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This page reports to you on the concepts, defintions
and classifications surrounding livestock statistics.
I. INTRODUCTION
The importance of collecting and publishing countries'
agricultural statistics and the difficulties encountered in assembling
them according to the maximum possible degree of international comparability
as regards concepts, definitions and classifications, have been
illustrated in Chapter I of the paper dealing with crop statistics.
II. LIVESTOCK NUMBERS
1. Importance of livestock. Domestic animals
are very important to mankind. They furnish precious food products
(meat, milk, eggs, honey) and valuable non-food-industrial products
(wool, hair, silk, hides, skins, furs, wax, feathers, bones, horns,
etc.). Quadrupeds are widely used, particularly in developing countries,
as beasts of burden and for draught or are used for commuting to
and from agricultural holdings. Some are used also for recreation
purposes (horse riding), and most of them are a source of organic/natural
fertilizers and fuel.
Feeds of animal origin are also important, e.g. meat
meal, bone meal, blood meal, tankage, etc. These are produced from
slaughtered animals rejected at the sanitary inspection, from inedible
offals, from residues of meat scraps and trimming after the fat
has been extracted, from tannery by-products, from poultry by-products
(particularly from those processed into ready-to-cook), from hatcheries
by-products (infertile eggs and other refuse), from eggshells, etc.
2. Definition. The terms "livestock" and "poultry"
are used in a very broad sense, covering all domestic animals irrespective
of their age and location or the purpose of their breeding. Non-domestic
animals are excluded from the terms unless they are kept or raised
in captivity, in or outside agricultural holdings, including holdings
without land.
Cattle, buffaloes, camels, sheep, goats, pigs, horses,
mules, asses and chickens are raised and enumerated in many countries.
Some countries raise and enumerate ducks, geese, turkeys and beehives,
whereas rabbits, guinea fowl, pigeons, silkworm cocoons, fur animals,
reindeer and various kinds of camelids are limited to far fewer
countries.
Many factors are known to affect the comparability
of statistics of livestock numbers between countries. The main ones
relate to the coverage of data, the date and frequency of enumeration
and the classification of animals.
3. Classification. Livestock is generally classified
by countries by genera, sub-divided in a few cases by species. More
frequently, individuals of various genera or families are being
aggregated into a single group, e.g., the term "poultry" covers
domestic fowls, guinea fowl, ducks, geese and turkeys.
- It is recommended that countries enumerate, when applicable,
at least the animals listed below, classified according to this
list. All the items underlined have been recommended, while those
items not underlined are suggested on an optional basis:
It is suggested that countries collect data on births
and natural losses of various livestock categories, as well as further
sub-divisions, according to age and/or utilization. These data are
important indicators of productivity of the livestock herd and are
used for the construction of herd balances and herd models.
In the poultry sector, considerable changes have
taken place over the last twenty years in many countries, particularly
with regard to the growth of a modern specialized and intensive
sector alongside the traditional sector. It is, therefore, desirable
to collect and publish, whenever possible, poultry data for the
modern sector separate from the traditional sector. For the modern
sector, several countries conduct monthly enumerations to collect
data on poultry numbers, as well as on closely related items, such
as number of eggs put in incubators, chicks hatched and chicks placed,
all separately for laying hens and for broiler production.
It is recommended that countries collect and publish
this information which is usually available from commercial hatcheries.
4. Date and frequency of enumeration. The livestock
population is subject to marked seasonal fluctuations, resulting
in periods of maximum and minimum numbers within the course of the
year. These periods are different for various species of livestock
and are, also, different from country to country.
While recognizing the need for estimating livestock
numbers more than once a year, particularly pigs and poultry,
It is recommended that at least one enumeration
should be made towards the end of the year.
5. Coverage of the data. All domestic animals
should be taken into account in an enumeration, irrespective of
their age or purpose of breeding.
In areas where nomadism and transhumance are practiced,
livestock may be enumerated twice, or may not be enumerated at all
if enumerators fail to pay sufficient attention to these livestock-rearing
practices. Nomadic animals are those without any fixed installation
which continually or periodically shift from place to place. The
seasonal migration of livestock from pastures on plains and lowlands
(autumn-winter) to pastures on mountain-sides (in spring and summer)
and vice versa is known as transhumance. The phenomenon of nomadism
exists in Africa and in the Near East. The transhumance, including
alpine pasture, is no longer as important as it was at one time
in Spain, Italy and other European countries, but it is still widely
practiced in some other countries.
