Natural vegetable dyes
Edible products from forests - food, fruit species and mushrooms
Gums and waxes
Incense
by Sonam Tshering
Divisional Forest Officer, Sarpang
The Royal Government of Bhutan
Although Bhutan is largely covered with natural forests, a detailed survey of forest products has not been carried out. Hence accurate and authentic data on the various types of minor forest produce, such as edible products, dyes and wax, are still to be ascertained. Moreover, Bhutan has few industries or factories engaged in the collection and marketing of forest products. Collection and processing methods are still crude and traditional. Improving this situation would undoubtedly lead to an increase in both local and national revenue, as there are many abundant plant products that could be extracted. Other plants are simply not yet known and go to waste as their profitable use, if any, remains unknown.
There are a number of dye-yielding plants in Bhutan (Table 15). Local people obtain dyes from plants and minerals by simple, traditional extraction methods. These dyes can be grouped into five categories: leaf dyes, bark dyes, flower and fruit dyes, stem and root dyes, and mineral dyes.
Leaf Dyes
Leaf dyes yield a variety of colours and are used by local people for dyeing hand-woven materials, a fairly large cottage industry in Bhutan. Species include Symplocos sp., Strobilanthes flaccidifolious, Holicia nilagirica and Indigofera.
Bark Dyes
These can potentially be extracted from species such as Terminalia tomentosa, Berberis nepalensis, Acacia spp., and Alnus sp. Due to a lack of knowledge and experience, however, only dyes from the bark of walnut trees and Berberis sp. are presently extracted by local people.
Natural dyes play an important role in making traditional Bhutanese fabrics.
Flower and Fruit Dyes
In Bhutan, flower and fruit dyes are the most important category of natural dyes. Most of the dye species are raised from seeds by rural people, then sold. Their fruit can be used as mordants. Particularly important are khomany-shing (Choenomeles lagenaria), robtangshing (Rhus similata), churoo, amla (Phyllanthus emblica), Cedrala toona, Michelia champaka and Mallotus phillipenensis. The dyes are normally used for colouring or dyeing silk clothes. Mallotus phillipenensis, for example, produces a red dye called "sinduri," which is commonly used in colouring cloth.
Stem and Root Dyes
Stem and root dyes are used for many varied purposes. Dyes from Curcuma longa are used for colouring foodstuff, from Acacia catechu for tanning and dyeing canvas and leather goods, and from jackfruit for dyeing robes for monks.
Mineral Dyes
Found throughout Bhutan, these dyes are obtained from natural mineral salts (dochur) and oxidized iron (marchelo).
There are a number of plant species in Bhutan's forests whose fruits, seeds, tubers, roots, or stem parts are collected and consumed directly by the local people. The full extent of such use, however, has not yet been surveyed. A better understanding of the uses of such products would clearly lead to an improvement in the country's economic situation, particularly in rural areas.
A description of some of the species used as food follows (see also Table 16):
Food
· Wild yams (Dioscorea spp.) are found in abundance in southern Bhutan. The tubers are eaten once a year as part of a ritual. At times of famine, however, wild yams become a staple for those lacking other food. The tubers have an excellent taste. During difficult times even the bulbil, which is bitter, is eaten.
· Bamboo shoots are a common vegetable in Southeast Asia. Bhutan has many edible bamboo species. The roots are harvested during the rainy season - normally when they are about one foot high. The shoots are then boiled with wood ash to remove all poison. Without boiling, some bamboo shoots are extremely poisonous. Some bamboo varieties, however, do not have to be boiled.
· Elatostema spp. is consumed as a vegetable, known locally as "damroo."
· Algae (e.g., Ulva spp.) is mixed in curries.
· Tubers such as Dioscorea spp. and Alocasia spp. are eaten as vegetables.
· Jackfruit is also eaten as a vegetable.
· Oil can be extracted from sal seed and from Symplocos paniculata and consumed with ferns and other food.
Fruit
Forest fruit includes:
· pears (Pyrus spp.) - known locally as "phoetsi" in Dzongkha
· Eleagnus latifolia - small, red fruit
· "tong" in Dzongkha - somewhat like a pear (Docynia indica)
· "humpa" in Dzongkha (Citrus spp.)
· "nimbu" in Nepali
· Bel-Aegle marmelos - eaten after boiling
· wild banana (Musa spp) - the fruit is eaten raw; the flowers are eaten as vegetables
· mango (Mangifera spp.) - eaten as fruit
· beer (Ziziphus spp.) - grows mainly in Bhutan's southern riverine plains and degraded areas
· amla (Phyllanthus emblica)
· strawberries (Fragaria)
· "khalangji" (Solanum spp.)
· jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus)
Details of various other fruit species are given in Table 16.
Spices
Generally used as food flavouring agents. Many also have medicinal properties. Most important of all the spices found in Bhutan are cardamoms and peppers (Curcuma aromatic and Cinnamon zeylanicum). Other species include mentha, curry pasta (Murraya koenigii), Amaranthus spp. and Zanthoxylum spp. (see Table 17 for a detailed list of various Bhutanese spice species).
Mushrooms
Bhutan prizes its wide variety of mushrooms (Table 18). They come from both the country's tropical and temperate regions. More edible mushroom varieties are found in temperate regions than in tropical areas.
Some of the commonly eaten mushrooms are "jilli namcho" (Auricularia auricula), which grows on rocks and rotten logs; "jichu kangroo" (Calvaria spp.); "ga shamu" (Clitocybe odora); "sisishamu" (Cantherellus cibarius); "taa shamu" (Polyporus spp.); and "sangey shamu" (Tricholoma matsutake). Many varieties are marketed commercially.
Gums
Gums are translucent, amorphous exudations from the wounds of trees. Bhutan has not yet begun intensive gum tapping. Local people collect gum as and when required and the damage done to the trees is negligible. Gum (latex) from Ficus elastica is extracted for sealing bamboo baskets, and other bamboo work, using simple methods.
Commercial processing of gums has not yet begun. Bhutan's climate is favourable for the cultivation of gum trees, however, and the launching of such commerce would be beneficial to the whole country. Bhutan presently has only a few gum-yielding species (Table 19).
Trees from which the people extract gum include: brongshang (Ficus elastica), simal (Bombax ceiba), khair (Acacia catechu), and semla gum (Bauhinia retusa).
Waxes
Waxes are generally obtained from insect products, such as the honeycomb-cells of bees and wasps (Apis spp.). Local people collect honeycombs after the bees or wasps leave their nests. The empty combs are melted and all crude material removed. The wax is generally used for smoothing the thread when weaving cloth, or it is rubbed into the woven cloth to give it gloss and strength. Some waxes are now processed into candles, sealing materials, and other products (see Table 20 for a list of the various species found in Bhutan).
Quality mushrooms are one of the prime non-wood products of Bhutan's many forests.
Incense sticks are manufactured from many plant species which yield sweet scents (Table 21). Most people use the leaves, barks or whole plant directly as incense. In Bhutan, the demand for incense sticks for religious use is high. At least one large-scale factory is now manufacturing incense, in addition to many small-scale factories.
Some of the commonly used incense species are "shup" (Juniperus spp.), grown at high altitudes; "pang pee" roots (Nardostachys jatamansi); "sanze kachu" (Tancetum tibeticum); "poikar" (Cannarium sikkimensis); and Rhododendron spp. In the absence of these species, people use pine leaves or Artemisia spp. as incense.
The raw materials required by a typical incense industry are shown in Table 22.
Table 15 Natural Vegetable Dyes in Bhutan
|
Botanical name |
Local name |
Parts used |
Collection time |
Colour of dye obtained |
Quantity available |
Distribution | |
|
Mallotus phillipenensis |
Sinduri (N) |
