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Fishery and Aquaculture Country Profiles South Africa

 

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Indicative exchange rate for the South African Rand (R) (September 2005): US$ 1 = R 6.50

FISHERIES DATA

Commodity Balance

Notes: (1) Source for employment figures: Rhodes University Economic Sectoral Study, 2003.

THE STRUCTURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE INDUSTRY

Marine Fisheries

South Africa has a coastline of some 2 798 km, extending from the Orange River in the west, on the border with Namibia, to Ponta do Ouro in the east, adjacent to Mozambique. The western coastal shelf is highly productive, in common with other upwelling ecosystems around the world, while the east coast is considerably less productive but has high species diversity, including both local and Indo-Pacific species.

Significant changes have taken place in South Africa’s fisheries since 2003, with the issuing of medium-term rights to the end of 2005. At present there is an ongoing rights allocation process aimed at renewing fishing rights in most fishing sectors from 10 to 15 years. Fisheries are, however, still a relatively small sector within the national economy of South Africa. The whole South African Fishing Industry (in 2003) was estimated to generate approximately R 2.63 billion (approximately US$ 404 million) of wholesale revenue per annum to South Africa’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Thus the sector’s overall contribution to national GDP is about one percent. Expansion of the fishing industry is limited by the natural productive capacity and sustainability of the living marine resources.

Industrial fisheries in South Africa started in the late 1890s, and effort escalated rapidly thereafter. By the 1960s, catches in several South African fisheries had exceeded sustainable yields and there were sharp declines in some key stocks, prompting initiatives to improve the scientific basis for management of the major fisheries.

The relative effort in the main offshore fisheries is discussed below. These include a bottom-trawl offshore sector; a smaller bottom-trawl inshore sector; hake-directed demersal longline fisheries; tuna and swordfish-directed pelagic longline fisheries, a midwater trawl sector (for horse mackerel – Trachurus trachurus capensis); and a large purse-seine fishery for small pelagics, targeting pilchard (Sardinops sagax) and anchovy (Engraulis capensis).

Fishing Capacity

Vessels active in South Africa’s fisheries are generally reaching the end of their working life (more than 30 years old) and many new vessels are being built (mostly locally). South Africa has introduced effort control, and rights holders have to justify new vessels within each sector. As a general rule, new effort can only replace existing effort in any sector, with replaced vessels not permitted back into the specific sector from which they came.

In the hake trawl fishery, there are approximately 100 vessels active, of which 65 (35 wetfish and 30 freezer trawlers) fish in the offshore sector and a further 30 smaller trawlers catch hake and sole in the inshore trawl sector. In the hake longline sector, there are about 150 active vessels, although many of these also fish in other sectors, such as the tuna pole and rock lobster fisheries. In the pelagic (purse seine fishery) there is a mixture of small wooden vessels and larger steel boats, making up a fleet of about 60 vessels. Offshore vessels in other sectors include a small prawn trawl fishery (four boats), the south coast rock lobster (6–8 boats), shark longline (about six vessels active) and tuna longline (50 permits, of which 12 are foreign longliners and the rest local boats). In the inshore sectors there are a large number and diversity of vessels, including large deck boats used in the squid fishery (138 boats), many west coast rock lobster boats (>200) and >400 commercial boats in the handline fishery. These figures ignore the thousands of recreational fishing boats.

Demersal deep-sea trawl fishery

South Africa's most valuable fishery in commercial terms is the demersal fishery, dominated by deep-sea trawling for the Cape hakes, Merluccius paradoxus (Deep-water hake) and M. capensis (Shallow-water hake) The fishery developed in the early 1900s, and grew rapidly after the Second World War, to peak at more than 300 000 t in the early 1970s. It then went into decline, which prompted the implementation of a larger minimum mesh size and declaration of a 200 nautical mile fishing zone (the former in 1975 and the latter in November 1977). By 1996, the Total Allowable Catch (TAC) of hake had risen to about 150 000 t, up from 120 000 t in 1983. In 2005, the TAC was set at 158 000 t. The number of stakeholders in the sector has risen from four in 1984, to the present 53 (trawling rights).

