Cover photograph:
Marsaxlokk fishing port, Malta; courtesy of Joseph Alan Sciortino.

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ISBN 978-92-5-106696-6

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© FAO 2010

Preparation of this document

This manual was prepared by Mr Joseph Alan Sciortino, MICE, M. ASCE, C. Eng., the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Consultant on Harbour Design and Management. The manual reflects the provisions of the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries in relation to fishing harbours and is an extension of Annex VI, No. 1, in the series of FAO Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries. It contains proposals and guidelines to be followed with regard to the design, development, management and maintenance of ports and landing places for fishing vessels. It also provides guidance on the conduct of environmental auditing in relation to new construction and the upgrading of existing facilities. It was based on a manual prepared in electronic format in 1999, and updated and revised to integrate new guidelines, ideas, experiences and lessons from projects in different parts of the world.

The manual was technically edited by Mr John Fitzpatrick, C. Eng., C. Mar. Eng., MIMAREST, former Director of the FAO Fish Products and Industry Division. The draft of the manual was reviewed by Mr B.N. Krishnamurthy, FAO Consultant on Harbour Management and Institution Building and Mr V. Venkatesan, FAO Consultant on Community Participation in Fisheries, both under the Technical Cooperation Project on Capacity Building in Support of Cleaner Fishing Harbours in India; and Mr Simon Diffey, Chief Technical Advisor of the project on the Restoration and Improvement of Fish Landing Centres with Stakeholder Participation in Management funded by the Canadian International Development Agency in Sri Lanka.

The manual was edited by Maria Giannini. Susana V. Siar, Fishery Industry Officer, Fishing Operations and Technology Service (FIRO) of the FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department, provided overall supervision in the preparation and publication of this manual. The publication contributes to the achievement of the following organizational result: the operation of fisheries, including the use of vessels and fishing gear, is made safer, more technically and socio-economically efficient, environmentally-friendly and compliant with rules at all levels.

Abstract

The role of the fishing port may be considered as the interface between the netting of fish and its consumption. In many cases, the fishing harbour is also the focal point of pollution, both of the surrounding environment and the fishery products it produces. Many fishing harbours are also the source of major impacts on the physical and biological coastal environment.

Although the bulk of fish landed in fishing harbours in developing countries is destined for the local markets, it is every country’s wish to improve the health hazard-free quality of its landed catch in order to increase exports of seafood products to more lucrative overseas markets. In the not-too-distant future, the growth in local consumer rights advocacy will also increase demand for health hazard-free fish.

In today’s world of increased environmental awareness, a fishing port must be planned, designed and managed in harmony with both the physical and biological coastal environments. At each stage of the process, whether it is planning, design or management, both technical and non-technical persons become involved in the process. Within government departments, whether they be technical (fisheries or public works) or non-technical (budget or finance), it is not uncommon for non-technical persons to affect the outcome of technical decisions. Fisheries Departments worldwide generally have to manage and maintain harbours and landing places using non-engineering civil servants. The following manual was produced in order to tackle fishing harbours in a holistic approach.

This manual is useful to both technical and non-technical planners, both at national government level and at departmental level. It provides non-engineering staff within such departments with enough technical knowledge to better understand certain basic design requirements, which could otherwise be interpreted as superfluous and not cost effective.

The manual is of particular use to local independent consulting engineers and architects with no ports or fisheries experience involved in the design of locally tendered projects for the various international funding agencies. To technical staff of such firms, it provides a handy reference and the means for integrating Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) and European Union Directive recommendations on hazard-free seafood directly into the fishing port’s design.

The fishing industry as a whole can ill-afford the economic losses from lower prices received for contaminated fish. Recent European Union rulings have even gone one step further by banning outright all fish imports from certain countries.

Sciortino, J.A.

Fishing harbour planning, construction and management.

FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper. No. 539. Rome, FAO. 2010. 337p.

Contents

Preparation of this document

Abstract

Abbreviations and acronyms

Executive summary

1.

Code of conduct, conventions and importing country directives

2.

Infrastructure needs assessment

3.

Port management

4.

Environmental auditing

5.

Hydrographic surveys

6.

Dredging

7.

Breakwaters

8.

Quays and slipways

9.

Construction materials

10.

Fittings and navigational aids

11.

Shore-based infrastructure and renewable energy

12.

Public health, hygiene and waste disposal

Annex 1

–

FAO Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries – Fishing Operations – 1 (Annex VI)

Annex 2

–

Port hygiene checklist

Annex 3

–

Port hygiene deficiencies checklist

Annex 4

–

Training manual on seafood handling

Annex 5

–

Prevention of pollution

Abbreviations and acronyms

AC

alternating current

AISI

American Iron and Steel Institute

BOBP

Bay of Bengal Programme

CFC

community fishery centre

CFCs

chlorofluorocarbons

COFI

Committee on Fisheries

DC

direct current

DGPS

Differential Global Positioning System

EC

European Community

EEZ

exclusive economic zone

EIA

environmental impact assessment

EIS

environmental impact studies

EPS

Electronic Positioning System

EU

European Union

FAO

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

FMO

fisheries management organization

GHG

greenhouse gases

GPS

Global Positioning System

GT

gross tonnage

HACCP

Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points

HDPE

high-density polyethylene

HHWL

Higher High Water level

HHW

highest high waters

IALA

International Assocation of Marine Aids to Navigation and Lighthouse Authorities

IATA

International Air Transport Association

IEE

Initial Environmental Examination

IMO

International Maritime Organization

IPCC

International Panel on Climate Change

ISO

International Organization for Standarization

ISPS

International Ship and Port Facility Security Code

IUU

illegal, unreported and unregulated

LAT

lowest astronomical tide

LDPE

low-density polyethylene

LED

light-emitting diode

LLW

lowest low waters

LLWS

Lower Low Water Spring

LUX

1 lumen per square metre

MARPOL

International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships

MCS

monitoring, control and surveillance

MLLW

Mean Lower Low Water

m/s

metres per second

MSL

mean sea level

MSY

maximum sustainable yield

N/mm^2

Newtons per square millimetre

NGO

non-governmental organization

PAH

polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons

ppb

parts per billion

ppm

parts per million

PVC

polyvinyl chloride

PVN

Private Virtual Network

PV

photovoltaic

RO

reverse osmosis

SAR

search and rescue

SOLAS

International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (IMO Convention)

SWL

safe working load

UHMW

ultra-high molecular weight

UKC

under keel clearance

UNCED

United Nations Conference on Environment and Development

UNCLOS

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982

uPVC

unplasticized PVC

UXO

unexplored ordinance

W/C

water-cement ratio

WGS84

World Geodetic System 1984

WHO

World Health Organization

Executive summary

The unrelenting pressure on the world’s coastal resources and its coastal ecosystems is threatening the viability of fisheries as an industry. By its very nature, an ill-conceived port or fish landing structure has the potential to place a disproportionately large demand on both the local physical and biological resources and, in today’s world of increased environmental awareness, a fishing port or fish landing site must be planned, designed and managed in harmony with these environments.

Fishing ports and fish landing sites are complex dynamic interface zones involving the mixing of environmental, ecological, economic and social activities and problems. This heterogeneous mix of activities demands strong cross-sector interaction at the planning stage to ensure that the resulting infrastructure may be managed in a sustainable manner. This manual is not the first effort by FAO to set forth a set of cross-sector guidelines for the planning and/or management of a fish landing site or fishing port. In various forms, information related to fishing ports design has been available since 1976, the most recent being FAO Training Series 25 on the construction and maintenance of artisanal fishing harbours and village landings (1995).

In recent years, world fisheries have become a market-driven sector of the food industry and many coastal states have striven to take advantage of this new opportunity by investing heavily, and sometimes haphazardly, in fishing port infrastructure. When, in the early to mid-1990s various international conventions and importing country directives on food safety came into force, much of this same infrastructure was found to be non-compliant, requiring further investment. Also, in the intervening period, the requirement for proper Environmental Impact Studies became mandatory in most States, further complicating the added investments required to make such infrastructure compliant.

Why this manual? The manual builds on the earlier work by FAO and introduces for the first time the international conventions and importing country directives that have a direct influence on both the planning and design of fishing port infrastructure. It is intended as a reference not only for engineers and architects involved in the design and rehabilitation of fishing ports but also for non-technical staff at departmental level in government institutions that may influence technical decisions in the field. These institutions may comprise, directly or indirectly, policy and planning, budget and finance, export and public health authorities. It may also be of use to donor agencies and non-governmental organizations when planning fisheries-related investments.

The use of this manual should enable consultants, architects and contractors involved in any stage of design or construction of a fish landing or port to avoid the mistakes of old. This manual covers all the aspects of fishing port infrastructure, from inception to final design as well as the construction and management of the fishing port or landing once constructed. This manual does not replace the textbooks required to design the single elements that constitute the fishing port, such as the breakwaters, the quay walls, etc. Any costs quoted in the manual refer to United States dollars and generally apply to any country with good connections. Operational costs in some developing countries may differ significantly due to logistics. To technical staff in general, it provides a handy reference and the means for integrating HACCP and importing country directive recommendations on hazard-free seafood directly into the fishing port’s design.

The previous version of this manual was the basis of a distant-learning course. This edition is a good handbook based on the author’s extensive experience in the design, construction and operation of fishing ports in many developing countries.

There are twelve chapters and five reference annexes in this manual. Each chapter deals with a particular topic and is a stand-alone document.

The first chapter presents the technical guidelines to the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries. It also lists the relevant international conventions to which a State may be a party, together with third country directives that jointly will have a direct bearing on the overall design of the port and its components. These include compliance with basic engineering principles regarding the morphological degradation of the coastal zone in respect of erosion and siltation (UNCED 92), compliance with the relevant conventions concerning pollution of the aquatic environment (MARPOL 73/78) and the provision of adequate monitoring of the effects of operations on the environment (UNCED 92). The Code also addresses post-harvest practices setting out minimum standards for food safety and quality assurance.