Powder of fruit |
March-September |
Red |
Abundant |
Found in subtropical areas | |
|
Acacia catechu |
Khair (N) |
Heart-wood |
Throughout the year |
Dark brown |
Abundant |
Kalikhola, Samtse and Sarpang | |
|
Symplocos ramosissima |
Domzim (Dz) |
Leaves |
Throughout the year |
Yellow |
Abundant |
Available in every district | |
|
S. glomerata |
Domzim (Dz) |
Leaves |
Throughout the year |
Yellow |
Abundant |
Available in every district | |
|
Symplocos paniculata |
Pangtsi (Dz) Zimshing (Sh) |
Leaves |
Throughout the year |
Yellow |
Abundant |
Found only in patches in western Bhutan | |
|
Strobilanthes flaccidifolius |
Ram/Tsangja (Dz) Yangshaba (Sh) |
Leaves |
Throughout the year |
Blue |
Once cultivated, but now grows naturally in the wild |
Mongar, Trashigang, Pemagatshel, and Trashiyangtse | |
|
Lacifer lacca |
Jatsho (Dz) Tshos (Sh) Laha (N) |
Encrustation |
September-October |
Red |
Cultivated by villagers |
Mongar, Trashigang, Pemagatshel and Trashiyangtse | |
|
Choenomeles lagenaria |
Khomang (Sh) Mentsim (Dz) |
Fruit |
September-October |
Mordant |
Fairly abundant |
Southern Bhutan, Mongar, Bumthang and Trashiyangtse | |
|
Rubia manjit |
Choid (Dz) Mangito (N) Lanyi roo (Sh) |
Whole plants |
June-September |
Red |
Abundant |
Trashigang, Mongar, Pemagatshel, Punakha Wangdue, Thimphu and Paro | |
|
Curcuma longa |
Yongka (Dz) Hardi (N) Gung (Sh) |
October-November |
Yellow |
Can be easily cultivated |
Mongar, Samdrup Jongkha, Pemagatshel, and throughout southern Bhutan | ||
|
Phyllanthus emblica |
Churoo (Dz) Chorgon sey (Sh) Amla (N) |
Fruit |
August-December |
Mordant |
Abundant |
Dagana, Trashigang, Mongar, Punakha, Wangdue and Lhuntse | |
|
Rhus chinensis |
Robtangshing (Sh) Kharabshing (Dz) Bhakimlo (N) |
Fruit |
April-May |
Mordant |
Abundant |
Tsirang, Sarpang, Manas and Samtse | |
|
Juglans regia |
Tashing (Dz) Okhar (N) Kheshing (Sh) Walnut (Eng) |
Bark |
Whole year |
Black |
Moderate |
Haa, Wangdue, Punakha, Trashigang, Mongar, Zhemgang, Trongsa, Chhukha and Pemagatshel | |
|
Dochur (Natural Salt) |
White substance |
Whole year |
- |
- |
Found in land slips and rocky areas | ||
|
Manchala (Ironoxide) |
White substance |
Whole year |
Orange-red |
- |
Found in some streams | ||
|
Artocarpus integrifolia |
Jackfruit (Eng) Katar (N) Dranaashing (Dz) Bojang (Kh) Drimling sey (Sh) |
Wood |
Whole year |
Brownish yellow |
Abundant |
Cultivated in southern Bhutan | |
|
Holicia nilagirica |
Potorshing (Sh) Potala (Dz) Bandarey (N) |
Wood |
Whole year |
Yellow |
Abundant |
Found in warm, broad-leaved forests | |
|
Indigofera spp. |
Indigo (Eng) |
Leaves |
Whole year |
Indigo |
Abundant |
Thimphu, Trashigang, Paro and Mongar | |
|
Mangifera indica |
Amshing (Sh) Amp (N) Mango (Eng) |
Wood |
Whole year |
Light yellow |
Moderate |
Found in southern Bhutan | |
|
Onosma hookari |
Mugtsi (Sh) Drimug (M) |
Root, bark |
April-September |
Grey |
Moderate |
Lhuntse, Lingtshi, Laya, Lunana, Paro and Thimphu | |
|
Punica granatum |
Pomegranate (Eng) Thalimsey (Sh) Darim (N) Sendu (Dz) |
Rind |
March-May |
Golden yellow |
Moderate |
Also cultivated in sub-tropical regions by villagers | |
|
Rheum emodi |
Chumtsa (M) |
July-August |
Yellow |
Moderate |
Alpine | ||
|
Barberis aristata |
Korshuen (M) |
Whole year |
Moderate |
Alpine | |||
Note: (Dz) =Dzongkha, (Eng) = English, (M) = Medical, (N) = Nepali, (Sh) = Sharchop-kha.