Demersal inshore trawl fishery

The demersal inshore trawl fishery operates along the south coast and comprises mostly small side trawlers targeting hake, working in waters shallower than 110 m on the Agulhas Bank. This fishery lands only six percent of the national hake catch, but almost all of the sole catch. Sole is by far the most valuable species of finfish per unit mass landed in South Africa, although it constitutes only 0.5 percent of the total demersal catch. In 1978, the TAC was 700 t, but it was increased to 950 t in 1983. Since then it has been reduced gradually to 872 t as more data have accrued and the modelling of the resource has become more rigorous.

Demersal longlining

Demersal longlining for kingklip and hake started in 1982, peaked in 1985, and then, as catches plummeted, was stopped in 1990. After an experimental hake-directed longline fishery from 1994 to 1996, the fishery was formally introduced from 1998. However, there were many problems with the allocation of fishing rights in this sector until 2002, when medium-term rights were introduced. Currently there are 150 rights holders, with small allocations ranging from 50 to 100 t each.

A second line fishery targeting hake is also located on the South Coast. This fishery comprises about 70 boats. These are small boats (<15 m LOA) operating from small harbours and beaches, catching hake primarily for the export (wetfish) market. Together with the hake longline fishery, these two sectors have ten percent of the TAC.

Midwater trawl fishery

A small midwater trawl fishery operates within the demersal sector and targets exclusively adult horse mackerel (Trachurus trachurus capensis), which are also caught by the inshore and deep-sea trawl fisheries. An annual precautionary upper catch limit of 58 000 t is currently in operation for all horse mackerel trawled east of Cape Hangklip. Horse mackerel juveniles are also caught as a by-catch in the small pelagic purse-seine fishery (currently with a limit of 5 000 t per annum).

Pelagic fisheries

The pelagic fishery is South Africa's largest in terms of volume landed. Between 1975 and 1990, total catches fluctuated between 350 000 and 450 000 t, except in 1987 and 1988, when catches averaged 675 500 t, the largest since the inception of the fishery in the late 1940s. In 1990 and 1991, they dropped to 250 000 t, the lowest level since 1958, recovered to 453 000 t in 1992, and then declined again, to only 214 000 t in 1996. Catches of the two target species in this fishery (the anchovy Engraulis capensis and pilchard Sardinops ocellatus) fluctuate because these short-lived species are prone to massive recruitment swings (dominated by anchovy from the 1960s until 1996). Used for the manufacture of fishmeal and oil, anchovy has been the single most important species since 1966, when overfishing caused the pilchard stock to collapse. However, in recent years (2003–2004) the pilchard (used for canning, bait and fishmeal) stock has recovered significantly and in 2004 the pilchard TAC exceeded that of anchovy, giving a combined TAC for the two species of over 600 000 t. An interesting development of this fishery is the apparent shift in the pilchard biomass from the West Coast to the South Coast, where the fishing industry now targets adult pilchard in an area centred on Mossel Bay.

The only other species forming a significant part of the pelagic catch is round herring (Engraulis whiteheadi). This is a more offshore species that shoals deeper than anchovy and pilchard, and it is therefore largely out of the range of the present purse-seine fleet. Catches are infrequent and highly variable, and although it has been estimated that this species could support a fishery of 100 000 t, little progress has been made in developing reliable methods to ensure more consistent catches.

Finally, juvenile horse mackerel and lanternfish occasionally yield a few thousand tonnes (sometimes as much as 25 000 t annually) to the purse-seine fishery. In 2004, the anchovy TAC was set at 273 000 t with a further 150 000 t as a directed catch (permitting only a 2 000 t pilchard by-catch). The pilchard directed catch in 2004 was 457 000 t with a 57 150 t by-catch in the anchovy-directed sector.

Rock lobster fisheries

The rock lobster fishery is based on two species, one a limited fishery (ten rights holders only) on the south coast taking Palinurus gilchristi, and a second on the west coast targeting the shallow water species Jasus lalandi. The latter is caught inshore by traps and hoopnets deployed from small vessels, and it is also harvested by recreational divers, and the former is a deep-water species caught by means of longlines of traps set by larger freezer vessels.