III. ELEMENTS APPLICABLE TO ALL OR MAIN SPECIES
OF LIVESTOCK
- Total numbers. Animals enumerated in a given day, or in few
consecutive days of the year.
- Females in reproductive age. This includes females of 3 years
of age and over for horses and buffaloes; 2 years of age and over
for cattle; one year of age and over for sheep and goats; and
six months of age and over for pigs.
- Females actually reproducing during the year. The number of
females which have had offspring during the year. In the case
of species which can have more than one offspring during the year,
the breeding female has to be included for each litter.
- Birth rate. The number of animals born alive as a percentage
of number of females actually reproducing.
- Number born. The number of animals born alive during the year.
- Natural deaths. The number of animals which died during the
year because of any natural event.
- Number of animals slaughtered. Includes all animals slaughtered
during the year, of both indigenous and foreign origin, within
the national boundaries.
- Take off rate. The percentage of all animals of the species
which are taken from the national herd during the year, for slaugther
in the country or in other countries.
IV. LIVESTOCK PRODUCTS FROM SLAUGHTERED ANIMALS.
1. Primary products. Those products, coming
directly from the slaughtered animals, including meat, offals, raw
fats, fresh hides and skins.
2. Processed products. These are derived from
the processing of primary products and include sausages, lard and
salted hides.
V. CONCEPTS, DEFINITIONS, COVERAGE AND RECOMMENDATIONS
PERTINENT TO LIVESTOCK PRODUCTS FROM SLAUGHTERED ANIMALS
1. Slaughterings and meat production
1.1 Definition. Meat can be defined as "the flesh
of animals used for food". In the statistical language, meat is
intended to be with bone-in, unless otherwise stated, and to exclude
meat unfit for human consumption. From the term "meat" are to be
excluded edible offals and slaughtered fats.
1.2 Concept of production. Data on meat production
are usually reported according to one or more of the following concepts:
1.2.1 Live weight of animals intended for slaughter
is the weight taken immediately before slaughter. It is assumed
that animals intended for slaughter are kept in the slaughterhouse
premises for 12 hours and are not fed or watered during this time.
1.2.2 Killed weight is the gross weight of the carcass
including the hide or skin, head, feet and internal organs, but
excluding the part of the blood which is not collected in the course
of slaughter.
1.2.3 Dressed carcass weight is the weight of the
carcass after removal of the parts indicated for each of the livestock
species listed below: Cattle, Buffaloes, Horses, Mules, Asses, Camels;
- - the hide or skin
- - the head where it joins the spine
- - the fore feet at the knee joint, and the hind feet at the
hock joint
- - the large blood vessels of the abdomen and thorax
- - the genito-urinary organs (other than the kidneys)
- - the offals (edible and inedible)
- - the tail
- - the slaughter fats other than kidney fats
Sheep and Goats:
- - the skin
- - the offals (edible and inedible)
- - the genito-urinary organs (other than the kidneys)
- - the feet
- - the slaughter fats other than kidney fats
Pigs
- - the offals (edible and inedible)
- - the genito-urinary organs (other than the kidneys)
- - the slaughter fats other than kidney fats and back fat which
are butchering fats)
1.2.4 Carcass weight is the weight of the carcass
as defined above, including slaughter fats.
1.2.5 Data on production of meat for minor animals
(poultry, rabbits, game, etc.), are usually reported according to
one or the other of the following concepts:
a = Thighs + Wings+ Breast + Ribs + Back = Ready-to-cook
(oven ready)
b = a + Heart + Liver + Gizzard + Neck = Ready-to-cook
(incl. giblets)
c = b + Feet + Head = Eviscerated weight
d = c + Viscera (inedible offals) = Dressed weight
e = d + Blood + Feathers + Skins (when applicable)
= Live weight
The concept of meat production changes with the
coverage of production as follows:
1.2.6 Production from slaughtered animals (SP): all
animals of indigenous and foreign origin, slaughtered within the
national boundaries.
1.2.7 Production from indigenous animals (GIP): indigenous
animals slaughtered plus the exported live animals of indigenous
origin.