Table 16 Food and Fruits in Bhutanese Forests
|
Scientific name |
Local name |
Parts used |
Collection time |
Quantity available |
Distribution |
Remarks |
|
Juglans regia |
Tashing (Dz) |
Fruit |
September-October |
Abundant |
Wangdue, Punakha, Paro, Haa, Chhukha, Mongar, Lhuntshi, Zhemgang, Trashigang, Trashiyangtse and Pemagatshel |
|
|
Pyrus spp. Docynia indica |
Lue (Dz) |
Fruit |
July |
Abundant |
Wangdue, Punakha, Paro, Haa, Chhukha, Mongar, Lhuntshi, Zhemgang, Trashigang, Trashiyangtse and Pemagatshel |
Cultivated |
|
Diplocknama butareace |
Yika (Dz) |
Fruit |
August-September |
Abundant |
Rare; Punakha, Wangdue, Mongar, Trashigang, Dagana, Samtse, Sarpang and Samdrup Jongkha |
Fruit pulp is eaten and oil is extracted from seed |
|
Cornus capitata |
Phasti/Namimpluse (Sh) |
Fruit |
October-November |
Abundant |
Punakha, Wangdue, Trashigang and Mongar |
|
|
Cornus macrophylla |
Chapoi/Baminpa (Sh) |
Fruit |
October-November |
Abundant |
Punakha, Wangdue, Trashigang and Mongar |
|
|
Elagnus latifolia |
Bjee (Dz) |
Fruit |
February-March/September-October |
Abundant |
Found only in Montane Zone |
|
|
Docynia indica |
Tong (Dz) |
Fruit |
October-December |
Abundant |
Punakha, Wangdue, Trashigang, Zhemgang, Trongsa, Trashiyangtse, Tshirang and Pemagatshel |
Wild, as well as cultivated |
|
Punica |
Chindu (Dz) |
Fruit |
August-September |
Abundant |
Punakha, Wangdue, Trashigang, Mongar and southern Bhutan. |
Cultivated |
|
Citrus spp. |
Bokoley/Humpa (Dz) |
Fruit |
October-February |
Abundant |
Found wild, scattered throughout every district. |
|
|
Citrus spp. |
Nimbu/Kagati (N) |
Fruit |
October-February |
Abundant |
Cultivated in southern Bhutan |
|
|
Aegle marmelos |
Bell (N) |
Fruit |
October-February |
Moderate |
Cultivated in southern Bhutan |
|
|
Musa spp. |
Ngala (Dz) |
Fruit |
Whole year |
Abundant |
Southern Bhutan |
Cultivated |
|
Zizyphus spp. |
Khangkhalingsay (Sh) |
Fruit |
March-April |
Abundant |
Samtse, Sarpang, Samdrup Jongkha, Trashigang and Trashiyangtse |
|
|
Phyllanthes emblica |
Chhorengsey (Dz) |
Fruit |
August-October |
Abundant |
Trashigang, Mongar, Wangdue, Punakha and Trashiyangtse |
|
|
Eugenea spp. |
Jamuna (N) |
Fruit |
August-September |
Fairly abundant |
Punakha, Wangdue, Trongsa, Trashigang, Mongar and Lhuntshi |
|
|
Fragaria spp. |
Marip (B) |
Fruit |
August-September |
Abundant |
Found in all pine forests |
|
|
Morus spp. |
Kimbu (N) |
Fruit |
May-July |
Rare |
Found scattered throughout all districts. |
|
|
Dioscorea spp. |
Phantang (Sh) |
Tuber |
February-April |
Abundant |
Found in southern Bhutan |
|
|
Randia spp. |
Nertingaey (Sh) |
Fruit |
June-July |
Abundant |
Found in sub-tropical regions |
|
|
Calamus spp. |
Patsha (Dz) |
Shoot |
June-July |
Abundant |
Found mostly in cool, moist sub-tropical forests |
|
|
Girardiana palmata |
Zochha (Dz) |
Inflorescense |
June-July |
Abundant |
Tropical and sub-tropical regions |
|
|
Adhatoda vasica |
Bashaka (Dz) |
Flower |
June-July |
Abundant |
Tropical and sub-tropical regions |
|
|
Elatostema spp. |
Damroo (Dz) |
Stem and leaves |
Whole year |
Abundant |
Cool, moist sub-tropical regions |
|
|
Ulva spp. |
(LEON) Algae (Eng) |
Whole plant |
Whole year |
Abundant |
Found on boulders in rivers |
|
|
Eleocarpus varuna |
Badrasey (N) |
Fruit |
Whole year |
Abundant |
Sub-tropical regions |
|
|
Bambusa spp. |
So (Sh) |
Shoot |
June-July |
Abundant |
Tropical regions |
|
|
Rhus hookeri |
Tarsishing (Sh) |
Fruit |
September-October |
Abundant |
Temperate to sub-tropical alpine climates |
|
|
Lorenthus spp. |
Khainingroo or Rumplung (Sh) |
Leaves |
Whole year |
Abundant |
Temperate to sub-tropical alpine climates |
Substitute for tea leaves |
|
- |
Neshing jormo (Sh) |
Leaves |
Whole year |
Abundant |
Temperate areas |
|
|
Calamus spp. |
Phakre (N) |
