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Some problems of regional planning in forestry

RUDOLF FROMER
Professor of Forest Economics, Higher College of Agriculture, Warsaw, Poland

THE problem of basing forest policy upon the differentiation of the natural and economic factors of forestry is strictly related to the problems of co-ordinating the growth trends of industry, agriculture, forestry and other branches of the national economy. A further important factor influencing those trends is the increase of population and of its standard of living.

The problem of determining the regional economic bases of forestry in general, and its natural bases in particular, is of great importance for the national economy as a whole. This has been proved by the experience of the U.S.S.R. as well as of the United States of America, for example, in the well-known results of the Tennessee Valley experiment. As for research on division of a country into natural (physical) regions, Russian and Finnish works are of considerable importance. Polish scientific forestry literature has dealt for over a century with problems of geognomic and typological research. In 1850, A. Polujanski, a well-known Polish forester, produced a four-volume work in which he examined the relationship between regional forest economy and industry and agriculture, also taking into account the level of education and the earning possibilities of the rural inhabitants.

In the 19th and 20th centuries, research on a division into natural (physical) regions has developed widely, and resulted in a series of projects concerning typological classification, as for instance the classification project of Jedlinski and Chodzicki before the second world war, and that of Dreszer, Chodzicki, Wloczewski and Mroczkiewicz after it.

The division of a country into "spheres" and natural (physical) districts, proposed by Mroczkiewicz, now forms the basis of management instructions and of all principles of silvicultural planning in Poland.

This article embodies suggestions for reconciling opposing tendencies that often hamper the development of forest management. It deals mainly with the gap between natural productive possibilities and the economic tasks facing forestry. Mroczkiewicz suggested the division of the country into eight natural forest spheres - extensive areas each corresponding to certain distinct silvicultural characteristics. This division ensures optimum productivity by basing silvicultural planning on soil and forest type characteristics for the sphere concerned. By fixing the extent of those spheres, it is possible to determine the bases of natural forest production. Modern scientific literature offers a number of methods for determining the main lines of forest typology, e.g., the works of Braun-Blanquet, Sukachev, Aichinger, Pogrebniak, Paczowski, Niedzialkowski and other authors, which represent both the physiological and the bio-geocenotic approach.

Division into regions

In order to determine the tasks of correct forest management, it is necessary to take into account:

1. production possibilities,
2. conditions of economic production that will influence the development of forestry,
3. production objectives, economic and natural (physical).

The realization of these postulates would be obtained through:

1. the establishment of natural spheres determining the possibilities of biological production,

2. the establishment of economic areas to be devoted to forest production, in order to fulfil the tasks and objectives of production.

Research on a division into regions ought to be carried out by means of analysis as well as synthesis, based upon static and dynamic examinations of the development of forestry in its relationship to the other branches of the national economy.

It is necessary to remember that, when examining an individual forest unit, we must consider it as an element of a bigger unit, the latter being an economic region that has not developed by chance but shows certain regular features characteristic only of that special region. This relationship cannot be properly appreciated without determining the economic regions.1

1 Definitions of "region," "district," etc. are, given under the section Economic regions.

The examination of these problems can be conducted from the viewpoint of the development of forestry or of industry, which is the most antagonistic element in relation to forestry. An important task of forest economy is the examination of the trends of economic development as a result of the influence of the economic area in which this development is proceeding. That development, it should be added, must be examined in various ways. Forest science and especially forest economy have developed late, and their development has always been completely subordinated to the needs of practical analysis. Unfortunately, investigations on the relations between forestry and other branches of national economy are not yet sufficiently advanced in most countries. The development of synthesis, i.e., applied economics, can only proceed on the basis of the above mentioned analysis. The rules and forms applied by forest legislation and forest management are effective only if consonant with regional needs and development trends. Examination of the geographical and economic situation, which exerts a prime influence on the development of forest economy, ought to form the basis for any implementation of forest policy and forest management.

This influence is particularly evident in Poland. It is very noticeable that the percentage of forest land is far higher in the west than in other parts of Poland. Furthermore it has not decreased in those areas, nor in Germany, since the end of the 18th century; indeed, the percentage of forest land has risen slightly there, whereas elsewhere in Poland it has steadily and rapidly fallen. In that period it fell by nearly 50 percent, and in the 20 years between the world wan, it fell by about 8.5 percent.