1.2.8 Total indigenous production (TIP) or biological
production: indigenous animals slaughtered, plus the exported live
animals of indigenous origin and net additions (plus/minus) to the
stock during the reference period. If it is expressed in weight,
this measure should take into account also the change in the total
live weight of all the animals.
1.2.9 In calculating indigenous production, it should
be noted that as imports and exports of live animals are generally
recorded in numbers, not weight, it is important to know what kinds
of animals (large or small) are imported and exported. For example,
the meat equivalent of two million chicks can vary by 80 to 250
tons, while the meat equivalent of two million adult chickens can
vary by 2000 to 4000 tons.
1.3 Coverage of production. Most countries distinguish
in their statistics between controlled or inspected or commercial
slaughterings and other slaughterings, called variously, farm or
private, non-commercial or uncontrolled slaughterings.
Under the first category, slaughterings in public
and industrial slaughterhouses, meat processing plants and major
poultry farms are usually included. Statistics on those slaughterings,
and corresponding meat production, are easy to obtain from the administrative
records of the establishments concerned. They report normally on
a monthly basis; in some countries, weekly.
Under the second category are included slaughterings
in small slaughterhouses, butchers' shops and on farms, mainly for
the farmers own consumption. Statistics on non-commercial slaughterings,
which can be derived from various sources, are essentially rough
estimates and should be established once a year.
1.4 Recommendations
- 1.4.1 On the different possibilities of measuring the production
of meat, it is recommended that countries collect and publish
data primarily in terms of dressed carcass weight. However, in
view of the fact that national practices regarding the definition
of carcass weight are still far from homogeneous, each country
should clearly indicate which parts of the animal are included
in or excluded from its carcass weight concept. It would be desirable
if countries would provide conversion factors from carcass weight
to live weight or vice versa.
- 1.4.2 Countries not reporting according to the dressed carcass
weight concept should clearly indicate which concepts they use
when reporting production figures. They should provide appropriate
conversion factors to convert their production into carcass weight
equivalent, indicating also which parts or organs of the animal
are excluded for the conversion to dressed carcass weight.
- 1.4.3 Production of meat of small animals should be reported,
preferably according to the concept "ready-to-cook", specifying
whether giblets are included or excluded. It is important that
whatever concept is used be clearly explained.
- 1.4.4 It is recommended that all countries collect and report
meat production data and corresponding numbers of slaughterings
according to the concept of slaughtered production and indigenous
production, both in line with FAO definitions, (see 1.2.9 above).
In all cases, production should cover only that "approved for
human consumption".
- 1.4.5 It is also recommended that countries which report edible
offals and fats together with meat production in one figure provide
the approximate percentage of edible offals and fats in the aggregated
meat figures.
- 1.4.6 It is recommended that countries report at least annual
figures covering all slaughterings, commercial and non-commercial,
and corresponding meat production, for the following livestock
species as applicable: cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, pigs,
horses, chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese, guinea fowl, rabbits,
other.
- 1.4.7 Countries reporting commercial figures only should indicate
this limitation in a note or footnote and furnish, at least from
time to time, estimates on non-commercial production. In general,
separate figures should be reported for commercial and non-commercial
production, particularly when the estimates of the last category
are considered to be weak.
- 1.4.8 It is recommended that slaughterings data be reported
in terms of both numbers slaughtered and meat production. In case
any country collects and publishes statistics only in terms of
one or the other, appropriate conversion factors should be provided,
i.e., average carcass weight figures. If possible, countries should
report, in addition to annual data, also monthly or quarterly
data, at least for commercial slaughterings and production.
- 1.4.9 It is recommended that figures for cattle slaughterings
be shown separately for calves and adult cattle, a suggested borderline
between the two being 220 kg, live weight. Other animals, for
which a breakdown of the total slaughterings between young and
adult animals are considered to be useful, are: sheep, goats and
pigs.
- 1.5.0 It is suggested that countries collect and release also
statistics on meat production from non-domestic animals, such
as game meat, etc.
2. Edible offals
2.1 Edible offals are those edible parts or organs
of the animals, other than fats, which are usually separated in
the course of the preparation of the carcasses at slaughterhouses.
Which of these organs or parts are considered edible offals varies
from country to country, depending on the definition of "dressed
carcass weight" adopted by the countries in reporting meat production
data as well as on the countries' habits. Some countries calculate
edible offals as a percent of the carcass weight, the percentage
varying from 3 to 10 percent according to various classes of animals.