Fruit |
Whole year |
Abundant |
Temperate areas |
|
|
- |
Thakal (N) |
Fruit |
June-July |
Rare |
Temperate areas |
|
|
- |
Nakey (Dz) |
New shoots |
June-August |
Abundant |
In every district of Bhutan |
|
|
Solanum spp. |
Khalanji (Sh) |
Fruit |
March-May |
Rare |
Tropical and sub tropical regions |
Can be cultivated |
|
Rhus chinensis |
Chakashig (Kh) |
Fruit |
April-May |
Abundant |
Tropical and sub tropical regions |
|
|
Hodsoni |
Ghewphal (N) |
Seeds |
April-May |
Fairly abundant |
Tropical regions |
|
|
Machilus edulis |
Guli (Sh) |
Fruit |
July-August |
Abundant |
Moist, sub-tropical regions |
|
|
Spondius spp. |
Lapsi (N) |
Fruit |
July-August |
Abundant |
Sub-tropical regions |
|
|
Spondius spp. |
Amarsey (Sh) |
Fruit |
July-August |
Abundant |
Sub-tropical regions |
|
|
Artocarpus spp. |
Lathar (N) |
Fruit |
July-August |
Rare |
Sub-tropical regions |
|
|
Mangifera sylbistris |
Amchukili (Dz) |
Fruit |
May-June |
Rare |
Sub-tropical regions |
|
|
- |
Amsey shingsi (Sh) |
Fruit |
July-August |
Abundant |
Sub-tropical regions |
|
|
Symplocos paniculata |
Pangtshi (Dz) |
Fruit |
July-August |
Abundant |
Sub-tropical regions |
|
|
Phyllanthus emblica |
Churoo (Dz) |
Fruit |
May-June |
Abundant |
Sub-tropical regions |
|
|
Zizyphus spp. |
Tshoshing (Sh) |
Fruit |
March-May |
Abundant |
Sub-tropical regions |
|
|
- |
Gothanapaisey (Sh) |
Fruit |
May-July |
Abundant |
Sub-tropical regions |
|
|
Bidens spp. |
Zumphirobu (Sh) |
Leaves |
Whole year |
Abundant |
Sub-tropical regions |
|
|
Piper spp. |
Pani (Dz) |
Leaves |
Whole year |
Abundant |
Sub-tropical regions |
Leaves used as a substitute for tea |
|
Acacia catechu |
Toeja (Dz) |
Heart-wood |
Whole year |
Abundant |
Tropical |
Heartwood is boiled and used as a substitute for tea |
|
Alocasia spp. |
Mane/Piralu (N) |
Tuber |
Whole year |
Abundant |
Sub-tropical regions |
|
|
Orchid spp. |
Ola-chhoto (Dz) |
Flower |
May-July |
Rare |
Sub-tropical regions |
|
Note: (B) = Bumthap, (Dz) =Dzongkha, (Eng) = English, (M) = Medical, (N) = Nepali, (Sh) = Sharchop-kha.
Table 17 Spices in Bhutanese Forests
|
Botanical name |
Local name |
Parts used |
Collection time |
Quantity available |
Distribution |
|
Elettaria cardamomum |
Allaichi (N) |
Fruit |
June-July |
Abundant |
Samtse, Sarpang, Samdrup Jongkha, Wangdue, Tsirang and Shemgang |
|
Cinnamomum tamala Cuinnamomum zylanicum |
Tezpata (N) |
Leaves |
Whole year |
Abundant |
All southern districts |
|
Piper nigrum |
Pipla (N) |
Fruit |
September-October |
Moderate |
Sarpang, Samtse and Samdrup Jongkha |
|
Piper nigrum |
Round Pipla |
Fruit |
September-December |
Abundant |
All southern parts of Bhutan |
|
Cornus longa |
Hardi (N) |
Rhizome |
Winter season |
Abundant |
Trashigang, Mongar, Samdrup Jongkha and Samtse, Sarpang and Tsirang |
|
Myrica negi (small) |
Tsutsusey (Sh) |
Fruit |
Winter season |
Abundant |
Temperate zones |
|
Myrica spp. (big) |
Omsha tsutsusey (Sh) |
Fruit |
Winter season |
Abundant |
Temperate zones |
|
Rubus eliptica |
Sergong (Sh) |
Fruit |
Winter season |
Abundant |
Temperate zones |
|
Muraya koenigii |
Curry patta (Eng/N) |
Leaves |
Whole year |
Abundant |
Tropical regions |
|
Mentha spp. |
Nombarang (Sh) |
Leaves |
Whole year |
Abundant |
Sub-tropical and temperate regions |
|
Hantonia spp. |
Nombareng (Sh) |
Leaves |
Whole year |
Abundant |
Sub-tropical and temperate regions |
|
Corriandum spp. |
Wuse (Dz) |
Leaves |
Whole year |
Abundant |
Tropical |
|
Amaranthes spp. |
Zimtsi (Dz) |
Whole plant |
June-August |
Abundant |
Temperate regions |
|
Zanthoxylum alatum |
Gee (Sh) |
Fruit |
May-August |
Abundant |
Sub-tropical regions |
|
Z. budrunga |
Waosey (Sh) |
Fruit |
May-August |
Fairly abundant |
Sub-tropical regions |
Note: (Dz) =Dzongkha, (Eng) = English, (M) Medical, = (N) = Nepali, (Sh) = Sharchop-kha.
