |
847.6 |
52 |
48 |
Costa Rica |
1996 |
1-6.99 |
5.8 |
10.9 |
6.5 |
14.9 |
42.3 |
57.7 |
| a. Source is the WHO Global Database on Child Growth and Malnutrition WWW.WHO.ORG Stunting is defined as height-for-age <-2SD compared to reference standards. b. The number of stunted children in urban (rural) areas is calculated as the number of urban (rural) children less than 5 years old (from ECLAC, 1999b) X the prevalence of stunting in urban (rural) areas. The population year was matched
|
||||||||
Table 8. Changes over time in prevalence of stunted urban children
| Absolute number of urban stunted children increasing | Absolute number of urban stunted children decreasing | |
| Share of urban stunted children increasing | Nicaragua (1993-98) Bolivia (1996-98) Honduras (1991-96) |
Dom. Republic (1991-96) Colombia (1986-95) |
| Share of urban stunted children decreasing | Guatemala (1987-95) | Peru (1991-96) |
Country |
Survey Year |
Area |
Age Range |
Wasting |
Stunting |
Underweight |
|||
<-2SD |
F/M |
<-2SD |
F/M |
<-2SD |
F/M |
||||
ratio |
ratio |
ratio |
|||||||
Haiti |
1994-95 |
Male |
0-4.99 |
8.4 |
0.9 |
31.8 |
1.0 |
26.9 |
1.0 |
Female |
0-4.99 |
7.2 |
32.0 |
28.0 |
|||||
Nicaragua |
1997-98 |
Male |
0-4.99 |
2.2 |
1.0 |
26.5 |
0.9 |
13.1 |
0.9 |
Female |
0-4.99 |
2.1 |
23.4 |
11.3 |
|||||
Dom. Republic |
1996 |
Male |
0-4.99 |
1.6 |
0.6 |
12.0 |
0.8 |
6.4 |
0.8 |
Female |
0-4.99 |
0.9 |
9.4 |
5.3 |
|||||
Bolivia |
1998 |
Male |
0-4.99 |
1.5 |
0.7 |
27.3 |
1.0 |
7.6 |
1.0 |
Female |
0-4.99 |
1.1 |
26.3 |
7.6 |
|||||
Honduras |
1996 |
Male |
1-4.99 |
1.9 |
0.4 |
39.3 |
1.0 |
24.0 |
1.1 |
Female |
1-4.99 |
0.8 |
38.5 |
26.8 |
|||||
Peru |
1996 |
Male |
0-4.99 |
1.2 |
0.9 |
26.4 |
1.0 |
8.1 |
0.9 |
Female |
0-4.99 |
1.1 |
25.1 |
7.4 |
|||||
Guatemala |
1995 |
Male |
0-4.99 |
3.6 |
0.8 |
50.4 |
1.0 |
25.9 |
1.1 |
Female |
0-4.99 |
2.9 |
49.1 |
27.3 |
|||||
Venezuela |
1997 |
Male |
0-4.99 |
2.9 |
1.0 |
16.3 |
0.8 |
5.2 |
0.9 |
Female |
0-4.99 |
3.0 |
13.5 |
4.9 |
|||||
Paraguay |
1990 |
Male |
0-4.99 |
0.2 |
2.0 |
14.3 |
0.9 |
3.2 |
1.3 |
Female |
0-4.99 |
0.4 |
13.5 |
4.1 |
|||||
Colombia |
1995 |
Male |
0-4.99 |
1.4 |
0.9 |
16.2 |
0.8 |
9.1 |
0.8 |
Female |
0-4.99 |
1.3 |
13.7 |
7.6 |
|||||
Jamaica |
1989 |
Male |
0-4.99 |
3.3 |
1.1 |
12.4 |
0.4 |
8.9 |
0.6 |
Female |
0-4.99 |
3.5 |
5.1 |
5.6 |
|||||
Trin. and Tob. |
1987 |
Male |
0.0-2.99 |
3.7 |
1.0 |
4.9 |
0.9 |
5.9 |
1.3 |
Female |
0.0-2.99 |
3.7 |
4.6 |
7.4 |
|||||
El Salvador |
1994 |
Male |
0-4.99 |
5.1 |
0.5 |
27.5 |
0.8 |
15.7 |
0.9 |
Female |
0-4.99 |
2.6 |
23.1 |
13.8 |
|||||
Brazil |
1996 |
Male |
0-4.99 |
2.3 |
1.0 |
11.5 |
0.8 |
5.9 |
0.9 |
Female |
0-4.99 |
2.4 |
9.4 |
5.4 |
|||||
Costa Rica |
1996 |
Male |
1-6.99 |
3.7 |
0.3 |
5.8 |
1.1 |
6.2 |
0.6 |
Female |
1-6.99 |
1.0 |
6.5 |
4.0 |
|||||
Argentina |
1994 |
Male |
0-4.99 |
1.8 |
0.2 |
7.4 |
0.3 |
3.4 |
0.1 |
Female |
0-4.99 |
0.3 |
2.2 |
0.5 |
|||||
Source: WHO Global Database on Child Growth and Malnutrition.