2.2 In view of the above remarks, it is recommended
that countries report separately production figures of what they
consider edible offals, which, logically, should not be included
in meat production figures. Below is a list of items which are considered
edible offals in most countries: Head or head meat Throat bread
Thick skirt Tongue Sweet bread Genital organs Brains Lungs Udder
Feet (cleaned) Liver Stomach or tripes Tail meat Spleen Blood Heart
Diaphragm
2.3 See 1.4.5 above.
3. Fats
3.1 Under this heading, national sources report production
data which include one or more of such fats as slaughter fats, butchering
fats, rendered fats (lard, tallow), etc., giving rise to the following
concepts:
- a) Total unrendered fat: slaughter fats and butchering fats
(edible and inedible).
- b) Total unrendered edible fats: edible slaughter fats and edible
butchering fats.
- c) Slaughter fats: edible and inedible unrendered fats which
fall in the course of dressing the carcasses and are recovered
from discarded and fallen animals, guts, sweepings, hide trimmings,
etc.
- d) Edible slaughter fats (loose fats): unrendered fats which
fall in the course of dressing the carcasses, such as fats in
abdominal and thoracic cavities.
- e) Inedible slaugther fats: unrendered fats from discarded and
fallen animals, guts, sweepings, hide trimmings, etc.
- f) Butchering fats: unrendered fats obtained from the excess
fat trimmed or removed from the wholesale and retail cuts during
butchering. Kidney fats and pig-back fat are also included in
this definition.
- g) Processed fat: rendered fats such as lard, tallow, etc.,
obtained by melting or processing slaughter and butchering fats.
3.2 The coverage of slaughter fats differs from country
to country, depending on the definition of "dressed carcass weight"
adopted by each country in reporting meat production data.
3.3 It is recommended that countries report separately
production data at least for slaughter fats as defined above, preferably
broken down into edible and inedible. Countries reporting slaughter
fats together with meat production in one figure should indicate
the approximate percentage of slaughter fats on the aggregated meat/fats
figures.
3.4 As for processed fats, production data should
be collected for lard and tallow (preferably in product weight basis
rather than in fat content), as well as data on utilization of these
products for food, feed and industrial uses.
4. Hides and Skins
4.1 It is suggested that all countries collect and
release production data for hides, skins and fur skins. Data should
be given in terms of weight (fresh or green), except for fur skins
which should be reported in numbers.
4.2 Countries reporting production in numbers or expressed
in dry, cured or salted weight, should provide appropriate conversion
factors to green weight.
4.3 Producton figures for hides and skins may include
also those coming from fallen animals, in addition to those from
slaughtered animals.
VI. LIVESTOCK PRODUCTS FROM LIVE ANIMALS
1. Primary products include the following: milk,
eggs, honey, beeswax and fibres of animal origin.
2. Processed products are those derived from primary
products.
VII. CONCEPTS, DEFINITIONS, COVERAGE AND RECOMMENDATIONS
PERTINENT TO LIVESTOCK PRODUCTS FROM LIVE ANIMALS
1. Milking animals and milk production
1.1 Concepts, definitions and coverage
1.1.1 The definition of milking animals varies considerably
among countries, from those which include all females in reproductive
age to those which include only dairy females bred especially for
milk production which were actually milked during the year.
1.1.2 On the other hand, estimates of milk production
given by countries may refer to one or more of the following concepts:
gross production includes milk actually milked and milk sucked by
young animals; net production excludes milk sucked by young animals
but includes amounts of milk fed to livestock; production available
for consumption is net production minus milk fed to animals and
waste at the farms; milk deliveries to dairies or dairy plants,
excludes also quantities retained by farmers for food, feed and
direct sales to consumers.
1.1.3 The FAO concept relates to net milk production
as defined above, and, as regards milking animals, to all the animals
which have contributed to produce that milk.
1.1.4 Data on production delivered to dairies are
easily obtained from the dairy plants. Estimates for the balance
of the production may be obtained from various sources, such as
ad hoc surveys or subjective estimates.
