Chapter 17 Artificial Feeding in Intensive Fish Culture

I. Csengeri
Fish Culture Research Institute
Szarvas, Hungary

1. INTRODUCTION
2. TABLES AND DIAGRAM USED FOR INTRODUCTION OF LECTURE
3. REFERENCES

1. INTRODUCTION

An intensive fish culture unit, with its inputs and outputs, can be regarded as a system being supplied with fish - the stocking material - with feed and water and producing fish - the final product - and waste water. Among these inputs and outputs, stocking and harvesting are not discontinued, while feed and water and waste water are continuously supplied to or removed from the system. Such systems are efficient in producing fish when the characteristics of the water and feed, as well as other inputs, are well suited to the biological requirements of the fish. In planning and operating such systems, biological requirements need the greatest attention, although, at the planning stage, economic evaluation of feed sources and that of the final product could be of equal importance.

A short introduction will be given to the following subjects in this review paper; nutritional habit

- environmental effects on the metabolism
- nutritional energetics
- requirement of fish for specific nutrients
- nutritional diseases
- test diets and their application
- evaluation of feedstuffs
- formulation of fish feeds
- nutritional aspects of feed preparation
- feed quality testing
- biotechnological aspects of feeding regimes

2. TABLES AND DIAGRAM USED FOR INTRODUCTION OF LECTURE

Table 1 A classification of fish according to their feeding habit

	particulate feeders
Mode of feeding	filter feeders
	(parasitic fish)
	carnivorous fish
Food quality	omnivorous fish
	herbivorous fish
	continuous feeders
Periodicity of feeding	discontinuous periodic feeders
	discontinuous aperiodic feeders
Photoperiod preference	fish feeding in dark
	fish feeding in daylight

Table 2 Temperature Optimum of some Fish Species for Growth

Species	Optimum (°C)	Reference
Oncorhynchus tshawygscha	15.5	Banks, et al., 1971
O. nerka	15	Brett, et al., 1969
O. keta	13	Kepshire, 1971
Salvelinus fontinalis	13	Baldwin, 1956
Salmo gairdneri	17.2	Hokanson, et al., 1977
S. trutta	12.8	Elliott, 1975
Ictalurus punctatus	29	West, 1965
Perca fluviatilis	26	Hokanson, et al., 1977
Stizostedion lucioperca	28-30	Hokanson, et al., 1977
Micropterus salmoides	27	Nelson, 1974
Pleuronectes platessa	14.2	Ursin, 1963

Table 3 Utilization of Feed Energy

Table 4 Protein and Amino Acid Requirements of Some Fish Species

Species	Rainbow trout	Chinook salmon	Common carp	Japanese eel	Channel catfish
Protein required (g/kg feed)	400-460	400	380	445	320-360
Amino acids		Requirement (as percentage of protein)
Arginine	3.5	6	4.3	3.9	-
Histidine	1.6	1.8	2.1	1.9	1.5
Isoleucine	2.4	2.2	2.4	3.6	2.6
Leucine	4.4	3.9	3.4	4.1	3.5
Lysine	5.3	5	5.8	4.8	5.1
Methionine1/	1.8	4	3.1	4.5	2.3
Phenylalanine2/	3.1	5.1	6.6	-	5.0
Threonine	3.4	2.2	3.9	3.6	2.0
Tryptophan	0.5	0.5	0.8	1.0	0.5
Valine	3.1	3.2	3.7	3.6	3.0

^1/ In the absence of cystine
^2/ In the absence of tyrosine

Table 5 Vitamin Requirements for Growth of some Salmonids^1/

Vitamin (mg/kg dry diet)	Rainbow trout	Brook trout	Brown trout	Atlantic salmon	Chinook salmon	Coho salmon
Thiamine	10-12	10-12	10-12	10-15	10-15	10-15
Riboflavin	20-30	20-30	20-30	5-10	20-25	20-25
Pyridoxine	10-15	10-15	10-15	10-15	15-20	15-20
Pantothenate	40-50	40-50	40-50	*	40-50	40-50
Niacin	120-150	120-150	120-150	*	150-200	150-200
Folacin	6-10	6-10	6-10	5-10	6-10	6-10
Cyanocobalamin	*	*	*	*	0.015-0.02	0.015-0.02
myo-Inositol	200-300	*	*	*	300-400	300-400
Choline	*	*	*	*	600-800	600-800
Biotin	1-1.5	1-1.5	1.5-2	-	1-1.5	1-1.5
Ascorbate	100-150	*	*	*	100-150	50-80
Vitamin A2/	2 000- 2 500 I.U.	*	*	-	*	*
Vitamin E-	*	*	*	-	40-50	*
Vitamin K	*	*	*	-	*	*

^1/ Fish fed at reference temperature with diets at about protein requirement
^2/ Requirement directly affected by amount and type of unsaturated fat fed
* Denotes a requirement, the level of which has not been established