The commercial fishery for West Coast rock lobster is controlled by company-allocated quotas within a TAC subdivided by geographical area. A reduction in the minimum size that can be legally harvested, from 89 to 75 mm carapace length, was introduced in April 1992. The TAC was set at 2 200 t for the 1992/93 season, but, with somatic growth rate staying low, the TAC has since been reduced progressively. For the 2004 season, the TAC was 3 527 t, divided between full commercial and small-scale subsistence-cum-commercial fishers.

The South Coast rock lobster fishery has been in existence since 1974. No minimum size limit is enforced and animals are caught from a size of about 60 mm carapace length upwards. As this means that little protection is afforded to breeding females, a conservative TAC of 450 t tail mass was set each year from 1984 in order to retain enough surviving adults in the stock to ensure adequate egg production and recruitment. It was later increased to 475 t, but it is now declining. For the 2003–2005 seasons (1 October to 30 September each year) the TAC remained constant at 382 t tail mass.

Abalone fishery

South Africa's commercial abalone fishery remained relatively stable for many years, being controlled by a whole-mass quota of some 500 t. The fishery is divided into seven fishing zones, but most of the commercial catch is harvested from only five. A TAC is set for each zone. Other means of protecting the resource are a closed season and a minimum legal size limit of 114 mm. Licensed commercial divers operate from small boats and use the "hookah" system of air supply, in which a portable compressor supplies air through a reinforced hosepipe from the surface. Most of the catch is canned or frozen, and exported to the Far East, although legislation stipulates that ten percent must be sold in South Africa.

The lucrative market in the Far East has in recent years stimulated an escalation in illegal fishing activity. At the same time, the number of recreational divers has increased. Because of the poaching and the sharp decline in the biomass, recreational fishery was stopped in 2003 and the commercial fishery has been sharply decreased, with a TAC of 237 t in 2004. Rights in this sector were renewed in the 2003/2004 season for ten years.

South Africa also has a squid-jigging fishery targeting chokka squid (Loligo vulgaris reynaudi). After its initiation in 1983, the fishery grew rapidly, until a permit system for vessels was introduced in 1987 to limit fishing effort. In 2003, 128 medium-term rights were issued, involving 2 400 fishers on 138 boats. As the fishery is input-controlled, catches fluctuate from year to year, being sometimes as high as 12 000 t and in other years as low as 4 000 t. The resource is protected by a closed season of three to five weeks when spawning is at its peak (usually November).

Line fisheries

South Africa’s line fisheries have three major components: hake handline fishery; tuna fishery; and general recreational and commercial line fishery.

Commercial fishery for tuna began in 1960. The poling method, in which a baited hook or lure is attached by a short line to a pole, is the primary means of exploitation, targeting albacore tuna and to a lesser extent yellowfin tuna. South African tuna catches are about 4 000–6 000 t per year. The fishery is seasonal, from September to March. It is now known that total Atlantic Ocean albacore catches exceed the maximum sustainable yield of 25 000 t and are not sustainable. South Africa is a full member of the International Commission for Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) and is currently lobbying for the allocation of country allocations.

Catches in the commercial line fishery peaked at 18 000–20 000 t in the late 1960s and early 1970s, but then declined steadily to an estimated 7 300 t in 1985. This was despite an increase in fishing effort as smaller, faster and more transportable ski-boats replaced the earlier line-boats. The newer vessels enabled fishers to concentrate effort where fish were available and to follow migratory species along the coast, so effectively increasing pressure on the declining resource. The falling catches, together with a decrease in the mean sizes of fish caught, led to calls for the protection of the stocks, and in 1984 the South African Marine Linefish Management Association was formed. Today, management measures include minimum size limits, bag limits, closed seasons and closed areas (marine reserves), but catch rates continue to decrease as the numbers of fishers (commercial and recreational) rise annually. A crisis has been declared in the fishery, allowing the Minister to take appropriate action to protect stocks. Numbers of fishers in the sector were drastically reduced with the medium-term allocations in 2003 (137 rights issued). At present there is a Total Allowable Effort (TAE) of 450 boats with 3 450 fishers.