The second chapter describes how to plan shore-based facilities and fishing ports that are commensurate with the targeted resources, within the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of a coastal State and distant water fisheries, as the case may be, that would be environmentally sustainable and financially justifiable. It addresses the major issues that influence the size of a new port and describes in detail the classification of fishing ports, from artisanal beach landings to coastal fishing ports, offshore fishing ports and distant water fishing ports. Guidelines on the preferred siting of a fishing port vis-à-vis land use are also discussed. The chapter also dwells on post-conflict reconstruction procedures and on overcapacity (redundant vessels) and potential income diversification for fishermen faced with an ever-dwindling catch.

The third chapter tackles port management, from the simple fish landing on a beach to a proper deep water fishing port. It stresses the need for a stakeholder approach to port management whereby all the port users are represented on the management body. Typical port management bodies are described in detail covering all scenarios, from the simple village landing to a sophisticated fishing port. It also highlights the importance of a fish quality assurance regime inside the port and lists best management practices for port and boatyard operators and the prevention of pollution.

Chapter four reviews the environmental auditing procedures to be followed for all new designs. Degradation of the marine environment can result from a wide range of activities on land. Coastal erosion and siltation are of particular concern. Hence, rational use and development of coastal areas as well as conservation of the marine environment require the ability to determine the present state of these ecological systems and to predict future conditions. Systematic collection of data on marine environmental parameters is needed for an integrated management approach to sustainable development and to predict the effects of the construction of a port on the marine environment. This chapter should be of use to government institutions involved in fisheries-related development seeking international investment funds. The guidelines are also useful for the development or expansion of commercial ports which may impact fishing operations.

Hydrography is the foundation for all coastal work and chapter five covers the topic in great detail. In the past, many artisanal shelters and fishing ports were built at convenient locations, with no particular attention paid to the underwater environment. Many such ports are now plagued by erosion and siltation problems that could have been identified earlier had proper hydrographic surveys been conducted. This chapter should provide planners and engineers with cost-effective options when faced with tight budgetary restrictions and difficult logistics. It describes the amount of hydrographic detail required for a project from inception stage to construction phase.

Dredging and underwater excavation, chapter six, are an important aspect in the design and construction of key elements in a fishing port. Dredging may be required to develop a port basin or to maintain a navigation channel open, but may also be undertaken for other purposes such as land reclamation, beach nourishment and environmental remediation of contaminated sediments. Dredging may be of a permanent nature, also known as capital dredging, or of a transient nature, also known as maintenance dredging. The nature of the material to be dredged determines the type of dredging equipment required or method to be adopted but, on the whole, dredging practice is site specific. Also, in recent years, the screening for the presence of potentially harmful chemical agents in the material to be dredged has become mandatory in many countries influencing not only the method of dredging but also the method of disposal. This chapter may be used as a guide to assist in the decision-making process for the selection of appropriate dredging and disposal techniques.

Chapter seven is dedicated exclusively to breakwaters. The sea is unforgiving and wave action continually degrades human-made structures erected in the sea and breakwaters form the bulk of this construction. Therefore, engineers are normally entrusted with the design and maintenance of large deep water breakwaters. However, cases also arise when artisanal structures are required at the local level and when engineering assistance is either not available or not with the right experience. This chapter is intended primarily for non-technical staff coming to terms for the first time with marine construction and purposely does not include advanced design aids for structures in deep water, the realm of professional engineers.

Chapter eight covers quays and slipways in detail and should provide the reader with a wide range of options for both quays and maintenance structures, such as slipways and boat gantries.

Chapter nine condenses the subject of materials knowledge and suitability into a single chapter while eliminating superfluous coverage. The chapter is confined to the properties of those materials and treatments or variations thereof that are applicable to port structures. Emphasis is placed on full coverage of the basic materials that have proved most durable in the highly aggressive marine environment inside port structures.

The tenth chapter is a comprehensive overview of all the mechanical fittings and quay furniture required to run a port efficiently, from bollards and fenders all the way to marker beacons, winches and fish boxes. It provides an ideal reference guide to both technical and non-technical readers.

Chapter eleven reviews the shore-based infrastructure typical in a port operation, from water supply, power, refuelling, ice, port buildings and paved areas. Any reader will find this chapter useful, either as a reference or as a guide on how to integrate HACCP and third country directives into a port’s infrastructure design.

Chapter twelve provides a holistic approach to public health issues in fisheries ranging from water and water-borne contaminants to sewage and sewage treatment options. The comprehensive detail of this chapter will enable the reader to better understand the ease with which fish, meant for human consumption, is contaminated. The chapter will also assist port planners in dealing with the prevention of pollution in fishing ports.

The manual also has a list of annexes for use as reference material. Annex 1 reproduces the text from the FAO Technical Guidelines, No. 1, Fishing Operations, on the procedures for the development and management of harbours and landing places for fishing vessels. Annexes 2 and 3 are checklists for port hygiene and port hygiene deficiencies, respectively. The fourth annex is a training manual on seafood handling prepared by Francisco Blaha, formerly FAO Fishery Industry Officer for the Technical Cooperation Project on Capacity Building in Support of Cleaner Fishing Harbours in India. The fifth annex is a useful tool already used with success in public awareness campaigns on the prevention of pollution in fishing harbours.

Part I

Planning

The publication deals with the planning, the construction and ultimately with the management of fishing ports. This publication should enable consultants, architects and contractors involved in any stage of design or construction of a fish landing or port to avoid the mistakes of old as it covers all the aspects of fishing port infrastructure, from inception to construction and management of the fishing port or landing once constructed. This manual does not replace the textbooks required to design the single elements that constitute the fishing port This e-version of the publication is divided into three parts.

Part I: Planning deals with the planning required for fishing ports and includes the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, International Conventions, needs assessment and environmental auditing, all of which impact the decision-making process during the planning stage.

Part II and Part III are published as separate e-books.

1.  Code of conduct, conventions and importing country directives

SUMMARY

There are a number of instruments both voluntary and binding that have a bearing on site selection, construction, facilities, operation, and management of harbours and landing places for fishing vessels, as well as prevention of pollution and port security. The intention within this chapter is to set forth basic principles, some of which are binding, that will be expanded upon in greater technical detail in successive chapters and annexes. In this regard, the Agreement on Port State Measures to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing adopted by the Conference of FAO in November 2009 will, on entry into force, add to the responsibilities of port managers and departments of fisheries alike.

In addition, countries that export seafood and seafood products may also have to address directives of importing countries regarding post-harvest care, levels of hygiene and general cleanliness within work and storage areas and, in particular, the application of the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) principle.

CONTENTS

1.1

FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries

1.2

FAO Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries No. 1

1.3

Annex VI of the FAO Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries No. 1

1.3.1

General provisions

1.3.2

Scope and objectives of Annex VI

1.4

International conventions

1.4.1

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982

1.4.2

Montreal Protocol to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer

1.4.3

International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified by the Protocol of 1978 (MARPOL 73/78)

1.4.4

Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, 1972 and 1996 Protocol Thereto (London Convention)

1.4.5

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

1.4.6

International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974

1.4.7

International Ship and Port Facility Security Code

1.4.8

Convention on Facilitation of International Maritime Traffic (FAL), 1965

1.4.9

Agreement on Port State Measures to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing

1.4.10

Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context (Espoo, 1991)

1.5

Importing country directives

1.6

Bibliography and further reading

1.1 FAO CODE OF CONDUCT FOR RESPONSIBLE FISHERIES

In accordance with the recommendations of the Committee on Fisheries (COFI) at its Nineteenth Session in March 1991 and the subsequent International Conference on Responsible Fishing, held in Cancun (Mexico) in 1992, the Twenty-eighth Session of the Conference of FAO unanimously adopted the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, 1995 (hereinafter referred to as the Code). The Code was formulated so as to be interpreted and applied in conformity with the relevant rules of international law, as reflected in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982 (UNCLOS), as well as with the Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 Relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks, 1995, in the light of, inter alia, the 1992 Declaration of Cancun and the 1992 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, in particular Chapter 17 of Agenda 21.

Whereas the Code is voluntary certain parts of it are based on relevant rules of international law, including those reflected in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982. The Code also contains provisions that may be or have already been given binding effect by means of other obligatory legal instruments among the Parties such as the Agreement to Promote Compliance with International Conservation and Management Measures by Fishing Vessels on the High Seas, 1993.

With regard to harbours and landing places for fishing vessels, Article 6.17 sets out that States should ensure that fishing facilities and equipment as well as all fishing activities allow for safe, healthy and fair working and living conditions and meet internationally agreed standards adopted by relevant international organizations. More specifically, Article 8.9 addresses harbours and landing places for fishing vessels.

In adopting the Code, the Conference called for the production of technical guidelines for the implementation of the provisions of the Code. In this regard, this manual draws on the first in the series of FAO Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries, entitled Fishing Operations, and in particular, Section 7, Energy Optimization and Protection of the Ozone Layer, and Section 8, Design, Construction and Modification of Harbours and Landing Places for Fishing Vessels.

In developing the guidelines and its annexes, FAO drew on experience gained over many years of field activities, and in the case of harbours and landing places, how increasing problems associated with the construction of new harbours and landing places for fishing vessels and, in particular, their operation and maintenance, had reached critical levels in some parts of the world. In many instances, the adverse effects of harbour pollution from the activities of fishing vessels as well as those of vendors and processors had been exacerbated by the almost total lack of reception facilities.

Matters had become more serious in the late 1980s with an ever increasing demand for assistance from developing countries to solve specific problems with existing harbours as well as for help in designing new installations.

A classic example was within the Bay of Bengal subregion, where the Bay of Bengal Programme (BOBP), with the cooperation of the International Maritime Organization (IMO) (within its cleaner seas programme) and FAO, commissioned a series of important studies. The results of these studies were presented at a workshop hosted by the Government of Malaysia at Penang, 9–11 December 1991, at which developments with regard to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) were highlighted by IMO.