The explanation of this fact lies in the historic development of the economy of those countries. The division of Germany into numerous small countries in the 18th century and the existence of large self-sufficient feudal properties caused a considerable (though originally unintended) seclusion of economic regions. These small states were developing independently side by side, and in some periods of the 18th century were even separated from each other by customs barriers. Consequently, each had to develop all the branches of its economy and simultaneously to safeguard its forest area. The existence of these small but autarchic German states and of great feudal properties often resulted in the formation of widely differing systems of forest legislation -systems adapted to the regional peculiarity of the forests in the respective countries - and until recent times, the forestry of those regions remained in an almost unchanged form.

Economic regions

Under the concept of an economic region, one must understand a certain area of a country in which all the interconnected productive elements have formed themselves or are forming themselves in a certain visible manner. Division into regions implies the existence of boundaries. The boundary of a region is surely only an outward expression of these active elements; it is fixed along the line of a steadily changing balance of forces. Although such boundaries are not traced on the territories, they have a real existence. In the rest of this article, the term "region" will be used for a group of areas showing similar economic conditions "sphere," will mean a group of areas of similar natural (physical) forest qualities; and "district" areas of similar natural (physical) as well as economic qualities. This gives a classification into regions and spheres. The division into regions and spheres is of course not identical with administrative divisions. Poland, for example, is administratively divided into 17 units (wojewodztwo) with, in addition, four big cities.

From the literature dealing with this problem, it appears that there have been tendencies to delimit economic regions on the basis of similar statistical qualities, as comprising areas of a very similar character.

Geographical situation, and the economic activities resulting from such a structure, were also taken into account when those economic regions were delimited. Since the beginning of the 19th century, the city and its sphere of influence have been considered as a single region. Other systems of thought defined a region on the basis of labor division, and of exchange in the framework of a common market.

A very important influence on the formation of regions is the intensity of agriculture practiced; its degree of intensity is often connected with, and heightened by, the establishment of industrial centers. The intensity of agriculture exerts, inter alia, a great influence upon the structure of forestry, intensive agriculture causing a considerable increase of demand for certain definite types of wood. As further influences, we may also note the increased danger of livestock grazing in the forest, the problem of manpower, and so on. I shall not here analyze demographic problems and their fundamental influence on the structure of the region. I only wish to stress that:

1. Delimited regions must ensure such a distribution of productive forces as would allow a regional balance between the development of means of production and the increase in the labor force.

2. Regions must aim at a certain balance in relation to each other, as underdevelopment as well as over development of a region is not desirable, partly because extremes endanger the balance between economic and social development and cause economic losses.

3. The optimum development of a region must be fully integrated, as only thus can full utilization of economic reserves, lowering of transport costs, more profitable production, and better employment possibilities be achieved.

Economic regions perform certain functions within the framework of the whole economy of a country (e.g., an industrial region, or one of intensive or extensive agriculture). Agricultural policy has widely developed the investigation of systems of classifying the intensity of agricultural land use. Gerner establishes certain distinct gradations: e.g., the first degree, less than 25 percent of root crops, and over 30 percent of pasture; the fourth degree, over 15 percent of root crops, 35 to 50 percent of grain, and 35 to 50 percent of pasture. With further degrees, the proportion of pasture increases - up to 85 percent in the ninth degree - while the proportion of grain decreases. These studies, which have been carried out in Western Germany, show that the lower degrees of agricultural intensity are to be found mostly (but not exclusively) in the regions with a low percentage of forest land, the higher degrees in the regions where this percentage is high; for instance, the well-known mountain spa Bad Tö1z; belongs to the ninth degree, with over 90 percent of pasture and 60 percent of forest area in the district. I mention problems unknown and unexamined in many countries in order to demonstrate that the percentage of forest land is most probably the factor that increases the intensity of agriculture and causes an improvement in the balance and level of agricultural practice.

For many centuries livestock grazing and the state of game hunting have decisively influenced the level and the state of forestry. Legal prohibition of grazing is not sufficient. Agriculture as a whole must reach a higher level of productivity if it is to create proper conditions for the development of forestry. In Denmark, for example, the existing large imports of synthetic fodder and the increased exports of butter have contributed basically to a considerable increase in the area, value and standard of management of the beech forests. All this proves that there exists a need to start synoptic research, first to determine the mutual relationship between the percentage of forest land, population density, percentage of area of different agricultural crops, and then to examine the relationship of the amount of livestock to the forest area. With the development of agricultural techniques together with the improvement of agriculture and silviculture, and with better methods of utilizing raw materials, a dynamic balance will develop within the framework of a region. In such circumstances, the growth of the region has a systematic and complex character, in place of the partial and spontaneous growth in the past. Studies on the formation of economic regions, carried out in Poland, furnish numerous data on the influence of industry upon forestry. Figure 1, relating to the Katowice administrative unit (wojewodztwo Katowice) which has a high degree of industrialization, shows that:

(a) forests located in the immediate neighborhood of industrial centers are damaged by coal and sand exploitation, insects, and smoke;

(b) forests situated farther from industrial centers are endangered by other factors;

(c) only forests situated to the north and south of the centers have remained healthy.