Tuna, shark and swordfish longlining is a developing sector in South Africa. Historically, foreign effort (mostly from Japan and Taiwan (Province of China)) dominated, with about 130 permits issued annually. The issuing of foreign flag permits to longline for tuna has been terminated. After an experimental fishing period, long-term fishing rights for directed effort on tuna (30 rights) and swordfish (20) were issued in November 2004 to South African rights holders. Many of these rights are now fished by foreign flag operators in joint ventures with the South African rights holders, with the main objective being to increase South Africa’s catch history for tuna.

The small shark-directed longline fishery has been integrated into the large pelagic longline sector, and, from 2006, pelagic shark longline rights will cease. However, a small demersal (bottom) longline shark fishery will be permitted.

Other marine fisheries

There are several small coastal net fisheries, wild oyster exploitation and a small trawl fishery on the Natal coast for prawns. These fisheries are also included in the long-term rights allocation process. The policies developed for sectors such as oysters and beach seine focus on small-scale and coastal community fishers.

Subsistence and artisanal

Subsistence and artisanal fisheries are located mostly in rural areas, including the Transkei and Kwazulu-Natal coastlines, where activities such as oyster and mussel picking occur. In some areas, there are also permits for subsistence fishers for the harvesting of rock lobster and abalone.

Experimental fisheries

An Experimental Fisheries policy has been published, with the intention of utilizing under-exploited resources. Currently, there is an ongoing octopus trap experimental fishery (for five years) with 15 rights issued for different locations extending from Saldanha on the West Coast to East London on the East Coast.

Inland Fisheries

There are no inland commercial fisheries of any significance in South Africa. Recreational exploitation of freshwater fish on inland rivers and impoundments is extensive, with small subsistence fisheries in places. However, most freshwater or inland fisheries are related to a limited number of aquaculture developments.

Aquaculture

Aquaculture in South Africa can be divided into freshwater culture and mariculture. Freshwater fish culture is severely limited by the supply of suitable water. However, trout or salmon farming is practised in the Western Cape and other highland areas of South Africa, and in 2003 approximately 250 t was exported. Other freshwater species cultivated on a small scale include catfish (Clarias gariepinus), freshwater crayfish (maron) and tilapia species.

Mariculture is a fast developing sector, with a focus on mussels, oysters, abalone, seaweeds and prawns. Of these, mussel farming is the best established, producing most of the estimated 2 650 t of mariculture production in 2003. Abalone culture is now well established, centred in the Hermanus area on the Cape south coast. There is also an experimental offshore farm (cage culture) off Gansbaai for salmon.

Table 1. Mariculture production in 2003 (tonnes)

Utilization of the Catch

The total annual catch fluctuates depending on the catches of pelagic fish, (particularly of anchovy). The total commercial catch in 2000 was 674 117 t with a wholesale value of about R 3.1 billion (US$ 4.8 million). South Africa’s coastal communities have traditionally had diets high in fish. The per capita consumption of fish products in South Africa is relatively low compared with that of other fishing nations. The small pelagic fishery production, which is the largest by volume, forms the bulk of the fish production consumed locally. Pilchard in cans is a popular protein source and fishmeal production is utilized in the agricultural sector (and exported in good years). The South African fishery sector is, however, also characterized by its substantial level of international trade, resulting in a significant net contribution to foreign exchange (primarily hake exports to Spain). South African exports of fish products outweigh imports, contributing significantly to the international whitefish trade. Fresh lobster exports to the Far East are also a valuable export commodity. As part of the evaluation of all South African fisheries prior to the issuing of medium-term rights in 2003, a comprehensive economic assessment was undertaken of the industry (Rhodes University Economic Sectoral Study, 2003). The results of this study showed that, in 2003, some 16 854 people were directly employed in the fishing industry (fishers) and that secondary and associated industries employed a further 10 876 people. Of the fishing sectors, the line fish sector employed the most (about 3 000), followed by the squid and deep-sea hake sectors. There is also a significant “recreational” component, with associated service industries.