In parallel, the United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development (UNCED) deliberated the need for a precautionary and anticipatory approach rather than a reactive approach to prevent degradation of the marine environment. Consequently, in June 1992, UNCED recommended, inter alia, the adoption of environmental impact assessment procedures.

Thus, the Code and its Technical Guidelines underline the importance of environmental auditing, attention to the provisions of MARPOL and Article 21 of UNCED.

1.2 FAO TECHNICAL GUIDELINES FOR RESPONSIBLE FISHERIES NO. 1

The first in the series of FAO Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries (FAO, 1996) refers to fishing operations and in Section 8 it states that, in general, competent authorities should adopt acceptable standards and follow guidelines for the design, construction, maintenance and management of harbours and landing places for fishing vessels (reference 8.9 of the Code) to ensure, inter alia:

- safe havens for fishing vessels;

- that freshwater supplies are available;

- the provision of adequate sanitation arrangements;

- that waste disposal systems (including for oil and oily water) are provided;

- that there would be no pollution from external sources (non-fisheries activities);

- that there would not be any pollution arising from fisheries activities;

- the provision of adequate servicing facilities for vessels, vendors and buyers;

- that maintenance programmes include the monitoring of the effects of operations conducted at the facility on the environment;

- compliance with relevant conventions concerning pollution of the aquatic environment;

- integration with other users as in the case of a non-exclusive facility for the fishing industry; and

- that arrangements are made to combat the effects of erosion and siltation.

The Technical Guidelines also expand on the provisions of the Code in relation to the participation of users in the management of ports, harbours and landing places (Section 8, paragraph 115), as well as the removal of offshore structures (Section 8.10 and Annex V) and the development of artificial reefs (Section 8.11).

1.3 ANNEX VI OF THE FAO TECHNICAL GUIDELINES FOR RESPONSIBLE FISHERIES NO. 1

1.3.1 General provisions

Annex VI expands on the principles set out in the Code and the Technical Guidelines, covering procedures for the development and management of harbours and landing places for fishing vessels. In addition, within the concepts of responsible fishing operations and the integration of fisheries into coastal area management, it also provides guidance on the conduct of environmental auditing with regard to proposal for new construction and the upgrading of existing facilities.

The annex provides a technical framework for the implementation of procedures as an aid to the management and development of harbours and landing places for fishing vessels.

1.3.2 Scope and objectives of Annex VI

The proposed procedures are global in scope and directed towards all persons, whether in government or the private sector, involved in the planning, design, construction, maintenance and management of harbours, harbour infrastructure and landing places for fishing vessels.

The objective is an enhanced capacity of States to ensure the adoption of environmentally sound development, management and conservation practices through:

- better standards of management in harbours and landing places for existing and future facilities;

- the establishment of environmental auditing procedures and design criteria related to future fisheries infrastructure projects; and

- appropriate training and education in environmental awareness.

It should be recalled, however, that although the Code is voluntary, some provisions of it may be or have already been given binding effect by means of legal instruments. The same statement effectively applies to this annex, since it contains references to legally binding instruments such as UNCLOS 82, the Montreal Protocol and MARPOL 73/78.

The full text of Annex VI is set out in Annex I.

1.4 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS

1.4.1 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982

The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) sets up a legal regime for the sea and oceans and thus represents the attempt by the international community to regulate all aspects of the resources of the sea and uses of the ocean. In terms of the environment, UNCLOS establishes material rules concerning environmental standards and enforcement provisions regarding pollution of the marine environment.

The convention addresses ports, baselines, roadsteads and charts, as well as standards, criteria and indicators for assessing protected areas.

1.4.2 Montreal Protocol to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer

The Convention recognizes that worldwide emissions of certain substances can significantly deplete and otherwise modify the ozone layer in a manner that is likely to result in adverse effects on human health and the environment.

Substances that are required to be controlled, referred to as “controlled substances”, are listed in Annexes A, B, C or Annex E to the Montreal Protocol, on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, whether existing alone or in a mixture, and provisions are made for the gradual phasing out of such substances, for example, certain refrigerants.

1.4.3 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified by the Protocol of 1978 (MARPOL 73/78)

The Convention desires to achieve the complete elimination of intentional pollution of the marine environment by oil and other harmful substances and the minimization of accidental discharge of such substances. Of particular interest to harbours and landing places for fishing vessels is Annex V and its guidelines, particularly in relation to shoreside facilities for operational waste including fishing gear.

1.4.4 Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, 1972 and 1996 Protocol Thereto (London Convention)[1]

The Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, 1972, the “London Convention” for short, is one of the first global conventions to protect the marine environment from human activities and has been in force since 1975. Its objective is to promote the effective control of all sources of marine pollution and to take all practicable steps to prevent pollution of the sea by dumping of wastes and other matter.

In 1996, it was agreed to further modernize the Convention and, eventually, replace it. Under the Protocol all dumping is prohibited, except for possibly acceptable wastes on the so-called “reverse list”. The Protocol entered into force on 24 March 2006.

1.4.5 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

The convention on climate change is important in that, along with ozone loss, climate change is the embodiment of global environmental change. Global warming is what most scientists currently think will happen as the effect of the additions humankind has made to the natural mixture of the atmosphere. The International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has presented a series of research reports on the mechanisms of climate change and the likely rate of future warming. The IPCC has indicated that one likely result of global warming is an increase in the rate of sea level rise. This is not the result of melting of the major ice caps, but of the melting of the smaller glaciers and the thermal expansion of the warming oceans. These two effects will cause the sea level to rise by about 5 mm per year in the future compared with a rate of a little more than 1 mm per year today. The predicted contribution of the melting ice caps is only about 12 percent. The cumulative predicted sea level rise of about 300 mm by 2050 is not large, but it will make the problems of erosion and tidal flooding more difficult to solve and should be addressed when planning harbours and landing places for fishing vessels.

1.4.6 International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974

The Conference of Contracting Governments to the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), 1974 (London, 9 to 12 December 2002), adopted amendments to the Annex to the Convention, as amended, in particular, new chapter XI-2 on special measures to enhance maritime security; and, the new International Ship and Port Facility Security Code (ISPS Code).

1.4.7 International Ship and Port Facility Security Code

The International Ship and Port Facility Security Code (ISPS Code) is a two-part document describing minimum requirements for security of ships and ports. Part A provides mandatory requirements; Part B provides guidance for implementation. The ISPS Code applies to ships on international voyages (including passenger ships, cargo ships of 500 gross tonnage (GT) and upwards, and mobile offshore drilling units) and the port facilities serving such ships.

The main objectives of the ISPS Code are to:

- detect security threats and implement security measures;

- establish roles and responsibilities concerning maritime security for governments, local administrations, ship and port industries at the national and international level;

- to collate and promulgate security-related information; and

- to provide a methodology for security assessments so as to have in place plans and procedures to react to changing security levels.

Whereas the ISPS Code does not specify specific measures that each port and ship must take to ensure the safety of the facility, it outlines a standardized, consistent framework for evaluating risk, enabling governments to offset changes in threat with changes in vulnerability for ships and port facilities.

For port facilities, the requirements include port facility security plans, security officers and certain security equipment. In addition, further requirements for ships and for port facilities include monitoring and controlling access, monitoring the activities of people and cargo and ensuring that security communications are readily available.

Chapter XII-2 of SOLAS and the ISPS Code apply to cargo ships of 500 GT and upwards engaged on an international voyage, thus ships engaged in unloading or loading fish or fish products would be covered.

1.4.8 Convention on Facilitation of International Maritime Traffic (FAL), 1965

The purpose of the Convention is to facilitate maritime transport by simplifying and minimizing the formalities, documentary requirements and procedures associated with the arrival, stay and departure of ships engaged on international voyages.

1.4.9 Agreement on Port State Measures to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing

The Agreement was adopted by the Conference of FAO in November 2009. The aim of the Agreement is to provide a mechanism to combat illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing. Key measures that parties to the Agreement will commit include:

- Foreign fishing vessels wishing to dock will be required to request permission from designated ports ahead of time, transmitting information on their activities and the fish they have on board.

- Port States will conduct regular inspections of ships according to a common set of standards. Reviews of ship papers, surveys of fishing gear, examining catches and checking a ship’s records can often reveal if it has engaged in IUU fishing.

- They also must ensure that ports are adequately equipped and inspectors properly trained.

- When a vessel is denied access, port States must communicate that information publicly and national authorities of the country whose flag the vessel is flying must take follow-up action.

- These measures apply to foreign fishing vessels not flying the flag of the port State; however, the port State can also apply such measures to their own fishing fleets.

The Agreement sets out that, to the greatest extent possible, Parties shall:

(a)integrate or coordinate fisheries related port State measures with the broader system of port State controls[2];

(b)integrate port State measures with other measures to prevent, deter and eliminate IUU fishing and fishing related activities in support of such fishing, taking into account as appropriate the 2001 FAO International Plan of Action to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing; and

(c)take measures to exchange information among relevant national agencies and to coordinate the activities of such agencies in the implementation of this Agreement.

1.4.10 Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context (Espoo, 1991)

The purpose of the Convention is to enable contiguous countries to either, individually or jointly, take all appropriate and effective measures to prevent, reduce and control significant adverse transboundary environmental impact from proposed activities. This Convention comes into play when contaminated dredged spoil from a fishing port needs to be dumped offshore close to international boundaries.

1.5 IMPORTING COUNTRY DIRECTIVES

The Code also addresses post-harvest practices and trade within Article 11. Article 11.1.3 sets out that States should set minimum standards for safety and quality assurance and to make sure that these standards are effectively applied throughout the industry. They should promote the implementation of quality standards agreed within the context of the FAO/World Health Organization Codex Alimentarius Commission and other relevant organizations or arrangements.

The first edition of a “Code of practice for fish and fishery products” (2009), under Codex Alimentarius, will assist all those who are engaged in the handling and production of fish and fish products or are concerned with their storage, distribution, export, import and sale in attaining safe and wholesome products that can be sold on national or international markets and meet the requirements of the Codex Standards.