1.2 Recommendations
- 1.2.1 In view of the differences identifed above, it is recommended
that countries report the number of milking animals along with
milk production, and also that countries at least ensure that
the concept of milking animals adopted is in line with the estimated
average milk yield per animal. Countries are encouraged to refine
their concept of milking animals to gradually approach to the
concept of animals actually milked during the year, keeping, when
possible, separate records for dairy females bred especially for
milk production and for other females milked.
- 1.2.2 Countries should report data on milking animals by animal
type, i.e. cows, buffaloes, sheep, goats, etc.
- 1.2.3 It is recommended that all countries report (at least
annually) total net milk production as defined above, in addition
to the data on deliveries to dairies or milk plants. Such data
are to be given by kind of milking animal (cows, buffaloes, sheep,
goats) and they should relate to whole milk. If possible, they
should be reported in terms of weight rather than in liquid measures.
- 1.2.4 Countries reporting on a different basis should indicate
the concept behind their figures.
- 1.2.5 Countries are advised to report production, or at least
deliveries, either monthly or quarterly, and to report the average
fat content of their milk production.2. Layers and egg production.
Statistics of Hatcheries2.1 Concepts, definitions and coverage
- 2.1.1 The definition of layers is not yet uniform among countries.
Under this term, some countries recognize all females in laying
age, whether laying or not, while in other countries the term
is much more limited, covering only those females of egg-type
breeds which have laid eggs during the year.
- 2.1.2 Female layers are classified by breed according to dominant
production characteristics. There are egg-type females, as well
as meat-type and mixed-type. They may also be classified according
to the agricultural sector in which they are bred: the traditional
sector (widely scattered and individually-owned small flocks in
farms and backyards), and the modern sector (large scale, semi-intensive
and intensive commercial poultry farms).
- 2.1.3 On the other hand, egg production is generally reported
by countries as total or gross production, i.e., production from
all types of females and from females kept in all agricultural
sectors. Few countries report net production, i.e., gross production
minus eggs used for hatching. Certain countries report data for
both categories.
- 2.1.4 Several countries also report figures for commercial production,
i.e., the part of the net production which enters into commercial
channels. Data on commercial production are easily obtained from
the modern sector where most, if not practically all, of the commercial
production is produced. Data on the traditional sector are rather
weak in certain countries as they are based on assumptions of
the number of females and/or rates of egg laying, or are rough
estimates based on food consumption surveys and similar indirect
sources.
- 2.1.5 The FAO concept of egg production covers all domestic
birds which have contributed to the egg production during the
year, wherever they lay and the corresponding total production,
including eggs intended to be used for hatching but excluding
waste on farms.
2.2 Recommendations
- 2.2.1 In line with the FAO concept, it is recommended that countries
report at least annually on layer numbers and egg production.
Layers of all types and from all sectors which have laid eggs
during the year should be included. Whenever possible, a distinction
should be made between layers of the traditional sector and those
of the semi-intensive and intensive sectors.
- 2.2.2 It is recommended that all countries report, at least
annually, both total production of eggs, excluding only waste
on farms, as defined by FAO, and production available for consumption,
i.e., total production excluding hatching eggs and all types of
waste. Countries reporting on different basis should indicate
how their data differ from the recommended coverage.
- 2.2.3 It is further recommended that in reporting production
data, countries should use both numbers and weight, or, at least,
provide a conversion factor from one unit of measurement to the
other. In addition to annual figures, countries should release
also monthly or quarterly data, at least for commercial production.
It is suggested that countries report production figures separately
for the traditional sector and for the modern sector, particularly
when the data of the traditional sector have a certain importance
and are much less reliable than those of the modern sector.
- 2.2.4 In all cases, it is recommended that separate data be
collected and released by countries according to various kinds
of domestic birds: hens, ducks, goose, turkeys, etc.2.3 Statistics
of Hatcheries
Considerable changes have taken place in the poultry
sector (eggs and meat) during the last two decades in most countries,
resulting in the rapid growth of a modern and specialized sector
alongside the traditional sector.
An important role in the develoment of the poultry
sector is played by commercial hatcheries. In fact, several countries
collect and publish monthly data on various hatcheries' operations,
e.g. number of eggs placed, chicks hatched and chick placements.
It is recommended, therefore, that all countries collect
data (monthly, if possible) on the number of eggs placed in incubators,
chicks hatched and chicks placed, separately for chickens, ducks,
geese, turkeys and guinea fowl. Figures for chickens should be divided
into, at least, two categories: eggs/chicks for the laying stock
and eggs/chicks for the meat stock.