Employment in the coastal communities, including subsistence and artisanal fisheries, is also significant in areas around the coastline, but has not been quantified.

STATE OF THE INDUSTRY

Fishing at the best of times can be described as a high risk industry. In South Africa, however, since independence and the transition to a new democracy, the fishing industry has had to deal with ongoing instability. This instability derives from the process of transformation, with the introduction of many new entrants (historically disadvantaged persons) and the loss or reduction in the rights of the established players in the industry.

The development of a new fisheries policy started shortly after independence in 1994, and culminated in a new fisheries policy. This was followed by the promulgation of a new Marine Living Resources Act in September 1998 (effectively replacing the old Sea Fisheries Act) and a new set of Fisheries Regulations.

The subsequent allocation of medium-term fishing rights from 2003 to 2005 created much needed stability in the main commercial sectors. The issuing of medium-term rights was, however, only a precursor to long-term rights – a process that is currently underway (October 2005). Transformation (transfer of rights to persons previously disadvantaged in the old political regime) remains a cornerstone of the new fisheries policy.

There has been a noticeable improvement in compliance. A new system of land-based monitoring of landings has been introduced at all ports and fishing harbours, and a sea-based observer programme established for the collection of scientific data in all offshore fisheries. South Africa also has numerous Memoranda of Understanding (MOUs) with other countries and deploys observers in international waters.

Another major development further illustrating commitment to fisheries monitoring and control has been the purchase of four new patrol vessels (all commissioned by September 2005).

With regard to the status of fish stocks, poaching of abalone and rock lobster remain major concerns, although compliance and successful prosecutions in these fisheries have improved in recent years. Other sectors that in the past have been a concern, such as the hake longline fishery, have now stabilized and are fully integrated into the overall management of South Africa’s marine resources. By way of example, the successful prosecution of a large company for the poaching of both South Coast Rock Lobster and West Coast Rock Lobster resulted in immediate improvements in catch rates. In the most valuable fishery, that for the Cape Hakes, the number of rights holders has increased sharply as the exploitation of these stocks has expanded from trawl to include longline and handline. Hake stocks are therefore under enormous pressure.

Economic Role of the Fishing Industry

The South African fisheries sector plays a small part in direct economic terms in the economy of the country, contributing only about one percent to GDP. However, regionally, fisheries play a major role in the economy. The Western Cape is the centre of industrial fisheries, and is the dominant employer in areas such as Saldanha Bay and St Helena Bay. Other major centres where fisheries-related employment and income generation are important include Cape Town, Mossel Bay and Port Elizabeth. In 2003, the average annual income of a fisher was R 38 229.

Traditionally, fisheries have contributed significantly to the livelihoods of coastal communities, extending from Port Nolloth on the West Coast to the Kwazulu-Natal coastline. Many folk harvest, for example, mussels and oysters and other marine fauna in the intertidal regions.

In addition to the main industrial fisheries, the recreational line fishery, with its numerous boats and many fishers, contributes significantly to the economy both directly and indirectly through the many related industries. This contribution is, however, difficult to quantify.

DEVELOPMENT PROSPECTS

With the granting of long-term rights in 2006, it is anticipated that the South African fisheries sector will enter into a more stable phase with the consolidation of many companies. A concern is the increase in the number of rights holders. However, the transformation of the industry to better represent the country’s demographics is expected have political and socio-economic advantages that should also promote management and compliance.

There are also notable regional initiatives that are expected enhance regional management of transboundary stocks (such as hake and tuna), as well as improving marine scientific research. Programmes such as the Benguela Large Marine Ecosystem (BCLME) and BENEFIT (a regional marine training programme) are well established and are already providing valuable management inputs. On the east coast, South Africa is also part of the GEF-funded South West Indian Ocean Fisheries Programme, which is expected to get underway in 2006.