The issue, however, is how to control the food in international trade. At the point of entry the regulatory agency may not always know whether the incoming food was produced under hygienic conditions and the application of HACCP principles. In this situation some criteria would be needed that would have to be established according to the principles described in the Codex documents. An alternative approach may be to allow control of foodstuffs in international trade to be based on signed agreements between internationally recognized and competent bodies.

Consequently, many importing countries impose conditions for the importation of fish and fishery products that translate into conditions to be met by the exporting country and these relate not only to safety in health but also to responsible fishing practices.

An example in this regard are a number of directives issued by the European Commission (EC) that set criteria both for the exporting and importing countries and it maintains an inspection service to monitor and assist exporting countries. Other major importing countries (not members of the European Community) have also set criteria to be met by exporting countries.

1.6 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING

European Commission. Council Regulation (EC) No. 1005/2008 of 29 September 2008 establishing a community system to prevent, deter and eliminate illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing.

European Commission. Regulation (EC) No. 854/2004 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2004 laying down specific rules for the organization of official controls on products of animal origin intended for human consumption.

European Economic Community. Council Directive 91/493/EEC of 22 July 1991 laying down health conditions for the production and the placing on the market of fishery products.

FAO. 1995. Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries. Rome.

FAO. 1996. FAO Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries 1, Fishing Operations. Rome.

FAO. 1998. FAO Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries 7, Responsible Fish Utilization. Rome.

FAO. 2001. International Plan of Action to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing. Rome.

FAO. 2009. Agreement on Port State Measures to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing. Rome.

Huss, H.H., Ababouch, L. & Gram, L. 2004. Assessment and management of seafood safety and quality. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 444. Rome, FAO.

International Maritime Organization. International Code for the Security of Ships and Port Facilities (ISPS Code).

International Maritime Organization. International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) Chapter XI-2.

International Maritime Organization. MARPOL 73/78 Annex V and Guidelines for the Application of Annex V.

International Maritime Organization. Resolution A672 (16) of the Assembly of IMO and the Annex thereto.

O’Riordan T. 1995. The threat of global warming. In T. O’Riordan (ed). Environmental Science for Environmental Management, pp. 110–130, University of East Anglia.

World Health Organization & Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2009. Codex Alimentarius Code of practice for fish and fishery products. Rome, WHO and FAO.

[1]The Joint Group of Experts on Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection (GESAMP) is an advisory body, established in 1969, that advises the United Nations (UN) system on the scientific aspects of marine environmental protection. At present it is jointly sponsored by eight United Nations organizations (IMO, FAO, UNESCO-IOC, WMO (since 1968), IAEA (since 1969), UN (since 1971), UNEP (since 1977), and UNIDO (since 2006) with responsibilities relating to the marine environment as a mechanism for coordination and collaboration among them. GESAMP functions are to conduct and support marine environmental assessments, to undertake in-depth studies, analyses, and reviews of specific topics, and to identify emerging issues regarding the state of the marine environment. GESAMP itself consists of ideally 25–30 experts, drawn from a wide range of relevant disciplines, who act in an independent individual capacity.

[2]Such as Memoranda on Port State Control.

2.  Infrastructure needs assessment

SUMMARY

The role of the fishing port may be considered as the interface between the harvesting of a fish and its consumption; thus the type and size of a fisheries port and its infrastructure greatly influence the way and rate at which a country’s living marine resources can be exploited. The perceived need for a fishing port, however, is likely to originate from a combination of fisheries management planning and pressure from the industry to meet local consumption needs and of the export market.

In order to plan and design a fishing port that is commensurate with the targeted resources (not too large, not too small, but just large enough), a fishing port planner needs the full cooperation of fisheries managers, hydrographers and those responsible for coastal area management, fishing industry leaders and fishing communities. In particular, the port planner would need to know and understand the resources that have to be exploited (low-value high-volume or high-value low-volume), the catch potential, including seasonal variations, the local or proposed marketing systems, including export potential and consumer preferences (fresh, frozen, salted, smoked or canned fish).

This chapter describes how to plan shore-based facilities and fishing ports that are commensurate with the targeted resources within the EEZ of the coastal State and distant water fisheries, as the case may be, that would be environmentally sustainable and financially justifiable. Attention is also drawn to the aquaculture/mariculture sector. The overall objective is to make the reader aware of the decision-making process following a needs assessment.

CONTENTS

2.1

Sizing a port and its facilities

2.1.1

General

2.1.2

Types of fishing ports

2.1.3

Safe havens

2.2

Site of a fishing port

2.2.1

Planning requirements

2.2.2

Land use

2.2.3

Accessibility

2.2.4

Water

2.3

Post-conflict reconstruction procedures

2.4

Project justification

2.5

Overcapacity in existing ports

2.5.1

Alternative uses

2.5.2

Port income diversification

2.5.3

Vessel income diversification

2.6

Bibliography and further reading

Appendix 1: Conversion of commercial fishing vessels to other activities

Appendix 2: Servicing mariculture facilities

2.1 SIZING A PORT AND ITS FACILITIES

2.1.1 General

The port planner should bear in mind that sometimes new fishing port facilities are designed primarily around a specified fishing vessel’s characteristics and performance, as in the case of imported, highly sophisticated and modern trawlers, leading to very complex and expensive port designs; it might, however, be possible that a country’s exploitation of its available marine resources would be better achieved by the proper management of existing, indigenous fleets requiring relatively cheaper port facilities.

In some cases, where the costs for the harbour works and associated infrastructure cannot be borne by the fishery industry alone, port facilities are shared with nearby commercial harbours. In order to plan and design a fishing port that is commensurate with the targeted resources, a fishing port planner, in conjunction with the competent authorities, must:

- understand the type of resources and the catch potential of the fish stocks that have to be exploited (the stocks could be seasonal or in danger of collapse if overfished);

- have access to, and advice regarding the latest and most accurate biological statistical data available (data of proven resources taken from actual landings by the existing fleet is preferable to data extrapolated from distant areas) and fisheries management forecasts; and

- obtain knowledge of the size, composition and performance of the existing fleet[1] and fisheries management development plans.

Failure to observe the above three conditions will inevitably result in a port facility that is either too large or too small. A port facility that is too large will either collapse financially or attract too many vessels to a specific area. If a port facility is too small, it too may collapse under the impact of a busy fleet. Ideally, a fishing harbour should be designed for a fleet which is just big enough to handle the current, proven and foreseeable marine resources.

Furthermore, the size of such a fleet and anticipated growth or decline should be specified beforehand by the appropriate authorities (department of fisheries) and not by the port planner.

From the above it follows that it is preferable to underdesign a facility by a shade or two (also known as precautionary design) rather than to overdesign a facility (reactive design): whereas a slightly underdesigned fishing port may put the visible infrastructure under strain, an overdesigned fishing port would put the relatively invisible resources under strain.

In the first case, the strain may be relieved by expanding the fishing port in a phased development process, provided of course that this possible need was foreseen at the design stage, whereas in the second case the effects may be very uncertain and the remedial solution may be impractical, costly or both.

Whether dealing with small motorized canoes or large fishing vessels, fisheries infrastructure generally consists of:

- a safe mooring area (the cheapest form is beaching, the most expensive a deep-water port);

- provision for utilities and boat servicing (water, fuel, workshops);

- fish handling infrastructure (ice, cold storage, sorting areas, processing facilities); and

- marketing infrastructure (local market, road to nearest city market or connection to a motorway or airport).

2.1.2 Types of fishing ports

There are obviously different types of fishery operations, each requiring different arrangements. As a result, it is difficult to arrive at clear-cut definitions that fully and consistently characterize port infrastructure. However, one solution is to grade ports according to the type of fishery they serve, i.e. artisanal, coastal, offshore and distant-waters.

Artisanal fisheries usually involve subsistence and artisanal fishermen operating on a daily trip basis a short distance from their village. Vessels typically consist of canoes (paddle, motorized or sail-powered) beached in front of the village (Figure 1).

TABLE 1

Fully developed artisanal landing characteristics

Location of fishing grounds

Inshore, steaming distance up to 3 hours.

Typical fishing trip

Anywhere from 6 hours to 24 hours.

Type of vessels handled

Paddle canoes, motorized canoes and other small vessels.
Fishing gear usually hand line, pole and line and set nets.

Type of landed products

A mixture of low-volume high-value and high-volume low-value.
Paddle canoes high value only. Motorized canoes both.

Typical shore processing

High value – gutting, icing and boxing for onward sale.
Low value – drying and smoking.

Minimum water depth required

No depth limitations as all vessels are beached for unloading.

Breakwater protection

In practice, a beach landing does not require protection.
Breakwaters on beaches are reactive and unsustainable.

Auction – sorting hall

A sorting hall is required in all cases for icing and boxing.
An auction hall is required if fish is auctioned locally as well.

Utilities

Mains power and water preferable. Gensets only suitable in some cases.
Boreholes and seawater systems acceptable.

Ice production

Of primary importance. Should only be mains powered otherwise delivered from nearest supplier.

Cold storage

Chilled storage on ice (3 oC) is acceptable even using insulated fish boxes.
Otherwise fish should be moved to a proper cold storage.

Refuelling

Small-scale installation (up to 10 000 litres) is the most suitable.

Dry docking – slipways

Slipways are not normally required. Mechanically operated winches for the larger boats are enough.

Transport links

The success or failure of the landing depends on good, all-weather road access.

Workshops

Small engine and timber hull workshops required. May be located in village.

Net repair areas

Required in all cases. A minimum of 500 m^2 should be set aside. Area should drain surface water away.

Fishermen’s/seamen’s facilities

A fishermen’s cooperative with full facilities is highly desirable to enable all stakeholders to participate in the fishing, marketing and procurement activities.
Adequate number of toilets and canteen facilities should be included.

Open storage and parking

Enough area should be set aside for parking to enable better connection with markets.

Ancillary services

Some landings also offer sea bus transport to other coastal villages and if managed properly should be encouraged.

Hinterland

A resident fishing village community nearby is desirable.