|
|||||||||
Country |
Years |
Earliest |
Latest |
Argentina (B. Aires) |
90-97 |
16 |
13 |
Bolivia |
90-97 |
47 |
44 |
Brazil |
90-96 |
41 |
29 |
Chile |
90-96 |
39 |
20 |
Colombia a |
88-95 |
23 |
15 |
Costa Rica |
90-97 |
24 |
20 |
Dom. Rep.a |
86-92 |
33 |
34 |
Ecuador |
90-97 |
56 |
50 |
El Salvador a |
91-96 |
60 |
52 |
Honduras |
90-97 |
75 |
74 |
Jamaicaa |
89-95 |
25 |
22 |
Mexico |
89-96 |
39 |
43 |
Nicaragua |
85-93 |
73 |
76 |
Panama |
91-97 |
36 |
27 |
Paraguay (Asuncion) |
90-96 |
37 |
40 |
Paraguay (rural)a |
92-95 |
53 |
60 |
Peru b |
91-96 |
55 |
46 |
Uruguay |
90-97 |
12 |
6 |
Venezuela |
90-97 |
34 |
42 |
| Source: ECLAC, 1999a
|
|||
| Prevalence of undernourishment increased | Prevalence of undernourishment decreased | |
| Prevalence of poverty increased | Mexico Nicaragua Venezuela |
Paraguay |
| Prevalence of poverty decreased | Costa Rica | LAC |
Social expenditure as % of GDP |
Social expenditure as % of public expenditure |
|||
1990-91 |
1994-96 |
1990-91 |
1994-96 |
|
Bolivia |
6 |
9.8 |
30.5 |
37.1 |
Brazil |
9.4 |
11.2 |
27.2 |
33.9 |
Chile |
13.8 |
14.4 |
58.1 |
61.8 |
Colombia |
7.9 |
13.3 |
28.7 |
39.3 |
Costa Rica |
17.7 |
19.6 |
63.6 |
61.9 |
Dom. Rep. |
3.7 |
5.4 |
35 |
32.4 |
Ecuador |
8.3 |
7.8 |
38.7 |
32.4 |
El Salvador |
4.1 |
3.6 |
29.9 |
23.8 |
Guatemala |
3.3 |
3.9 |
29.9 |
37.9 |
Jamaica |
11.6 |
11.7 |
26.8 |
31.9 |
Nicaragua |
11.5 |
13.4 |
33.7 |
29.8 |
Peru |
2.2 |
3.3 |
13.8 |
18.6 |
| Source: ECLAC, 1999c
|
||||
Table 13: Changes in undernourishment and social expenditure in the 1990's
| Prevalence of undernourishment increased | Prevalence of undernourishment decreased | |
| Social expenditure as percentage of public expenditure increased | Guatemala | Bolivia Brazil Chile Colombia Jamaica Peru |
| Social expenditure as percentage of public expenditure decreased | Costa Rica Nicaragua |
Ecuador El Salvador |
|
|