Table 18 Forest Mushrooms in Bhutan
|
Scientific name |
Commercial name |
Local name |
Collection time |
Quantity available |
Distribution |
|
Auricularia auricula |
Jew's ear |
Jilli namchu |
June-August |
Common |
Temperate regions |
|
Agaricus campestris |
Button |
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
Temperate regions |
|
Armillaria mellea |
Honey |
|
June-August |
|
|
|
Agrocybe cylindrancea |
|
|
June-August |
|
|
|
Agaricus bisporus |
Button |
|
June-August |
|
Temperate regions |
|
Agrocybe paludosa |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Amanita schinocoephala |
|
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Amanita caesarea |
Caesar's |
Conngsey |
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Boletus subtomentosus |
Bee |
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Boletus alegans |
Bee |
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Boletus bresadolae |
|
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Boletus variegatus |
|
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Boletus edulis |
Cap |
Bam shamu |
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Boletus cavipes |
|
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Boletus luridus |
|
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Boletus erythropus |
|
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Boletus lividus |
|
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Boletus viscidus |
|
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Clavaria spp. |
|
Bjichu kangro |
June-August |
Common |
|
|
Clitocybe odora |
Green milk |
Ga shamu |
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Coprinus atramentatius |
Ink cap |
Ruru shamu |
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Coprinus micaceus |
|
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Cortinarius collinitus |
Pig's stomach |
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Clitocybe aggregate |
|
Ga shamu |
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Clitocybe infundibuliformis |
|
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Collybia valutipes |
Enokitake |
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Cantherellus cibarius |
Chanterelles |
Sisishamu |
June-August |
Fairly common |
Temperate regions |
|
Common hydnum |
Hydnum |
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Clavaria botrytis |
Purple coral |
Jichu kangru |
June-August |
Common |
|
|
Calvaria viscosa |
While coral |
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Copricus comatus |
Ink cap |
Ruru shamu |
June-August |
Common |
|
|
Clavaria flaya |
|
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Cyathus olla |
|
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Collybia velutipes |
Velvet shank |
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Clitocybe geotropa |
|
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Cantharellus cinereus |
|
|
June-August |
Rare |
|
|
Drosphila hydrophilax |
|
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Entoloma lividoalbus |
|
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Fistulina hepatica |
Beefsteak |
Chimp shamu |
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Geastrum rufescens |
Earth flower |
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Ganoderma lucidum |
Monkey's seat |
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Hygrophorus hypothejus |
|
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Hygrophoris |
|
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Helvella crispa |
|
|
June-August |
Common |
|
|
Hericium erinceus |
Monkey head |
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Inocybe piriodora |
|
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Inocybe nipipes |
|
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Inocybe godeyi |
|
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Lycoperdon perlatum |
Puff ball |
Daybongthe |
June-August |
Common |
|
|
Lactarius deliciosus |
Golden milk |
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Lactarius piperatus |
White milk |
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Lepiota procera |
Parasol |
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Lepiota mastoidea |
Parasol |
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Lepiota clypoilaria |
Silky volvaria |