Coastal fisheries usually involve artisanal fishermen operating on one to two day trips from home. Vessels typically consist of large motorized canoes and decked and undecked fishing vessels with a maximum length of about 20 metres. These vessels would either be beached or moored in calm spots, such as bays and coves. In some cases, a proper port may be needed if the landings are high volume (Figure 2).

TABLE 2

Coastal fisheries harbour characteristics

Location of fishing grounds

Near coastal, steaming distance up to 6 hours.

Typical fishing trip

Anywhere from 1 to 3 days.

Type of vessels handled

Large motorized canoes and vessels up to 10 tonnes in weight.
Fishing gear usually mini seine, pole and line, long line, trawl nets and gillnets.

Type of landed products

A mixture of low-volume high-value and high-volume low-value.

Typical shore processing

High value – gutting, icing and boxing for onward sale.
Low value – drying and smoking.

Minimum water depth required

At least 2.50 metres below Lowest Astronomical Tide level.

Breakwater protection

Generally required unless port is inside a river estuary but breakwaters on beaches are reactive and unsustainable.

Auction – sorting hall

A sorting hall is required in all cases for icing and boxing.
An auction hall is required if fish is auctioned locally as well.

Utilities

Mains power and water preferable. Gensets only suitable in some cases.
Boreholes and seawater systems acceptable.

Ice production

Of primary importance. Should only be mains powered otherwise delivered from nearest supplier.

Cold storage

Cold storage required. Chilled storage on ice (3 oC) is acceptable if fish is moved to a proper cold storage elsewhere.

Refuelling

Medium-sized installation (up to 100 tonnes in weight) is the most suitable.
Bowser service also acceptable.

Dry docking – slipways

Slipway to handle vessels up to 100 tonnes in weight normally enough.

Transport links

The success or failure of the port depends on good, all weather road access. Road should already exist.

Workshops

Proper engine and timber hull workshops required in loco.
Steel or GRP hulls may need extra workshop area.

Net repair areas

Required in all cases. A minimum of 1 000 m^2 should be set aside. Area should drain surface water away.

Fishermen’s/seamen’s facilities

A fishermen’s cooperative with full facilities is highly desirable to enable all stakeholders to participate in the fishing, marketing and procurement activities. Adequate toilet and canteen facilities to be provided.

Open storage and parking

Enough area should be set aside for parking to enable better connection with markets and for dry boat storage in areas where monsoons are active.

Ancillary services

Port may also act as base for coastguard and fishery protection vessels.

Hinterland

A resident fishing village or town community nearby is desirable.

Offshore fisheries usually involve both fishermen and non-fisheries-related business interests who invest in vessel fleets. Fishing trips extend to the limit of the extended economic zone offshore and last anywhere up to four weeks. The vessel sizes are usually in the 20 to 40 metre range and the vessels generally need proper port facilities (Figure 3).

TABLE 3

Offshore fisheries harbour characteristics

Location of fishing grounds

Offshore and far coastal, steaming distance up to 1 week.

Typical fishing trip

Anywhere from 2 to 4 weeks.

Type of vessels handled

Large motorized canoes, purse seiners and trawlers. Vessels up to 100 tonnes in weight. Fishing gear purse seine and trawl nets.

Type of landed products

Mainly iced but also frozen pelagics, shrimps and other high-value species.

Typical shore processing

Canneries, fishmeal, salting, drying and smoking.

Minimum water depth required

At least 5.0 metres below Lowest Astronomical Tide level.

Breakwater protection

Generally required unless port is inside a river estuary but breakwaters on beaches are reactive and unsustainable.

Auction – sorting hall

A sorting hall and auction area is required in all cases.

Utilities

Mains power only and town supplied water. Boreholes and seawater systems acceptable in areas of low rainfall.

Ice production

Of primary importance. Should only be mains powered otherwise delivered from nearest supplier.

Cold storage

Cold storage required for buffer stocks. Chilled storage on ice (3 oC) is acceptable in some cases.

Refuelling

Large sized installation (up to 1 000 tonnes in weight) is the most suitable.
Bowser service also acceptable in some cases.

Dry docking – slipways

Slipway to handle vessels up to 500 tonnes in weight normally required.

Transport links

The port is only feasible if road already exists.

Workshops

Proper engine and hull workshops required in loco.
Steel or GRP hulls may need extra workshop area.

Net repair areas

Required in all cases. A minimum of 1 000 m^2 required. Area should drain surface water away and be part covered.

Fishermen’s/seamen’s facilities

A cooperative with full facilities (banking and wholesale supplies) is required. Full toilet and shower facilities as well as canteen services must be included.

Open storage and parking

Enough area should be set aside for parking and storage of seasonal fishing gear, as well as for dry boat storage in areas where monsoons are active.

Ancillary services

Port may also act as base for coastguard, SAR centre, oil spill combat and fishery protection vessels.

Hinterland

A town community nearby is desirable with full facilities, including hotels, hospitals, banking, shipping agents.

Distant-water fisheries involve large, modern, factory-type trawlers roaming the oceans on very long trips, 6 to 12 months at a time. Their home port can be located at specially provided facilities in commercial ports but are considered more effective when specifically designed for the industry within a properly established fishery port (Figure 4).

TABLE 4

Distant water fisheries harbour characteristics

Location of fishing grounds

Overseas, steaming distance up to 1 month.

Typical fishing trip

Anywhere from 6 to 12 months.

Type of vessels handled

Large trawlers (500–1 000 tonnes GRT) and factory vessels (5 000 tonnes GRT).

Type of landed products

Mainly frozen, in bulk, individually packed or ready processed for direct sale through commercial outlets.

Typical shore processing

Packaging, canneries, fishmeal and other value added processing.

Minimum water depth required

At least 6.0 metres below Lowest Astronomical Tide level.

Breakwater protection

Generally required unless port is inside a river estuary but breakwaters on beaches are reactive and unsustainable.

Auction – sorting hall

A sorting–auction area is not required in most cases.

Utilities

Mains power only and town supplied water. Boreholes and seawater systems acceptable in areas of low rainfall.

Ice production

Of secondary importance as products are all frozen.

Cold storage

Cold storage required for buffer stocks and local processing needs.

Refuelling

Large sized installation (in excess of 1 000 tonnes in weight) is generally required. Bowser service not suitable.

Dry docking – slipways

Common for vessels to dry dock at established yards, even overseas, hence not important.

Transport links

The port is dependent on road, rail and air transport links.

Workshops

Proper engine and hull workshops required.
Steel or GRP hulls may need extra workshop area.

Net repair areas

Generally not required as nets are repaired elsewhere due to their size and complexity.

Fishermen’s/seamen’s facilities

A proper seamen’s union with full facilities is required.

Open storage and parking

Enough area should be set aside for parking and storage of seasonal fishing gear.

Ancillary services

Port may also act as base for coastguard, SAR centre, oil spill combat and fishery protection vessels.

Hinterland

A town community nearby is required with full facilities, including hotels, hospitals, banking, shipping agents.

As a general rule:

- The size of the port is governed by the size of the fleet (as indicated by the competent fisheries authority) operating from the port and the type of vessels that make up the fleet.

- The size of the shore facilities then depends on the throughput of fish through the port and the amount of value-added processing proposed.

Figure 5 illustrates the flow chart of the design process for a typical fishing port all the way to financial feasibility.

2.1.3 Safe havens

Ports in areas where hurricanes and monsoons are common natural occurrences may need a safe haven or storm shelter inside the port basin or close by as an added safety measure for floating vessels. In some Asian countries, whole vessel fleets are placed ashore for the entire monsoon season and need a considerable level area for this purpose. In the Caribbean, every island has created safe havens (mainly on the leeward side).

However, the subject of safe havens has been given greater attention in recent years in relation to disaster preparedness programmes. Consequently, a port planner should be involved in the development of safe havens, particularly in relation to essential facilities and access.

2.2 SITE OF A FISHING PORT

2.2.1 Planning requirements

A new fishing port may be built on virgin land or installed in a rehabilitated existing port environment or even in an urban area. In all cases, the planning process must consider:

- the land use of the area proposed;

- the general environmental conditions of the site;

- the ease of access to the site;

- the availability of sanitary water; and

- existing and future industrial planning.

2.2.2 Land use

In general, when planning a fishing port, whether it be a small landing jetty on a beach or a large deep-water port, it is better to design a layout with arrangements flexible enough to permit adjustment at a future date, if the assumptions on which the needs assessment were based prove to be different to real life conditions. In other words, a fishing port and its land-based infrastructure should not be stuck in between fixed land boundaries (like schools, playgrounds, cemeteries, factory sites, housing, etc.) with no scope for expansion at a later date. Vice versa, if a new port is planned along a stretch of virgin coastline, a suitable buffer zone should be included around the port and land-use master plans should be strictly enforced to ensure that the buffer zone is not settled by illegal service settlements that generally crop up around such facilities in a matter of a short time.

In many cases, especially where there has been a low level of communication between agencies concerned with coastal area management and environment protection agencies, the incompatibility of heavy industries with the fisheries sector is not always questioned. As a result, fishing ports have been built next to or downwind from, inter alia:

- large power stations burning coal or heavy oil;

- cement manufacturing or bagging plants;

- wood or paper mills;

- fertilizer and petrochemical plants;

- chemical plants

- oil storage facilities;

- leather tanning facilities; and

- ore export terminals.

In some countries, fishing ports may also be located inside ports for merchant shipping; the reverse may also be true. In some cases, smoke-stack industries have been allowed a foothold inside urban areas that are too close to the fishing port. It is also known that these industries may have even started utilizing the fishing port for their needs. Such practices eventually lead to cross-contamination of the fish products through:

- settlement of particulate matter (dust) on fish and fish products;

- contamination of rainwater collection systems when these are required to supplement other supplies;

- fouling of harbour basin water when this may be required to alleviate the use of freshwater; and

- contamination of the groundwater aquifers themselves.

It is hence of the utmost importance to site fishing ports as far away as possible from such activities.