(Adapted from: J.E. Halver. In Fish Nutrition, 1972, 39 p; NAS/NRC, 1973;1977)

Table 6 Vitamin Deficiency Symptoms in Fish

Vitamin	Deficiency Symptoms
Thiamine	convulsions, neuritis, poor appetite
Riboflavin	cataracts, anaemia, dark colouration, photophobia, poor appetite
Niacin	swollen gills, intestinal lesions, poor coordination, flexing of opercles
Pantothenic acid	clubbed gills, anaemia, gill exudate, sluggish behaviour, prostration
Pyridoxine	anaemia, hyperirritability, erratic swimming
Cobalamin	anaemia, fragmented and immature erythrocytes
Folic acid	anaemia, fragility of caudal fin, lethargy, pale gills, dark colouration
Biotin	anorexia, pale gills, high glycogen in liver, colonic lesions
Ascorbic acid	spinal deformities, anaemia, lethargy, prostration, eye lesions
Inositol	anorexia, poor feed efficiency, skin lesions
Choline	haemorrhages, fatty livers, colonic lesions, poor feed efficiency
Vitamin A	cataracts, photophobia, anaemia, poor vision
Vitamin D	lethargy, increased lipid content of liver and muscle
Vitamin K	haemorrhages, pale gills, increased pro-thrombin time
Vitamin E	anaemia, exudative diathesis, dermal depigmentation

Table 7 Test Diet H440 Western Fish Nutrition Laboratory

Ingredient	Parts
Vitamin-free casein (g)	38
White dextrin (g)	28
Gelatin (g)	12
Premix No. 1 (vitamin) (g)	9
Premix No. 4 (oil) (g)	9
Premix No. 5 (mineral) (g)	4
Total	100
Water (ml)	200
PREMIX NO. 1 (VITAMIN)
a-Cellulose (g)	8.000
Choline chloride (g)	0.500
Inositol (g)	0.200
Ascorbic acid (g)	0.100
Niacin (g)	0.075
Ca-pantothenate (g)	0.050
Riboflavin (g)	0.020
Menadione (g)	0.004
Pyridoxine HCl (g)	0.005
Thiamine HCl (g)	0.005
Folic acid (g)	0.0015
Biotin (g)	0.0005
Premix No. 2 (ml)	0.5
PREMIX NO. 2
Vitamin B12	10 mg/500 ml water
PREMIX NO. 4 (OIL)
Corn oil (Mazola brand)	6.0
Cod liver oil	3.0
dl-a -tocopherol acetate	0.040
PREMIX NO. 5 (MINERAL) (g)
Salt mixture No. 2	100.0
AlCl.3 · 6H20	0.015
KI	0.015
CuCl	0.010
MnSO4 · H20	0.080
CoCl · 6H2O	0.100
ZnS04 · 7H20	0.300
SALT MIXTURE NO. 2 (g)
Calcium biphosphate	13.58
Calcium lactate	32.70
Ferric citrate	2.97
Magnesium sulphate	13.20
Potassium phosphate (dibasic)	23.98
Sodium biphosphate	8.72
Sodium chloride	4.35
Total	100.00

Mixing instructions:

Premix No. 1 -

Blend all ingredients in shell blender and store in refrigerator.

Premix No. 5 -

Blend all ingredients in ball mill.

Diet H440 -

1. Put water and gelatin in mixing bowl from an electric kitchen mixer.
2. Heat on a double boiler unit until gelatin dissolves, using small stirrer for circulation.
3. Remove from heat, add dextrin and minerals, place in mixer, and stir until mixture is lukewarm.
4. Add casein and oils; continue stirring until cool.
5. Add vitamins, blend well, pour into container, and store in refrigerator.

Another method -

1. Blend all dry ingredients with oils for 5 minutes.
2. Add 75°C water; stir until cool (room temperature).
3. Pour into Teflon-coated pan and place in refrigerator to gel.
4. Store in plastic bags in refrigerator or freezer.

Figure 1. Effect of ration level on feed efficiencies

DIFFERENT FORMULATIONS FOR MEASURING FEED EFFICIENCY AND GROWTH RATE

Apparent digestibility:

for the whole diet
for one nutrient

where

I = feed intake	xi,d = concentration of ingredients in diet
F = faeces	xi,f = concentration of ingredients in diet
IN = nutrient intake	xN,d = concentration of nutrient in diet
FN = nutrient in faeces	xN,f = concentration of nutrient in faeces

where

B = final body protein
B₀ = initial body protein
I = protein intake

Growth efficiency

where

G = growth in kJ/day
I = food ration in kJ/day
M = maintenance ration in kJ/day

Growth rates (m, a, g)

where W₀ = the initial, W_t = the final weight, t = time of feeding

3. REFERENCES

Andrews, J.W. and R.P. Stickney, 1972, Interactions of feeding rates and environmental temperature on growth, food conversion and body composition of channel catfish. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 101:94-9

Baldwin N.S. 1956, Food consumption and growth of brrok trout at different temperatures. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 86:

Banks, J.L., L.G. Fowler and J.W. Elliott, 1971, Effects of rearing temperature on growth, body form and hematology of fall chinook salmon fingerlings. Prog. Fish-Cult., 33:20-6

Braaten, B.R., 1979, Bioenergetics - a review on methodology. Schr. Bundesforschungsanst. Fish. Hamb., (14/l5) Vol.2 :461-504

Brett, J.R., J.E. Shelbourn and C.T. Shoop, 1969, Growth rate and body composition of fingerling sockeye salmon, Oncorhynchus nerka, in relation to temperature and ration size. J. Fish. Res. Board Can., 26 (10):2363-94

Brett, J.R. and T.D.D. Groves, 1979, Physiological energetics In Fish physiology, Vol. 8. Bioenergetics and growth, edited by W.S. Hoar, D.J. Randall and J.R. Brett. New York, Academic Press, 279-352

DeLong, D.C., J.E. Halver and E.T. Mertz, 1958, Nutrition of salmonid fishes. 6. Protein requirements of chinook salmon at two water temperatures. J. Nutr., 65:589-99

Elliott, J.M., 1975, The growth rate of brown trout, Salmo trutta L. fed on maximum rations. J. Anim. Ecol., 44:805-21

Fischer, Z., 1979, Selected problems of fish bioenergetics. Schr. Bundesforschungsanat. Fisch. Hamb., (14/l5) Vol. 1:17-44

Garling, D.L. and R.P. Wilson, 1976, Optimum dietary protein energy ratio for channel catfish fingerlings (Ictalurus punctatus). J. Nutr., 106:1368-75

Harder, W., 1975, Anatomy of fishes. Stuttgard, Schweizerbartische Verlagsbuckhandlung (Nägele und Obermuller), Part 1:612 p.. Part 2:132 p.

Hokanson, K.E.F., 1977, Temperature requirements of some percids and adaptations to the seasonal temperature cycle. J. Fish. Res. Board Can., 34(10):1524-50

Hokanson, K.E.F., C.F. Kleiner and T.W. Thorslund, 1977, Effects of constant temperatures and dial temperature fluctuations on specific growth and mortality rates and yield of juvenile rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri, J. Fish. Res. Board Can., 34(5):

Halver, J.E., 1972, The vitamins. In Fish nutrition, edited by J.E. Halver. New York, Academic Press, pp. 29-103

Halver, J.E., 1980, The vitamins. In Fish feed technology. Rome, FAO/UNDP, Aquaculture Development and Coordination Programme, ADCP/REP/80/l1:65-108

Kepshire, B.M. Jr., 1971, Growth of pink, chum and fall chinook salmon in heated seawater. Proc. Annu. NW. Fish-Cult. Conf., 22:25-6

Mertz, E.T., 1972, The protein and amino acid needs. Jn Fish nutrition, edited by J.E. Halver, New York, Academic Press, pp. 106-143

Nelson, D.J., 1974, Temperature effects on growth of largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides). Oak Ridge, Tennessee, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Environmental Science Division

NRC/NAS 1973, (National Research Council/National Academy of Science), Nutrient requirements of trout, salmon and catfish. Nutrient requirements of domestic animals Bull. Natl. Res. Counc., Wash., (11):57 p.

NRC/NAS 1977, Nutrient requirements of domestic animals, water fishes. Nutrient requirements of domestic animals. Bull. Natl. Res. Counc., Wash., (12):58 p.

Nose, T. and S. Aral, 1972, Optimal level of protein in purified diet for eel, Anguilla japonica. Bull. Freshwat. Fish. Res. Lab. Tokyo, (13):41-50

Ogino, C., 1980, Requirements of carp and rainbow trout for essential amino acids. Bull. Japan. Soc. Sci. Fish., 46:171-4

Ogino, C. and K. Saito, 1970, Protein nutrition in fish. 1. The utilization of dietary protein by young carp. Bull. Japan. Soc. Sci. Fish. 36:250-4

Satia, B.P., 1974, Quantitative protein requirements of rainbow trout. Prog. Fish-Cult., 36: 80-5

Smith, R.R., 1980, Nutritional bioenergetics. In Fish feed technology. Rome, FAO/UNDP, Aquaculture Development and Coordination Programme, ADCP/REP/80/l1:21-7

Ursin, E., 1963, On the incorporation of temperature in the von Bertalanffy growth expression. Medd. Dan. Fisk.-og Havunders.. C4):1-16

Wilson, R.P. Poe and E.H. Robinson, 1980, Leucine, isoleucine, valine and histidine requirements of fingerling channel catfish. J. Nutr., 110:627-3J

Wilson, R.P. et al., 1978, Trytophan and threonine requirements of fingerling channel catfish. J. Nutr. 108:1595-9

Zeitoun, I.H. et al.. 1976, Quantifying nutrient requirements of fish. J. Fish. Res. Board Can., 33 ^- (1): 167-72