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Lactarius scrobiculatus |
|
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Lactarius sanguifluus |
Pink |
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Lactarius luteus |
|
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Lactarius vellereus |
|
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Lycoperdon pyriforme |
|
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Lepiota mastoidea |
Betel |
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Lentinus edodes |
Oak |
Soke shamu |
June-August |
Common |
|
|
Lepiota molybdites |
|
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Leary maria velutina |
Large |
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Marasmius oreades |
Coarse teeth |
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Panaelus sphinctrinus |
Manure |
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Peziza aurantia |
|
Kangchu shamu |
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Polyporus sulphureus |
|
Taa shamu |
June-August |
Common |
|
|
Polyporus frondosus |
Myetake |
Taa shamu |
June-August |
Common |
|
|
Pholiota squarrisa |
Wooly cap |
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Pleurotus cornucopiae |
Oyster |
Nakey |
June-August |
Common |
|
|
Pleurotus eryngii |
Oyster |
Nakey |
June-August |
Common |
|
|
Pleurotus ostreatus |
Oyster |
Nakey |
June-August |
Common |
|
|
Pleurotus sajor caju |
Oyster |
Nakey |
June-August |
Common |
|
|
Polyporus picipes |
|
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Pseudocolus schellenbergiae |
|
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Russula cyanoxantha |
Green |
Damsha |
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Russula lepida |
|
Maley sha |
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Russula albonigra |
|
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Russula rubra |
|
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Russula foetens |
|
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Pholiota carperata |
|
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Russula amoena |
Quelet |
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Russula alutacua |
Flies |
|
June-August |
Fairly common |
|
|
Strobilomyces flocopus |
|
|
June-August |
Common |
|
|
Sparassia crispa |
Golden coral |
|
June-August |
Common |
|
|
Stropharia semiglobata |
Dung, roundhead |
|
June-August |
Rare |
|
|
Tremella mesentrica |
Golden jelly |
Tsili sha |
June-August |
Common |
|
|
Tricholoma matsutake |
Matsutake |
Sangay shamu |
June-August |
Common |
Genekha, Ura, Isuna and Betekha (2.5 tons). Exported |
|
Tuber spp. |
Truffles |
|
June-August |
Rare |
|
|
Morchella esculenta |
Morel |
Gep shamu |
June-August |
Rare |
Temperate regions |
|
Schizophyllum commune |
Split gill |
Cinchiring (Sh) |
June-August |
Common |
|
|
Volvariella volvacea |
Straw |
Sorbang Bamu |
June-August |
Rare |
Lingmethang; tropical to temperate regions |
Source: Project Mushroom, Simtokha.Note: (Sh) = Sharchop-kha.
Table 19 Gums in Bhutanese Forests
|
Botanical name |
Local name |
Parts used |
Collection time |
Quantity available |
Distribution |
Remarks |
|
Ficus elastica |
Rubber tree (Eng) |
Exude |
Whole year |
Rare |
Found in tropical forest |
Can be cultivated |
|
Bombax ceiba |
Simal (N) |
Exude |
January-April |
Abundant |
Bukatading, Kalapani and Pugli in Samtse District. It is also found scattered throughout southern Bhutan. |
|
|
Acacia catechu |
Khair (N) |
Heart-wood |
Whole year |
Abundant |
Bukatading, Kalapani and Pugli in Samtse District. It is also found scattered throughout southern Bhutan. |
|
|
Bauhinia retusa |
Semla gum |
Exude |
January-April |
Abundant |
Found in Samtse, Tsirang, Sarpang and Samdrup Jongkha |
Used as colouring for sweets |
Note: (Dz) =Dzongkha, (Eng) = English, (M) Medical, = (N) = Nepali, (Sh) = Sharchop-kha.
Table 20 Waxes in Bhutanese Forests
|
Scientific name |
Local name |
Parts used |
Collection time |
Quantity available |
Distribution |
|
Apis dorsata |
Mouri (N) Wagoma (Sh) |
Beehive |
September-January |
- |
Found in Tsirang, Genekha and Jimina. Also found in other districts in limited numbers. |
|
Apis apis |
Mouri (N) |
Beehive |
September-January |
Moderate |
|
|
Apis sp. |
Putka (N) |
Beehive |
|
Moderate |
Topical and sub-tropical regions. |
Note: (Dz) =Dzongkha, (Eng) = English, (M) Medical, = (N) = Nepali, (Sh) = Sharchop-kha.