Clearly, when a new facility for fishing vessels is under consideration there is strong justification for close cooperation between ministries responsible for rural, industrial, urban and fisheries development issues. Such cooperation should extend to ease of access to environmental impact assessment (EIA) reports concerning planning permission for new industrial sites. For those carrying out an EIA they should also take all existing facilities into consideration (such as fishing vessel port facilities). Once a decision has been reached regarding the siting of a fishing port, legislation should be enacted to ensure that all future development in the area would not compromise the fishing port and its post-harvest facilities.

However, it is also incumbent on the fisheries department and the port planner to pay special attention to situations of incompatibility between an existing fishing vessel facility and industrial activities. In such cases where the quality of fish and fish products is adversely affected, a decision must be reached at local or national level as to what should be moved and to where or how such pollution could be regulated and how proposed solutions could be financed.

Unless this fundamental reasoning is accepted by all the parties involved, from local planners and engineers all the way up to local and national government, then unsolved problems of this nature are there to stay and will only lead to more existing fishing ports being condemned on pollution grounds; in effect, if the pollution is so bad, it may be that the industrial site has to be condemned for a multitude of reasons.

2.2.3 Accessibility

No matter what size of port is being planned, all-weather accessibility cannot be ignored or replaced with unpaved roads. Many developing countries tend to regard a good paved road as optional to the port structure due to the costs involved when the road should be part and parcel of the port.

Unpaved, or white or laterite roads, are very common in some developing countries, but in the presence of heavy rainfall these do not last more than one to two years before they require major maintenance.

2.2.4 Water

The rule of thumb where water is concerned is No Water, No Port. Water is required at every stage of the fishing process, both on board the vessels (for rinsing and hose-down), and ashore in the port (for rinsing, ice production and hose-down of work areas and hygiene). Whereas a town or mains supply is the preferred option, many fishing ports depend on bore wells. It is now also acceptable to replace up to 80 percent of the potable water needs with clean seawater if the port structures have been designed to resist seawater corrosion.

2.3 POST-CONFLICT RECONSTRUCTION PROCEDURES

Wars or conflicts may also leave a legacy of unexploded ordnance (UXO) contamination and it is therefore essential that this issue is tackled from the outset and at all stages of the project via internationally accepted guidelines on de-mining.

At sea, UXO may be the result of unexploded aerial bombs dropped on naval targets, sea mines or live ammunition dumped overboard in times of distress. In all cases, this may turn up in dredgers contracted out to dredge coastal areas in or near existing ports. As most of this UXO is metal based, a magnetometric survey should be commissioned in conjunction with the bathymetric survey and the position of all the positive “hits” by the magnetometer recorded and then inspected by experienced de-mining divers for presence of actual UXO.

On land, UXO may consist of unexploded aerial or artillery bombs, mortar shells and land mines. Although many areas in the world have been surveyed with a General Mine Action Assessment survey and/or a secondary Landmine Impact Survey, a Dangerous Area Report, Mined Area Report, and/or a Landmine Impact Survey report for each Suspected Hazardous Area should be referred to before a project is undertaken in an area of known past conflict. This work must be done before the topographical and other land surveys are commissioned.

2.4 PROJECT JUSTIFICATION

Any harbour project, no matter what size, needs to be financially and technically justified if it is going to be planned, designed and managed in a sustainable manner in harmony with the surrounding environment.

Technically, the justification must be backed up with reliable data pertaining to:

- the fish stocks to be harvested (current biomass data and not mathematical extrapolations);

- the methods of fishing to be employed (environmentally sustainable);

- the technical feasibility of the proposed or chosen site (environmentally sustainable);

- the financial feasibility of the entire project (including port, services, access roads); and

- fisheries management programmes concerning fleet development.[2]

Projects with a large social component may not be self-sustaining, but when other social factors are included, such as the supply of safe drinking water, sewerage, lighting, roads, etc., some attempt must be made to monetize the project’s contribution to the well-being of the community as a whole.

2.5 OVERCAPACITY IN EXISTING FISHING PORTS

2.5.1 Alternative uses

In many parts of the world, overcapacity in fishing vessels has to be faced by fisheries managers to limit effort within the maximum sustainable yield (MSY) and in many cases the solution has been to reduce the size of the fleet that is allowed to fish. Such a situation can lead to hardship for those associated with the vessels having to be decommissioned (but not necessarily sold or scrapped). This can be particularly traumatic where the fishing port may also be the hub of village life and cannot be simply dismantled.

2.5.2 Port income diversification

The possibilities to keep a fishing port operational and to offer alternative employment to fishing vessel crews is to re-engineer the port into a multioperation facility that does not rely solely on its dwindling fishing fleet but rather by hosting a number of marine-related activities. These activities could include:

- marine transport, ferries, etc.;

- diving tourism;

- eco-fishing tourism;

- support to offshore fish farming;

- coastguard and search and rescue (SAR) activities; and

- offshore industries (oil, gas and minerals).

2.5.3 Vessel income diversification

In some parts of the world, the need to drastically reduce fishing capacity has led to hardship within the industry with many vessels having to be decommissioned and the crews having to look for alternative employment. In extreme cases it led to death of fishing villages and the migration of the inhabitants to other areas.

However, the re-employment possibilities become limited in cases where there is no requirement for the training and certification of fishing vessel crews and the most probable areas to be under the greatest pressure is the small-scale fisheries sector.

This approach suggested under 2.5.2 above has been taken in a number of cases where the number of active fishing vessels had decreased, although in extreme cases it had not been found to be the complete solution. Appendix 1 to this chapter highlights the need to address the relevant national regulations when a change in a sea-going activity is under consideration.

2.6 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING

Ben-Yami, M. & Anderson A.M. 1985. Community fisheries centres: guidelines for establishment and operation. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 264. Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

Bujang, B.H. & Misieng, R.Y. 1993. Environment and development: towards promoting sustainable development in Sarawak. Proceedings of the Seminar on Environment and Development, Miri, 15–16 December 1993. Sarawak, Angkatan Saman Mansang.

FAO. 1975. Small harbours and landing places on difficult coasts. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 136. Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

International Association of Marine Aids to Navigation and Lighthouse Authorities. IALA Recommendation 0-116 for the Marking of Aquaculture Farms. December 1999.

PIANC Working Group No 18. 1998. Planning of fishing ports, Supplement to Bulletin 97. Brussels, Permanent International Association of Navigation Congresses (www.pianc.org)

Pizzali, A.F.M. 1988. Small scale fish landing and marketing facilities. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. 291. Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

Sciortino, J.A. Construction and maintenance of artisanal fishing harbours and village landings. FAO Training Series 25. Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

Verstralen, K.M., Lenselink, N.M., Ramirez, R., Wilkie, M. & Johnson, J.P. 2004. Participatory landing site development for artisanal fisheries livelihoods. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 466. Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

APPENDIX 1: CONVERSION OF COMMERCIAL FISHING VESSELS TO OTHER ACTIVITIES

Introduction

It is not uncommon to come across fishing ports with laid-up vessels that are un-profitable to operate or threatened with decommissioning by governments. With the current trend towards overfishing, this scene may become more common unless sound fisheries management practices are followed.

However, forcibly removing vessels from an active fishing fleet over a short period of time is perhaps the most traumatic way of reducing fishing capacity, particularly where the fishing port may also be the hub of village life and cannot be simply dismantled. In such cases, the first priority should be to look at alternative fisheries management systems and alternative opportunities for fishing boat owners and crew in the event that fleet reduction cannot be avoided.

Another aspect of fleet reduction would be the impact on the economy of a port due to reduced income leading to the need to explore other possibilities such as opening the port to non-fishing vessel potential users. This would imply, of course, further investment to re-engineer it into a multioperation facility to host a number of marine-related activities. These activities could include, inter alia:

- marine transport, ferries, etc.

- diving tourism;

- eco-fishing tourism;

- support to offshore fish farming;

- coast guard and SAR activities; and

- offshore industries (oil, gas and minerals).

In this appendix, income diversification opportunities for fishing vessel owners and their crews, in the event of a downturn in commercial fishing activities, are discussed that may have less impact on the social fabric of a local fishing community, especially in countries where historic rights exist and vessels are handed down from father to son.

It should be understood, however, that careful consideration must be given by fishing vessel owners forced to move out of commercial fishing, or by choice, into alternative vessel activities. For example, owners would be required to apply to the appropriate ministry for permission to engage in the new activity and, if approved, to apply to register the vessel accordingly. In some cases this may seem a simple process but in general there are a number of issues to address. For example, refitting work has to meet criteria under the relevant act in relation to, inter alia:

- the carriage of passengers;

- additional safety equipment;

- certificate of competence of those in charge of the vessel;

- mandatory insurance coverage for third party liability; and

- compliance with MARPOL Annex V if to be certified for 15 or more persons on board.

The carriage of passengers requires that the vessel has adequate accommodation and toilet facilities and the safety equipment would certainly have to be upgraded.

It should also be kept in mind that in many countries the law may not require the skippers of small fishing vessels to have a certificate of competency, but this might not be the case for other activities and the skipper (and others depending on the size of the vessel) would have to “go back to school” or otherwise be examined.

If all goes well it is likely that the vessel would lose its classification as a fishing vessel requiring it to be registered under the appropriate section of the relevant act for which the owner would have to supply documents attesting to:

- confirmation that it would be given licence to engage in sport fishing/diving/ecotourism/passenger carrying;

- compliance with the provisions of the national regulations governing the design, construction and equipment, including safety equipment, of a sport fishing/diving/ecotourism/passenger carrying vessel;

- approval of the provisions for manning;[3]

- the status of the ownership/manager in compliance with national legislation;

- evidence of the bill of sale;

- the carving note;

- confirmation that the refit had been supervised by the appropriate authority;

- the existence of a seaworthiness certificate as a sport fishing/diving/ecotourism/passenger carrying vessel; and

- mortgages and liens.

Thereafter, if all is well and where the authorization to engage in sport fishing/diving, ecotourism or passenger carrying was conditional on the vessel being registered, the one thing remaining would be proof of adequate insurance coverage.