Administration and Fisheries Regulations

Fisheries in South Africa are regulated by the Marine Living Resources Act, 1998 (Act No. 18 of 1998), which aims to “provide for the conservation of the marine ecosystem, the long-term sustainable utlization of marine living resources and the orderly access to exploitation ... .” The Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism has ultimate authority on all matters related to fishing, and this is mostly delegated to a separate directorate – Marine and Coastal Management (MCM) Underpinning the Act are the marine regulations that, along with specific permit conditions for each fishing sector, are used to enforce compliance with the Act. The Act and associated regulations are currently under review, and along with the allocation of long-term rights in 2006, will form the foundation of the future management and exploitation of South Africa’s fisheries.

The fisheries administration is the primary responsibility of MCM. Specific components of MCM include directorates for research, resource management, compliance, and administration (finance, licensing, etc.). Core funding for the administration of MCM is provided by state revenue budgets and also by the Marine Living Resources Fund (MLRF), which is self funding through specific fish levies and taxes. MLRF supports many activities, including specialized research projects. MCM activities are also closely associated with regional projects, such as the Benguela Current Large Marine Ecosystem (BCLME) and BENEFIT (Benguela Environment Fisheries Interaction & Training) programmes.

FISHERIES MANAGEMENT

All fisheries management has as its point of departure a range of more-or-less clearly defined policy objectives aimed at achieving the best possible use of its living marine resources. To define and to establish priorities among of best possible use and their qualities is a political matter. As the primary concern of fisheries management is to ensure sustainable use, it is clearly apparent that, in almost all cases, regional management could not guarantee sustainability of the resource as a whole. Therefore, management and control on a national basis is crucial.

Sector-specific long-term management plans, which include operational management procedures, are being developed to ensure optimal utilization of all significant marine resources. These plans are being developed through a cooperative process involving all interested parties, and incorporate appropriate and cost-effective monitoring and control programmes and strict enforcement of fishing regulations, as well as considering the socio-economic implications of altered levels of utilization (e.g. the effect of a reduced TAC on employment).

These Operational Management Procedures (OMPs) are based on scientific principles recognizing the inherent variability of resources and the interdependence of the components of marine ecosystems. Examples of OMPs include the two largest fishing sectors, hake and small pelagics. In the case of hake, new management procedures now consider both hake species (shallow and deepwater) as separate stocks, and also take into consideration the very different gear selectivity characteristics of three different methods of fishing (trawl, longline and handline). For small pelagics, the inter-annual variability requires a delicate balance between anchovy and pilchard, with by-catches of each species when targeting one or the other.

Management Tools

Since the writing of the new fisheries policy in 1998 and the subsequent issuing of medium-term rights in 2003, a new set of policies that included a General Policy as well as sector-specific policies were released in the first half of 2005. These policies served as guidelines for the applications of long-term fisheries rights, and will form the basis on which decisions and allocations will be made for these long-term rights. Important elements of these policies included splitting applicants into medium-term rights holders and prospective new entrants. Strict evaluation criteria are laid down, as well as specific criteria for vessels and management measures (such as the Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries).

Integrated environmental management (IEM) principles are being applied to South African fisheries management, within the context of the Consultative National Environmental Policy Process (CONNEPP). In principle, the harvesting of any one species must not endanger the continued existence, or cause the substantial depletion of, any other species, such as destructive methods of harvesting that are detrimental to species or any resources (living or non-living). A further management objective is the designation of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) for the purposes of scientific study, experimental fishing or conservation. Certain species or populations thereof may be fully protected.

South Africa is also taking the Environmental Approach to Fisheries (EAF) management ethos seriously and is currently critically reviewing all sectors and developing EAF plans on a sector-by-sector basis. In addition, biodiversity issues are also being addressed, which has included the passing of the National Biodiversity Act and the completion of a dedicated biodiversity assessment of the coastal, intertidal and offshore environments.

With regard to regulations, the Marine Living Resources Act (18) of 1998 is currently under review, including the associated regulations. By-catch concerns in many sectors are also being tackled, and in some case fishing grounds closed to protect stocks.