3. Honey and beeswax
Honey is a sweet viscous fluid, being the nectar
of flowers collected and worked up for food by certain insects,
especially the honey-bee. Flavour and colour of honey depend largely
on the plants from which the nectar is gathered.
Bees store honey in honeycombs prepared by them, consisting
in hexagonal wax cells. Beeswax is obtained by melting honeycombs
with boiling water (yellow wax). White wax is yellow wax bleached.
Beeswax is used for candles, cosmetics and other non-food use.
In principle, honey and beeswax production data should
cover production recorded from bee-keepers operating commercially,
as well as any other honey produced or collected.
4. Wool and Fine Hair It is recommended that wool
production data should be collected and released by all countries,
including both shearing wool and pulled wool, i.e. that recovered
from skins.
Wool production figures should be reported on both
a greasy basis and a clean or scoured basis. When reported in one
way only, appropriate conversion factors should be included.
Countries producing significant quantities of fine
hair or wool, such as cashmere and mohair, should report relevant
production figures separate from common wool figures.
5. Cocoons and Silk
In countries where sericulture is an important activity,
data should be collected on the annual cocoon crop as well as on
production of natural raw silk, including waste. The cocoons are
those suitable for reeling.
6. Processed products from live animals
6.1 Dairy products
6.1.1 In most developed countries, the quantities
of raw (crude, whole) milk used as such for human consumption are
very small, perhaps only 5 or 10 percent. The bulk undergoes more
or less complex processes to obtain either products with are still
liquid milk (standardized milk, pasteurized milk, partly skimmed
milk, skimmed milk, buttermilk, etc.) or products which are not
anymore liquid milk (cream, butter, cheese, evaporated and condensed
milk, milk powder, casein, yogurt, ice cream, etc.). About 70 percent
of the whole milk available for consumption is processed into dairy
products of the second category. Most milk and products are sterilized,
generally with the UHT method (Ultra high Temperature). During the
last 25 years, in most developed countries, consumption of whole
fluid milk has been steadily decreasing in contrast with consumption
of low fat fluid milk and butter milk. In the processing of milk
into dairy products, a certain number of by-products are also obtained,
such as skim milk, buttermilk and whey, which in turn are either
sent back to farms for feed or are used in the manufacture of dairy
products, particularly dry skim milk dry butter milk, dry whey and
low fat cheese. The quantities of milk processed by farmers into
butter, cream and cheese, are today very small in some countries,
but still have a certain importance in other countries, particularly
in the case of sheep and goat milk. Raw milk is generally processed
with various methods (pasteurization, sterilization, etc.) to keep
fermentation under control and destroy undesirable bacteria and
microorganisms without changing the chemical composition of the
milk. Both high and low temperatures are used in the processing
which, at times, involves some loss of vitamins. Processed milk
and dairy products are often enriched with vitamins, minerals, protein,
flavouring material, and various additives, such as antioxidants,
colorants, and stabilizing agents. Standardized milk is milk which
has been treated to bring it into conformity with fixed standars,
e.g. milk with various degrees of fat content are reduced to a standard
content of 3.5 or 1.8 or 1 or less percent. Reconstituted milk is
liquid milk which has been manufactured by putting together some
of the elements missing in the originating product; e.g., liquid
whole milk can be made by adding to milk powder water, protein,
fat and sugar, as necessary.
6.1.2 A short description of the main dairy products
is given below:
Cheese is the curd of milk coagulated by rennet separated from the
whey and pressed and molded into a more or less solid mass. FAO
data on cheese relate, unless otherwise stated, to all kinds of
cheese, from full fat cheese to low fat cheese; hard and soft cheese,
ripe and fresh cheese, including cottage cheese and curd. Cheese
contains little carbohydrate, and the content of water, protein
and fat varies considerably from one to the other, so that the calories
provided by 100 grams of cheese can be as low as 80-85 or as high
as 400-420. Whey is the serum or watery part of milk which is separated
form the curd in the process of making cheese. If contains above
all water (more than 90 percent), but also sugar, minerals and protein;
very little fat, if any. It is used, for fod and feed, fresh, concentrated
and dried. Cream is the yellowish part of milk, containing from
18 to 45 or more percent of butterfat that rises to the surface
on standing or is separated by centrifugal force. The cream used
for food can have a fat content moving from 10 to 50 percent. Butter
is a solid emulsion of milk fat and water made to coalesce by churning
the cream obtained from milk. Fat content if about 80 percent. Ghee
is liquid butter clarified by boiling, produced chiefly in countries
of the Far East. Butter oil is butter fat melted and clarified.