Converting to other activities

Transport of passengers or cargo, diving and eco-fishing tourism activities could have the capacity to absorb some of the excess fleet capacity without destroying the livelihood of the fishermen and this can be obtained through vessel conversions, retooling and retraining. Note, however, that there would be no guarantee that the vessel would be allowed to reconvert to a commercial fishing vessel.

Conversion to mammal spotting and inter-island cruising

Essentially these activities would fall under regulations for the carriage of passengers and these would undoubtedly differ from region to region. Nevertheless, these regulations are unlikely to fall under the fisheries act. For this reason, conversion to the role of passenger carrying would mean that the vessel would no longer be a commercial fishing vessel. Consequently, the existing entry in the register of vessels would have to be closed and the converted vessel registered anew. In addition, it is likely that the following would have to be addressed:

- certificate of competence of the skipper and crew;

- safety equipment;

- accommodation and toilet facilities;

- authority to carry passengers;

- compliance with the collision regulations; and

- compliance with the provisions of Annex V of MARPOL (particularly if certified to carry 15 or more persons).

Conversion to sport fishing

Whereas the authorization to fish (where, when, how, species allowed and quotas) would normally fall under the Fisheries Act, the regulations covering the vessel and crew might fall under a different act. Furthermore, since the objective would be to carry “fee paying” sport fishers, it is likely that the vessel would fall under the regulations concerning the carriage of passengers and as such the conditions set out above would have to be met.

Since the vessel would have to be classified as a sport fishing vessel, it would cease to be a commercial fishing vessel and this would have to be reflected in the process for the register of fishing vessels or ships as the case may be.

Conversion to a dive boat

Dive boats fall into two basic categories:

(i)commercial fish harvesting; and

(ii)non-fishing activities.

The first category falls under the Fisheries Act and would be subject to regulations concerning the design, construction and equipment for dive boats and compliance with fisheries management.

To convert a fishing vessel to a commercial fishing dive boat means addressing:

- the design, construction and equipment standards set out for such vessels;

- meeting the operational regulations related to qualifications for the skipper, crew and divers; and

- compliance with the collision regulations.

However, a dive boat for non-fisheries activities is unlikely to fall under the Fisheries Act in relation to its design and construction.[4] The actual conversion may be relatively simple but the manning of the vessel and specialized equipment needs to be addressed.

Therefore, provided that a typical small trawler, for example, with wheelhouse forward and fish hold aft has a clean bill of health as a fishing vessel, it could be readily converted to a dive boat provided special attention is given to the operational safety and facilities. In this regard, it is essential that the person in the wheel house has a clear uninterrupted view of the working deck and that the diving ladder has to be so arranged that the diver would be protected from the propeller. Toilets and changing accommodation would also have to be supplied, as divers might be a combination of male and female.

All safety equipment would have to be upgraded on the basis of the number of persons that the vessel would be authorized to carry, bearing in mind that the fee paying divers would be classified as passengers.

It should also be noted that the certificates of competence held by the serving skipper and crew (when it was a fishing vessel) may not be compatible with the regulations covering dive boats which would mean retraining (and examination) or replacing with suitably qualified persons. In addition, the expert diver in the crew must be suitably qualified and the whole crew, including the skipper, should undergo appropriate training before taking on board fee diver/passengers.

APPENDIX 2: SERVICING MARICULTURE FACILITIES

Introduction

Engineering solutions, such as for fish cages or suspended shellfish growout systems, have had to be developed by aquaculturists themselves. They have benefited, however, from the accumulated knowledge of seafarers in general and fishermen in particular in the design and operation of mooring and buoyage systems. More recently, when fish farmers have turned their attention to how to operate fish cages in locations further offshore where seas are rougher, the experience of the oil exploration industry has proven very valuable.

However, although most fish farming activities usually take place well away from a port or harbour facility, that sector is serviced by different types of seagoing craft that, in turn, require servicing. In addition, the sector also need, land space to prepare cages and pens for launching that might require cranes and close proximity to a fishing port or harbour facility is often preferred, particularly where offshore fish farming is practiced. Thus, during a harbour planning exercise the mariculture sector should not be ignored and indeed special attention should be given to the extent of development within the sector foreseen by fisheries managers.

Nevertheless, there are instances when a hatchery might actually be placed within the confines of a harbour facility, as shown in Figure 1, thus calling for space, access, clean (fresh/sea) water supplies and drainage systems.

Vessel servicing

The servicing of work boats in support of fish farming run parallel to the capture fisheries sector, with vessels varying in size from a sturdy canoe to relatively sophisticated vessels capable of towing large heavy sections and fitted with specialized deck equipment and, in some cases, diver support capability.

Particular attention must be given to hull cleaning, paint quality and the avoidance of the use of tributyltin-based antifouling compounds.

Land space

Cages vary in design from completely spherical shape up to more than 30 metres in diameter, to the more common tubular or cylindrical shape that may commonly vary in diameter from 20 metres to over 300 metres[5], as well as square or oblong cages. All types, however, require reasonably large areas of flat ground for their construction and the need for ready access to the sea.

Marking the position of cages in the sea

Cages and fish pens are a navigational hazard; consequently, they must be marked for their position in the sea by lights and shapes approved by the appropriate authority (Figure 2).

When an aquaculture farm is considered to represent a danger to navigation, it should be marked in accordance with the International Associations of Marine Aids to Navigation and Lighthouse Authorities (IALA) Maritime Buoyage System, using special marks, lateral or cardinal marks, or a combination thereof. The use of electronic aids to navigation such as racons or the Automatic Identification System (AIS) may also be considered. The farm (or group of farms) should be marked depending on their size, extent and location. In some cases, it may be sufficient to mark only part of the perimeter or the centre.

The harbour engineers should bear in mind that the following marking recommendations may be adjusted considering traffic density, proximity to ports, proximity to dangers, tidal considerations and other factors:

- Aquaculture farms are normally marked by special marks.

- If there is a requirement for vessel traffic between aquaculture farms, then such a channel should normally be marked with lateral marks.

- If the prevailing situation warrants it, cardinal marking alone may be used to direct mariners away from the aquaculture farm.

- To improve the effectiveness of the lighting, and taking into consideration background lighting, synchronization of the various lights should be considered.

- To improve the radar target and the visibility of the aquaculture farm, radar reflectors and reflective material should be considered.

Furthermore, charts need updating and notices to mariners issued from time to time. There is also a need to follow technology development in this sector such as self-propelled cages that requires the attention of harbour masters, national hydrographers, fisheries management and may require amendments to appropriate legislation.

[1]Note that the reference to the existing fleet could include vessels used for mariculture activities. Appendix 2 provides an insight to the needs of that fisheries sector.

[2]The reader is reminded that internationally agreed standards for the design, construction and equipment of fishing vessels, a combined effort between FAO, ILO: International Labour Organization, and IMO could influence management decisions as and when the provisions of the pertinent instruments are introduced as regulations in the Fisheries and or the Shipping Act.

[3]Note that the manning requirement for a sport fishing vessel, dive vessel and ecotourism vessel would be related to the safety of numbers of “sport fishermen”/“divers”/”tourists” that the vessel is so authorized to carry. The manning for a dive boat includes members of the crew specialized in diving techniques and technology.

[4]The Fisheries Act may have to be addressed if the intention is to carry out sport fishing activities.

[5]The International Association of Marine Aids to Navigation and Lighthouse Authorities (IALA) lighting and marking requirements cater for radii up to 2 000 metres.

4.  Environmental auditing

SUMMARY

The marine environment, including the oceans, all seas and adjacent coastal areas, forms an integrated whole that is an essential component of the global life-support system and a positive asset that presents opportunities for sustainable development.

Degradation of the marine environment (loss of marine habitat like coral, declining fish stocks, polluted seas, disappearing beaches, mangrove destruction) can result from a wide range of activities on land. Human settlements, land use, construction of coastal infrastructure, agriculture, forestry, urban development, tourism and industry can all affect the marine environment. Coastal erosion and siltation are of particular concern. Hence, rational use and development of coastal areas as well as conservation of the marine environment require the ability to determine the present state of these ecological systems and to predict future conditions.

Thus, systematic collection of data on marine environmental parameters is needed for an integrated management approach to sustainable development and to predict the effects of the construction of a port on the marine environment.

This chapter reviews the marine environmental parameters utilized by environmentalists to predict the effects of the construction of a port or fishing vessel landing site on the surrounding marine environment.

Within the decision-making process, regarding where to construct a port or fishing vessel landing site, the objective is to have ensured that there would be minimum adverse effects on the surrounding marine environment.

CONTENTS

4.1

Environmental studies

4.1.1

Introduction

4.1.2

Standard procedures for environmental studies

4.1.3

Existing environment

4.1.4

Detail required and at what stages in the design

4.1.5

Procedures for environmental studies

4.2

Bibliography and further reading

Appendix 1: Case study

4.1 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

4.1.1 Introduction

In developed countries, environmental audits in support of all applications for the construction, upgrading or re-engineering of fishing ports are mandatory and planning permission only granted for successful outcomes.

In developing countries, especially those with less stringent regulations, the sense in carrying out environmental audits is sometimes not fully understood when planning a new port or remodelling an existing facility, thus the audit may be considered to be superfluous or a costly obstacle to development. On the other hand, in some instances, planning permission may be granted at the highest level of government with the understanding that environmental studies would be carried out by the developer. This may seem to be acceptable if it is conditional as to what type of outcome would be acceptable, but this may not always be the case.

Therefore, in general, an environmental audit should be drawn up in support of all applications for the construction or improvement of harbours or landing places for fishing vessels, whether in coastal zones or inland waters. For both small and large projects alike, the port planner should first seek advice and/or guidelines from the relevant ministries (environment, fisheries, etc.) before embarking on an environmental audit. In most day-to-day cases, projects are usually small and by themselves cause little environmental damage. However, the problems start with multiple small projects mushrooming along a stretch of coastline without forward planning, which together may have the same combined destructive power as a large project and may be more difficult to control.