Table 21 Forest Plants Used As Incense in Bhutan
|
Botanical name |
Local name |
Parts used |
Collection time |
Quantity available |
Distribution |
|
Juniperus spp. |
Shup (Dz) |
Whole plant |
Throughout the year |
Abundant |
Gasa, Thimphu, Trongsa, Bumthang, Wangdue, Trashigang, Haa, Paro, Lhuntse, Trashiyangtse and Mongar |
|
Nardostachys jatamansi |
Pang Poi (Dz) |
Roots |
Throughout the year |
In pockets |
Halajola, Selela, Sagala, Jewlela, Dagye Phangtsho, Soi Yatsa, Lingtshi, Laya, Lunana, Naro, Pelela, Bumthang, Dagapela, Thrumshingla, Merak Sakten, Phajuing, Dochula and Sinchula. |
|
Daphne spp. |
Shogushing (Sh) |
Inner wood |
Throughout the year |
Abundant |
Trashigang, Mongar, Thimphu and Haa |
|
Tanacetum tibeticum |
Sangze kachu (Dz) |
Whole plant |
Throughout the year |
Rare |
Haa, Paro, Thimphu, Bumthang, Lingtshi and Laya |
|
Artimesia spp. |
Khampa (Dz) |
Whole plant |
March-December |
Abundant |
Found in abundance in all districts. |
|
Rhododendron, anthopogon |
Baloo (Dz/Sh) |
Whole plant |
Whole year |
Abundant |
Halajula, Pelela, Sagala, Jewlela, Soy Yak-sa, Lingtshi, Laya, Lunana, Naro, Bumthang, Dagapela, Dagana, Thrimshingla, Merak-Sakten and Phajuding |
|
Rhododendron, setosum |
Sunpatte (N) |
Whole plant |
Whole year |
Abundant |
Halajula, Pelela, Sagala, Jewlela, Soy Yak-sa, Lingtshi, Laya, Lunana, Naro, Bumthang, Dagapela, Dagana, Thrimshingla, Merak-Sakten and Phajuding |
|
Abies densa |
Dungshing (Dz) |
Leaves/twigs |
Whole year |
Abundant |
Paro, Haa, Pelela, Gasa, Bumthang and Lhuntse |
|
Cupressus spp. |
Tsendenshing (Sh) |
Whole plant |
Whole year |
Rare; found only in patches |
Kukuchhu, Lunana, Dangchhu, and Nobding; found planted in patches |
|
Aquilaria agallocha |
Agar (Eng) |
Infected heartwood |
Whole year |
Extremely rare |
Manas and Phipsoo Game Sanctuaries and Samdrup Jongkha |
|
Cannarium sikkimensis |
Poikar (Dz) |
Exude |
Whole year |
Extremely rare |
Sarpey in Samtse, Samdrup Jongkha and Sarpang |
|
Shorea robusta |
Sal dhup (N) |
Exude |
Whole year |
Abundant |
Samtse, Kalikhola, and Sarpang and in plantations in the south |
|
Cinnamomum cecidodaphne |
Phagpanengshing (Sh) |
Wood |
Whole year |
Abundant |
Punakha, Mongar and Samdrup Jongkha |
|
Delphenium brunonium |
Jagoipoi |
Whole plant |
July-August |
Rare |
Lingtshi |
|
Gaultheria spp. |
Chanze kam (Dz) |
Whole plant |
Whole year |
Abundant |
Trashigang, Mongar and Trongsa |
|
Terminalia bellerica |
Myrabolen (Eng) |
Fruit |
March-May |
Abundant |
Abundant in tropical forests |
|
Terminalia chebula |
Myrabolen (Eng) |
Fruit |
March-May |
Abundant |
Abundant in tropical forests |
|
Phyllanthus emblica |
Churoo (Dz) |
Fruit |
March-May |
Abundant |
Abundant in tropical forests |
|
- |
Wangpo Lakpa (Med) |
Root |
June-August |
Fairly abundant |
Laya, Lingtshi, Haa, Thimphu and Bumthang |
|
Machilus spp. |
Kaula (N) |
Bark |
Whole year |
Abundant |
Tropical forests |
Note: (Dz) =Dzongkha, (Eng) = English, (M) Medical, = (N) = Nepali, (Sh) = Sharchop-kha.
Table 22 Raw Materials Used in Bhutan's Incense Industry
|
Botanical name |
Local name |
Parts used |
Distribution |
Quantity required (kg. per annum) |
Remarks |
|
Rhododendron-anthopogon |
Balu |
Leaf |
Paro, Haa and Gasa |
200 |
Can be replaced by juniper |
|
R. setosum |
Sulu |
Leaf |
Paro, Haa and Gasa |
200 |
|
|
Angelica sp. |
Tangkun |
Root |
Paro, Gasa and Lingtshi |
150 |
|
|
Nardostachys jatamansi |
Pangpoe |
Root |
Paro, Gasa and Lingtshi |
100 |
|
|
Cinnamomum tamala |
Shingtsha |
Bark |
Punakha and Wangdue |
150 |
|
|
Artemesia vulgaris |
Khengkar |
Leaf |
Throughout Bhutan |
500 |
|
|
Innula sp. |
Manu |
Root |
Gasa, Paro and Lingtshi |
250 |
|