Buttermilk is the fluid milk remaining after milk is converted into
butter in the churning process. It can be used fresh, concentrated
or dried, as such or in the manufacture of various dairy products.
Whole milk, semi-skimmed and skimmed milk, butter milk and whey
can be concentrated by evaporation with the aim of reducing their
water content while maintaining more or less intact their content
of protein, fat and lactose. The products resulting from a modest
or medium reduction of water are evaporated and condensed milk,
with or without sugar added. Fat content of products made from whole
milk ranges from 8 to 15 percent; protein content, from 7 to 8.5
percent. Products resulting from an almost complete dehydration
are called dry milk or milk powder or powdered milk. Their moisture
content is only 4 or 5 percent, and the fat content depends on the
originating fresh products: It can be as low as 0.5 percent (dry
whey) and as high as 33 percent (dry whole milk). Protein content
moves between 15 and 35 percent. Yogurt is a fermented, slightly
acid semifluid milk food made of milk and milk solids (whole, semi-skimmed,
skimmed) and sometimes fruit, to which cultures of bacteria have
been added. Casein, named also lactoprotein, is the main protein
of milk, containing more than 20 individual amino acids. It is obtained
mainly from skimmed milk. Some food use (meat and bakery products,
confectionery, etc.) and large non-food use (glues, leather industry,
plastics, pharmaceutical products, etc.). Caseinate is a compound
of casein with a metal. Lactose or milk sugar is a disaccharide
sugar present in milk, composed of two monosaccharides: glucose
and galactose. It is commercialy produced from whey. Food and non-food
use. Lactose is only about one sixth as sweet as sucrose. Ice cream
is a frozen food containing cream or butter fat or milk or milk
solids, various flavouring substances, sweetening and usually eggs.
Ice milk has a lower fat content. Among various food products containing
milk not singularly included in the FAO list can be mentionned:
eggnog, a drink consisting of eggs beaten with sugar, milk or cream
and often a liquor; sherbet, a water ice to which milk, egg white
or gelatin is added before freezing, malted milk, chocolate milk
drink, milk flavoured, various milk drinks, mellorine, etc.
6.1.3 Recommendations As a minimum requirement, it
is recommended that countries collect and report data on utilization
of the milk produced according to the following uses: milk for liquid
consumption, feed, processing, waste and losses. Separate figures
should be reported for the various classes of milk-producing animals.
The figures should include utilization at farms, as well as at dairy
plants. A breakdown of the data into the two categories would be
most useful. All data should be reported on an annual basis at least,
better even on quarterly or monthly basis. Countries producing significant
amounts of the various products mentionned above should report relevant
production data along with the quantities of whole and/or skimmed
milk employed in their manufacture. In other words, against each
production figure, the corresponding input figures should also be
shown. Cheese production data are classified by countries according
to different criteria: full-fat and low-fat cheese, hard and soft
cheese, ripe and fresh cheese, cottage cheese, curd, processed or
melted cheese. While countries are encouraged to develop their cheese
statistics, they should report production data at least classified
according to the originating livestock species (cow milk cheese,
sheep milk cheese, etc.), separately for cheese produced mainly
from whole milk and cheese mainly from skim milk or whey. Countries
reporting data on melted cheese should carefully avoid double counting
in reporting total cheese production. It would be desirable that
countries furnish some information on the utilization of various
kinds of milk powder: food, feed, etc.6.2 Egg products The main
products derived from eggs are: liquid eggs, white and yolk, together
or single; eggs dehydrated or dried or in powder form, white and
yolk, together or single, e.g. albumin, dried whites obtained usually
as lumps or powder containing ovalbumin and other proteins.
The recommendations outlined above should be taken
up by national authorities in an effort to allow policy makers and
economists to undertake the required economic studies. International
comparability is possible only with acceptance of basic statisti
cal guidelines.
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