4.1.2 Standard procedures for environmental studies

Due to their relatively high cost, environmental studies are normally carried out in steps in increasing detail as a project moves from formulation to final design. Figure 1 illustrates the steps in the procedures required when a project moves from the formulation stage to the final design stage. Briefly, the stages comprise:

- the initial environmental examination (IEE), where a number of candidate sites are examined and graded for suitability and potential environmental impact;

- the environmental impact studies (EIS), consisting of detailed studies of the prime candidate site. At the end of these studies, the findings are normally presented at a public hearing as part of the consultation process and the final design refined further; and

- at the end of the second stage, the national agency responsible for the environment then prepares an assessment of the impacts and recommendations known collectively as the environmental impact assessment (EIA), which is then forwarded to the government for a final decision.

Briefly, the Environmental Impact Studies (EIS) leading to the environmental impact assessment (EIA) consist of the following stages:

- An assessment of the existing environment prior to construction of the port facility, including the land-use characteristics (recreation areas, dwelling areas, forested zones, commercial zones, etc.) and socio-cultural activities (population dynamics, migration, cultural and ethnic preferences, etc.) at the proposed site.

- A list of the planned changes to be made to the environment by the proposed project, globally referred to as the project’s footprint (land requirement, size of harbour basin, including breakwater foundations, dredging of access channels and turning areas, reclamation for factories, new access roads, power stations, etc.).

- An estimate of the anticipated impact of the planned project on the existing environment (deeper water, loss of beach, increased road traffic, high water consumption by factories, smoke and odour emissions from chimneys, etc.).

- Proposed mitigation measures to lessen the anticipated impact on the existing environment (increase of water production to compensate for higher consumption, location of chimneys to minimize unpleasant odours or smoke from drifting across the village, noise abatement around new sources of noise such as generators, treatment of all sewage, collection and disposal of spent engine oil, etc.).

4.1.3 Existing environment

The existing environment around a project site may be assessed through:

- onshore topographic and offshore bathymetric maps (down to 20 metre contour) of the site, covering at least 1 kilometre in each direction along the coast;

- aerial imagery of the above-mentioned area with a resolution not smaller than 1:2000 together with any satellite imagery available;

- details of existing or planned coastal structures within 5 kilometres of the proposed site;

- a morphological description of the coastal zone of the site, backed up by a geological description of important local features such as cliffs, sand dunes, beaches, reefs, terraces, rivers, dams on nearby rivers, river mouths;

- wave, tide or lake level statistical characteristics including probability tables for extreme conditions;

- seasonal variations in rainfall, river flows, water density, water temperature, nutrients concentration and microbial pollution levels;

- geological, petrographic and sedimentological characteristics of the coastline and seabed, including source, volume and seasonal changes in littoral transport;

- geotechnical investigation of the project site, including borings and laboratory testing of samples;

- maps of onshore and offshore habitats in and around the project site (coral reefs, lagoon systems, mangroves, sea grass meadows, tidal wetlands, estuaries etc.);

- maps of types of habitat in and around the project site (marine protected areas, areas of refuge, feeding grounds, nursery and spawning);

- lists of the species to be harvested, lists of protected or rare species and biological indicators as well as the methods of fishing;

- layouts of nearby settlements, properties, water wells, flood alleviation canals, cultural places, bathing facilities, archaeological sites, etc.;

- layouts, size and capacity of resource networks, such as water supply networks, power supply and distribution networks, road and other communications networks, sewerage networks, etc.; and

- location maps of any type of activity discharging, directly or indirectly, effluents into the aquatic environment, including distant but connected water courses, such as sewer outfalls, onshore fish farms, slaughter houses, logging/saw mill concessions, wood pulp factories, mines and ore reduction plants and other industries.

4.1.3.1 Planned changes

The planned changes to the environment should include:

- general description of the entire project, including location, type, size and typical cross-sections of the various components that together make up the project together with a description of the proposed stages of construction;

- the additional demands which would be placed on the locally available resources, both during construction and operation of the project;

- all the effluents and emissions arising from the project; and

- the changes in the landscape, including land use characteristics and socio-cultural activities envisaged in the project.

4.1.3.2 Anticipated impact

The estimation of the anticipated impact of the planned project on the existing environment should include:

- topographic, bathymetric and oceanographic changes, including siltation and erosion, during and after construction, until stable conditions are resumed, together with their effect on habitats, flora, fauna and land use, usually achieved through mathematical or physical models;

- changes in water quality (temperature, salinity, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, nutrients concentration and microbial pollution levels) during and after construction and their effect on habitats, flora, fauna and land use;

- sources of pollution discharging effluents, emissions or solid wastes during and after construction until stable conditions are resumed and their effect on habitats, flora, fauna and land use; and

- the visual impact on the seascape and the landscape and general quality of life around the proposed project site.

4.1.3.3 Mitigation measures

The proposed mitigation measures should be:

- technical, i.e. oil reception facilities, waste recycling schemes, sewage treatment systems, chlorofluorocarbon-free refrigeration equipment and bypass dredging where applicable;

- managerial, i.e. a clearly defined harbour board, commensurate with the size of the proposed project and the responsibilities expected of it; and

- legal and administrative, i.e. frameworks formulated in conformity with national laws to provide for sanctions in respect of violations.

4.1.4 Detail required and at what stages in the design

All studies connected with port projects are costly as they require the use of vessels and specialized engineering and diving equipment. It is an established fact that the detail required at each phase of the project increases as the final design stage is approached. Table 1 illustrates the increase in detail and the associated rise in costs as the final design stage is reached for typical hydrographic or bathymetric requirements for a port project.

Whereas a project may fail to get past the preliminary stage, once it reaches the final stage it is very likely that it will be constructed; hence, the cost of the bathymetric survey then becomes part of the design cost. The outline and preliminary costs are considered as unreimbursable investigative costs. Likewise for other studies, such as topographic surveys, geological surveys, geotechnical studies, benthic studies, water quality studies, etc.

TABLE 1

Typical bathymetric requirements

Phase of project

Outline

Preliminary

Final

Phase of studies

Formulation

IEE

EIS/EIA

Standard required

Navigation chart in largest scale available

Spot soundings by handline from fishing boat

Full wide-area bathymetric survey with echosounder

Typical cost (2009) not including consultant fees

US$100

US$1 000

US$50 000

4.1.5 Procedures for environmental studies

4.2 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING

Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific. 1992. Assessment of the Environmental Impact of Port Development. AGuidebook for EIA of Port Development. New York, United Nations.

FAO. 1996. FAO Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries 1, Fishing Operations. Rome.

O’Riordan T. (ed). 1995. Environmental Science for Environmental Management. University of East Anglia, United Kingdom.

APPENDIX 1: CASE STUDY

Given situation

At a small fishing village where fishing vessels are presently beached along a stretch of clean coastline and sewage from houses filters into the shoreline at various points ensuring that pollution concentration levels are low, construction of a new timber jetty is proposed and when it is built it is envisaged that a boat-repair slipway will be built together with a wet market and other shops selling food. It is envisaged that the jetty will also attract vessels from neighbouring villages to discharge fish there and service the vessels.

Possible consequences of constructing the jetty

The jetty per se is a simple structure and apart from the fact that timber used for its construction should be from plantation sources and not from virgin forests, it has little or no influence on the surrounding environment. The jetty, however, also acts as a magnet for other types of development which, when taken as a whole, can inflict great damage on the environment if not planned and then managed properly. Invariably, workshops, dwellings and businesses start growing up around the jetty and the once tranquil village may start to suffer from:

- increased pollution (oil) from the boat engines in the area of the jetty;

- increased road traffic, parking requirements and accidents near the jetty;

- water shortages if copious amounts of clean freshwater are diverted to the wet market;

- increased activity around the jetty will increase the amount of sewage discharged on the beach;

- a large volume of fuel for the vessels would then be required, requiring road tankers to move the fuel and increasing the risk of spillage;

- increased noise levels from cars trapped in traffic jams and generators running at all times of the day and night;

- increased pollution from works on the slipway;

- overcrowding;

- damage to existing road network from heavy vehicles, trucks, fuel tankers; and

- increased risk of drinking water pollution if supply is from groundwater.

Pretty soon, the once tranquil village would be turned into a chaotic, smelly and noisy environment, with polluted beaches and traffic jams (especially around the wet market area) and polluted air from smoke-belching vehicles, etc. This is exactly the scenario an environmental audit is meant to identify before the damage is done.

In the valuation of coastal resources, the planner should take into account all elements of value, not just those elements for which a ready market happens to exist and to which a financial figure may be attached. The fact that a resource is not traded in a market does not mean it is of no value. The health implications of fresh air cannot be ignored if a once tranquil village is turned into a busy fish marketing centre with fume-belching trucks constantly plying up and down the main street because a bypass was considered too expensive at the design stage.

- Could the market have been placed somewhere else?

- Why is the electric generator so close to houses?

- Why is the smoke-stack so short that smoke and soot engulf inhabited areas?

The social benefits of a clean beach (weekend family walkabout and permanent playing ground for children) should not be ignored if a wet market is proposed to be built nearby; rotten fish and sewage from such places invariably end up on the beach rendering it unfit for human use. Therefore, why:

- are the effluents not treated or removed for disposal; and

- is there no outfall to discharge sewage away from the waterline.

The ecological (and sometimes tourist) importance of intact coral reefs or mangroves (which provide coastal stability against storms and support mangrove fisheries) should be borne in mind when deciding on a location for a new coastal structure thus raising the questions as to:

- was road access to an alternative, less-sensitive site considered first before the mangrove was knocked down;

- could the port have been sited opposite a natural break in the coral reef; and

- could the structure have been designed in piles to save on coral rock fill.

Furthermore, tranquillity (absence of noise) should never be ignored when deciding on the location of new roads, generators or pumps, for example:

- generators can be sound-proofed;

- a water pump can be run on electric power instead of a noisy diesel engine; and

- a generator can be moved away from dwellings.

Invariably, both the design and the construction of a project become more expensive to implement and it is up to the port planner (in conjunction with local authorities) to decide “how green” a project should be.