This observation also determines the aims of forest policy in this district, which are: to increase the healthiness and resistance of forests by the introduction of broadleaved species, and to adapt them better to the requirements resulting from the industrial character of the administrative unit and the considerable population density, by augmenting their amenity and tourist importance.

When speaking of economic regions, it is necessary to stress that they are different from industrial regions, which were delimited and are still selected on the basis of old or newly discovered reserves of raw materials, for example, the Turoszow industrial center recently established on the basis of coal, the Tarnobrzeg center on the basis of sulphur. Industrial regions have also arisen in the vicinity of places where industry has existed for a long time, thanks to a peculiar structure distinguishing them from other areas surrounding them (for example, the textile district of Lódz). Industrial districts, especially the larger ones of great industrial intensity, are systematically driving the forests further away, leaving only a few forest fragments for recreational purposes. This is most evident in the Katowice unit; it may also be observed in the Krakow unit. Only in the Bydgozcz unit have the separate branches of production maintained a certain balance, although destruction of forests by intensive agriculture may also be observed there (Figure 2).

FIGURE 1. - Diagram of the Katowice administrative unit, showing the effects of industrialization upon forestry.

FIGURE 2. - Diagram of the Bydgozcz administrative unit, showing how the separate branches of production have maintained a balance although there has been some destruction of forest because of intensive agriculture.

The gradual driving away of forests and pressure upon forestry can be clearly seen when studying, on a map showing future plans, the aims and trends of Poland's economic development. The increase of the area of agricultural cultivation is seriously limiting afforestation plans. In the past, land-use planning did not take forestry problems sufficiently into account, and subordinated the increase of the area of forests and their proper location to the growth of industry and agriculture. This ultimately had a bad effect on the growth of industry and agriculture themselves.

An example of such disproportionate development can be seen, for instance, in the plans for increasing the low percentage of forest land in the administrative unit of Lublin (19.9 percent) - an increase, by 1975, of about 10 percent whereas that of livestock is planned at 62 percent. (The latter may increase the serious erosion appearing in that area.) Such disproportionate growth may get still worse if forestry does not assume its proper importance in the Polish economy. However, there is also the Koszalin administrative unit which shows a high percentage of forest area. Here the development plans aim at the best possible integrated utilization of wood. Woodworking is the main industry. Similar plans for well-wooded regions are being realized, on a much larger scale, in the U.S.S.R., where the general plan of forestry organization and wood utilization comprises, for example, in the Perm region, a production of many millions of cubic meters, providing for the complete utilization of about 1.7 million cubic meters of waste wood and wood of minor value. Other well-known examples of such trends are the Svenska Celulose A.B., Sundsvall, and the Hellefors Brooks Company in Sweden.

Forestry planning

As mentioned at the beginning of this article, the classification of Polish forests into economic spheres of similar natural (physical) and economic structure is based upon an already existing natural differentiation, and upon already accepted plans for the division of the country into economic regions.

This economic division forms part of the aims of general planning within the area, planning which has been implemented on the basis of the following data: national income per caput, population increase expected up to 1975, participation of regional total industrial production in the total production of the country, estimate of increases in investments for raising agricultural productivity per caput in the same period, and so on. As can be seen, the data were of a static as well as a dynamic character. Moreover, conditions of historic growth, the transport system, etc., were taken into account where necessary. On this basis, the country has been divided into a few large economic regions. Together with these data, further factors characterizing forestry in these regions were determined, namely: percentage of forest land, what proportion it constituted of the whole forest area of the country, percentage of growing stock in the given region, expected growth of forest area up to 1975, volume of growing stock in the region in the same period.

TABLE 1. - COMPARISON OF CHARACTERISTIC DATA BETWEEN REGION 2 AND REGION 4


Region 2 (southeast)

Region 4 (south)

Per caput national income a

87.1

119.5

Percentage of participation in the total industrial production of the country

11.1

45.2

Percentage of increase of population b

137.5

133.7

Increase of agricultural production b

141.2

113.4c

Increase of cattle breeding b

177.4

154.3

Percentage of forest area

20.8

26.5

Percentage of the total forest area of the country

20.7

19.0

Percentage of the total growing stock d

19.2

24.2

Density of forest road system, km./ha.