Sector-specific scientific working groups provide scientific advice to Marine and Coastal Management (MCM). This advice is considered by an advisory forum (normally comprising different role players and specialists) that advises the Deputy Director General of MCM, who in turn submits their recommendation for approval to the Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism.

RESEARCH

The role of fisheries research is to produce the knowledge base needed by government for effective fisheries management and to produce an environment conducive for fisheries development. Multidisciplinary knowledge inputs are needed, concerning both the resource base of the fisheries, and the social, economic and cultural contexts of fisheries and fisheries development.

Marine science in South Africa has over a century of tradition, the first government marine biologist having been appointed in 1896. The development of marine science in South Africa took place during a time of increasing political isolation from the rest of the world. Research aims to maintain focus on long-term sustainable utilization, i.e. the responsibility of biological and other stock-assessment-related research to provide reliable management input on the expected impacts on any resource or resource group in terms of key stock soundness parameters, resulting from alternative levels and patterns of exploitation. This implies regular and ongoing activities related to collection and analysis of statistics related to fishing effort and catches, and any other basic data needed to conduct assessments of status, trends and ecological health.

A second objective of research is to link biological research with socio-economic studies of the fishing industry, and also to look at the non-consumptive uses of living marine resources, such as ecotourism, so providing a comprehensive background for choice among available management and policy options.

There is also a focus in South African marine research potential in the direction of possible areas for sector development or for conflict, such as

• mariculture and mariculture technology;

• improved fish processing, product quality and marketing;

• development of new or underutilized fisheries

• problems and opportunities associated with by-catch;

• unutilized or underutilized marine resources in South African and international waters, including certain marine mammals (seals);

• stock and capture enhancement techniques;

• optimizing the benefits from ecotourism and other non-consumptive use of marine resources, taking into account possible conflicts with commercial and subsistence use;

• integrated coastal zone management schemes;

• development and improvement of fishing harbours and other requisite infrastructure facilities; and

• effects on living marine resources, their environment and on the fisheries resulting from activities related to the investigation and exploitation of offshore oil and gas resources.

Research in South Africa’s fisheries also aims to exploit the inherent potential of research activities, institutions and personnel for fisheries sector educational purposes. For fisheries management to be efficient and for consultation and advisory procedures to be functional, as much common ground as possible needs to be established and developed among the key players in the different arenas of fisheries sector decision-making.

The State's research component, Marine and Coastal Management, has prioritized and rationalized its activities to be able to meet some of these demands, as have NGOs such as the Oceanographic Research Institute in Durban and much of the SANCOR (South African Network for Coastal and Oceanic Research) family. MCM also has a dedicated capacity-building strategy aimed at training scientists and managers from previously disadvantaged backgrounds.

POLICY AIMS

In 1994, the Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism initiated the process of developing a national marine fisheries policy. This became the official policy in 1998 and formed the basis of the Marine Living Resources Act (18) of 1998. The essential principles of this policy are:

• Optimization of long-term social and economic benefits to the nation.

• Promotion of sustainable utilization and the replenishment of living marine resources.

• Management and development of fisheries shall in all material aspects comply with the principles of the Constitution of South Africa and the long-term objectives and principles of the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP).

• Transparency and accountability in marine resource management.

• Fair and equitable access.

• Management of living marine resources will be based on the best available knowledge and multidisciplinary research within the context of sustainable utilization.

• There should be a holistic approach to fisheries and the utilization of marine resources, including the following goals:

– participation in resource management;

– acceptable conditions of employment; and

– national and provincial levels of management.

Since the writing of the new fisheries policy in 1998 and the subsequent issuing of medium-term rights in 2003, a new set of policies that included a General Policy as well as sector-specific policies were released in the first half of 2005. These policies served as guidelines for the applications of long-term fisheries rights, and will form the basis on which decisions and allocations will be made for these long-term rights. Important elements of these policies included splitting applicants into medium-term rights holders and prospective new entrants. Strict evaluation criteria are laid down, as well as specific criteria for vessels and management measures (such as the Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries).

INTERNET LINKS TO FISHERY INSTITUTIONS AND SOURCES