1.97

1.80

Dynamics of the growing stock e

111.6

104.4

a Average national income, 1958 = 100.
b 1959-1975.
c The actual average level is higher than in Region 2.
d Industrial wood only.
e Industrial wood only. 1959-1975, 1959 = 100, providing the allowable cut.

FIGURE 3. - Diagram of the southern Region 4, showing its division into districts and spheres.

As an example, Region 2 (the southeastern region of a rather agricultural character) is compared in Table I with Region 4 (which is intensely industrialized).

As the Table shows, the important economic differences between the two regions cause forestry product-ion in them to proceed in two completely different ways, with quite different aims. Such economic division was applied to the map of the country and related to the existence of the eight natural (physical) spheres, which were discussed at the beginning of this article. Figure 3 shows, as an example, Region 4 (southern economic region) in which the boundaries of natural (physical) spheres are drawn; in this example are seen the extent of the Sudety sphere and in part of the Carpathian and Silesian spheres. Within the framework of each region the whole area has a similar character from the economic point of view, although within one region considerable differences may be noted. For instance, the area of Sphere VIII is characterized by similar economic and natural (physical) qualities, as it belongs to the same region and the same natural (physical) sphere. Nevertheless, within a region or sphere there exist differences of secondary importance; for example, at the southern boundary of this region there are mountain forests important for recreation and tourism; there are also many farm forests with intensively developed pasture. The boundaries of districts are boundaries of natural (physical) spheres or boundaries of intensive agriculture, or of industrial regions. Thus six economic and natural districts have been delimited in the southern region; over 20 districts have been delimited in the whole of Poland. Table 2 illustrates the economic and natural (physical) differences between the districts of the southern region.

TABLE 2. - ECONOMIC AND NATURAL DIFFFERENCES BETWEEN DISTRICTS IN REGION 4

District

Sphere

Physical and economic qualities

a

VI

Small agricultural areas near the boundary. Intensive agriculture. No industry. High percentage of forest land. District in the pine, oak, fir, beech, spruce and larch area. Mostly coniferous forests, with some broad leaved trees. Soils formed on moraine bases.

b

V

This area comprises the greater part of the region. In the center, mostly highly intensive agriculture; on the outskirts there are also areas with intensive agriculture. Intensively industrialized district. Two areas of agglomerated heavy industry in the eastern and southwestern part. (A part of the Upper Silesian coal basin and the Walbrzych industrial center.) Besides the Opole industrial district, the great industrial center of Wroclaw and many other smaller centers. District with high percentage of forest land, containing the natural forest area of the Silesian sphere. Great geological variety of soil, from diluvial formations through black humus to loose sands and dunes. Within the range of all important species of forest trees - spruce, pine, with some oak, beech, hornbeam, fir; on better soils - beech and mixed hornbeam and oak forests.

c

VIII

Sudety area, containing mainly the industrialized part of Lower Silesian coal basin. Great agglomeration of municipal industrial centers. Intensive agriculture. High percentage of forest land. District contains the natural forest area of the Sudety sphere. Geological structure very varied - mostly granite and slates or schists. Soils also very variable, depending on the parent rocks. Spruce forests in the mountains, while the lower parts have some beech, fir, spruce, larch and maple. At the foot of mountains, forests of many species with beech, fir, spruce, pine and oak.

d

VI

District of extremely industrial character (Katowice - Krakow district). Big group of industrial towns. Mostly intensive agriculture (highly intensive in the central part). Some forests of lesser importance. Soils composed of hard lime. Beech is the typical species in this district; also oak, fir, spruce, rarely pine.

e

VIII

Area at the foot of the Carpathians. Northwestern part of industrial character; also several separate industrial centers. The rest of intensively agricultural character. Greater proportion of forest than in d. Soils formed on sandstone, loam and slates or schists. Forests of many species with fir, beech, spruce, larch, maple; in the transition zone, also pine and oak.

f

IX

Mountain area of the Carpathians, devoid of industry; intensive agriculture. Forests of great importance, zone of spas, recreation and tourist centers. Poor alluvial soils, in the mountains shallow soils on granite. The upper part, in the range of spruce and stone pine, has spruce forests; the lower part has some beech, fir, spruce and maple and larch. Dwarf mountain pine on peat bogs.

The division into districts does not coincide with the administrative division, but the boundaries of this region strictly coincide with the boundaries of three administrative units; a connection therefore exists between the existing administrative division and the proposed economic one. The division into districts is chiefly determined by the fact that every delimited district as a whole forms part of a determined natural (physical) sphere.

Each district thus has similar economic and natural (physical) conditions, and helps to overcome contradictions existing in its sphere. The method of district delimitation described above may be applied to state forests in the form of obligatory directives, as well as to forests not owned by the State by indirect influences and methods available in forest policy. This question will be discussed later in this article.

Production zones

The division of forest land into economic regions must constitute the basis for the determination of industrial regions covering sawmills, ply-wood, fibreboard, particle board, pulp mills, etc. The starting point in this determination is, on the one hand, the location of already existing woodworking factories and on the other (as practical possibilities of production), the reserves of raw materials in the given region. Taking into account the mechanized conversion of wood (sawmilling and other branches of the -timber industry), the actual productive capacity and available raw materials have to be analyzed, taking into consideration only the varieties suitable for manufacture in these factories. The result of the analysis in the example given shows that there exists in all the units, save three only, a great surplus of sawmill productive capacity over the productive potential of the raw materials available.

With pulp production, the situation is different. The country possesses great possibilities for expanding the fibreboard and pulp industry. Potential reserves of raw materials for these industries exceed the manufacturing capacity of the existing factories in several administrative units. On the other hand, three southern administrative units (the Katowice, Krakow and, to a lesser degree, the Opole unit) possess factory capacity for modified wood products far in excess of the possibilities of their reserves of raw materials. Further development of the fibreboard, particle board, and pulp and paper industry would allow the utilization of over one third of the above-mentioned quantities of wood as raw materials. Proper location of these types of factory will be possible on the basis of a proper location of wood industry in general.

In summing up this analysis of a division of the country into economic and natural (physical) forest regions, the aims of this division and its practical importance must be emphasized. Besides the aim already mentioned of determining the proper relationship between forestry and other branches of national economy, a regional division of forests will allow the real aims and development tasks of forestry to be determined:

1. Economic aims as a whole: dealing with the growth trends of forestry in the region, i.e., determining the main tasks of production, protection, investment trends, and so on.

2. Aims of forest management in particular: the determination of the relationship of forestry with other branches of the economy and the detailed tasks of each estate, starting from common economic trends.

3. Production aims: the determination of tasks under various aspects of productive forestry, with due regard for their productive ends; classification of soils in order to determine properly the correct species composition of forests; determination of optimum forest structure, etc. Determination of production possibilities from the physical point of view, as well as of economic tasks, will make possible the choice of species most suitable for afforestation.

4. Special aims from the point of view of water management, such as recreation, educational, scientific and protection purposes.

These aims should be achieved on the basis of the above-mentioned division into physical and natural (physical) regions. They should emerge from the prospective growth plans of the various units and regions, thus forming a link between the aims of forest policy and forest management.

The following example shows the practical importance of the method described:

District a. According to typological conditions: on bad soils nearly 90 percent pine (Pinus sylvedris); on better soils 10 to 30 percent pine mixed with birch (Betula pubescens); 30 to 50 percent spruce (Picea excelsa) on certain soils; on the beat soils 10 to 15 percent of oak (Querus pedunculata).

Production aims: on bad soils, pit-props and pulpwood; on better soils, partly saw logs with a rotation not longer than 100 years. The production of this district will, if possible, be adjusted to the developing trends of industry in the neighboring district b. Over the greater part of the forests, clear-cutting in strips 60 to 80 meters wide and 2 to 4 hectares in area. Classification of forest types in the whole country is, of course, much more differentiated and more detailed than that shown above.

District f. 40 to 60 percent beech (Fagus sylvatica); 20 to 30 percent fir (Abies pectinata); 10 to 20 percent larch (Larix polonica); according to soil conditions, also spruce.

Production aims: protection of the water regime, recreation, tourism, etc. High rotation (up to 150 years), mostly saw logs. Protection aims are of greater importance.

The dependence of such plans on the general economic policy will form the basis for the creation of conditions suitable for the proper growth of forestry and the woodworking industry within the framework of the whole economic development of the given economic region.

As they develop, the economic regions will become partially self-sufficient as regards their reserves of raw materials. A part of these regions will co-operate in furnishing those materials to their woodworking industries. The development of the production of wood substitutes and the increase in the productivity of the forests and in the percentage of forest land in the regions of formerly low forest density, will also help to raise the productivity of the entire region, and to improve the living conditions of its population.

The delimitation of economic regions and districts makes possible:

1. fixing of economic and production aims for all forest regions, districts and individual forest estates;
2. creation of a forest legislation and administration founded on the most appropriate physical and economic bases.

The method described above, in this form, is intended primarily for countries with a higher degree of economic development who may wish to base their forest policy upon a precise and differentiated basis. The method might equally be suitable for countries that are in the process of establishing the principal objectives of their forest policy. In such cases, this method must be used in a more simplified form.


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