Production cycle of Eucheuma spp.
Seed supply
Twelve varieties of
K. alvarezii have been characterized based on their morphology, DNA fingerprints and growth performance during the different cropping seasons. The information derived from these studies is important and very relevant to the cropping management in farms where the farmers use several varieties as seedstocks. The present seedstocks are endemic in the Philippines.
Supplies of seedstock are sourced from the wild and multiplied in a nursery plot. The original seedstock is washed clean of dirt and other contaminants and transported as quickly as possible to the nursery site in Styrofoam boxes with air holes in the top, without exposing it to sun and wind. The nursery-reared cuttings become the seedstock for the first grow-out. Subsequent supplies of seedstock are obtained from the first cropping, and so on.
Ongrowing techniques
The most important aspect in developing a potentially productive seaweed farm is site selection. The site must be assessed to conform to the following criteria:
- Moderate water current and wave action to maintain high diffusion pressure which enhances the absorption of nutrients by the seaweed.
- Adequate but not excessive light; irradiance levels of 500-900 μEm-2S-1 are optimum for both photosynthesis and pigment synthesis.
- Sufficient water depth; in shallow areas the seedstocks must not be exposed during low tides. The development of the floating farm support system has made farming in deep areas possible.
- When farming shallow areas the substratum must be dark, consisting of coarse sand to rocky-corally materials; substrata consisting of white fine sand must be avoided.
- Minimal presence of grazers, microorganisms, silt epiphytes and flotsam.
- Optimum temperature range 27-30 ºC.
- Salinity level of 30-35‰; brackish water areas should be avoided.
The total grow-out period varies from 2-3 months after planting; thus, four cropping cycles are feasible within a year.
Seedstocks are prepared by tying 50-100 g pieces of cuttings with soft plastic tying materials. The cuttings are tied at 20-25 cm intervals to the monolines in both the bottom monoline and the floating methods.
Two main farming systems are presently used by farmers. These are the fixed off-bottom monoline and the floating methods. In each case farm maintenance consists primarily of weeding out epiphytes associated with the crop, cleaning the seaweed of silt and dirt, harvesting the poorly growing seedstocks and replacing them with fast growing ones, removing other species of seaweeds that grow in close association with the Eucheuma, replacing lost plants, repairing the farm support system and removing benthic grazers. Epiphytes and flotsam compete with seaweed for nutrients and energy from sunlight resulting in slow growth of the crop.
The fixed off-bottom monoline method
Construction of the farm support system starts with knocking holes in the substratum using a pointed iron bar and heavy bull hammer. Pointed wooden stakes are firmly driven into the holes in the substratum using a ball hammer. The stakes are arranged in rows at 1 m intervals, with the distance between rows being 10 m. A loop is made at one end of the monofilament line and is attached to a stake. The line is then stretched tightly and the other end tied to a stake in the next row. The distance of the lines from the ground is adjusted to the depth of the water during low tides so that the plants are not exposed to air and sun. The lines are generally positioned parallel to the direction of the current or waves. An additional support stake may be placed midway between the original rows of stakes to prevent the lines from sagging.
Floating methods
These methods are used in deeper areas as well as in shallow areas that are characterized by weak water movement or where the bottom topography is irregular.
Monolines
In the raft method, the monolines are attached to a wooden or bamboo frame, the size of which varies depending on the available frame materials. The monolines are attached to the frame parallel to the length of the frame at 20-30 cm intervals. A 4 x 5 m raft unit may be planted with 350-400 cuttings. The units are anchored to the substrate from their corners, using nylon ropes. Floatation materials are attached to the corner of the rafts to increase their buoyancy.
Floating longlines
The floating longlines have two major variations – single and multiple. In the single variant, 100 m nylon ropes (3-4 mm diameter) are used as main support lines, both ends of which are anchored to the substratum. The level of the lines in relation to the surface of the water column is determined by adjusting the length of the line of the floatation device. Single floating lines are distanced some 5-8 meters apart to avoid them from becoming entangled.
Multiple long line units consist of 4-5 nylon lines (3-4 mm diameter), each of 20 m length or more. The ends of the lines are attached at 30 cm intervals to the main spacing supports, which consist of 3 to 4 cm thick hardwood. Depending on the length of the lines, one or more wood spacers are attached to the middle of the unit. The corner ends of the units are directly anchored to the substratum or are attached (tied) to the main support anchor line (5-6 mm nylon rope) in series at 2 m intervals.
Harvesting techniques
Seaweed that is grown for less than 10 weeks is immature and contains little carrageenan. For the best quality product, the crop should be harvested 10-12 weeks after planting to allow the crop to mature.
Handling and processing
Harvesting simply consists of detaching the stocks from the support line, placing them in a bangka boat (a vessel that looks like a catamaran) and transporting them to the drying area.
Traditionally the harvested seaweed is cleaned, sorted, and freed from dirt and other seaweeds, before being sun-dried on clean drying platforms (usually made of bamboo slats). This method had been slightly modified recently to minimize the loss of materials and facilitate improved drying. The platform is first lined with fine-mesh braided nylon net and the harvest is spread on top of it. The plants are regularly turned over to ensure complete sun-drying. The drying crop must be protected from rain: the crop is piled into a heap by pulling the lining net to one part of the platform which is then covered by a waterproof sheet. During hot, sunny weather, the harvest may be dried in two or three days. The final moisture content of the crop should not be more than be 40 percent. The dried material is tightly packed in plastic sacks and stored in dry areas before shipment to buying centres.
There are two commercial carrageenan products - refined or 'traditionally extracted carrageenan' and ‘semi-refined carrageenan’ (SRC) or 'Philippines Natural Grade Carrageenan' (PNG). Refined carrageenan is processed by boiling the seaweed in alkali for several hours under oxygenated conditions. The dissolved carrageenan is leached into a solution and subjected to viscosity control, pumped and filtered, then coagulated in alcohol. The coagulate is dried and powdered. On the other hand, PNG carrageenan is processed by soaking the freshly harvested or dried seaweeds in alkali at a moderate temperature. 90 �C is used for
Kappaphycus (‘kappa carrageenan’) and 60 �C for
Eucheuma (‘iota carrageenan’). This process does not involve the dissolution and leaching of carrageenan into solution. The carrageenan remains intact and protected by the inert cellulose matrix of the cell walls.
Production costs
Production costs are dependent on three factors, namely fixed assets, operating expenses and depreciation costs. The operating cost for a typical 0.25 ha farm, for example, represents 75 percent of the production cost, mainly the cost of seedlings, labour and some miscellaneous expenses. Labour represents ~72 percent of the production cost, while fixed assets (supplies and materials needed for the construction of the farm support system) represent 23 percent and depreciation a maximum of 2.0 percent Return on investment depends on the productivity of the farms and would vary depending on the growth rates of the plants. Acceptable daily growth rates of 'seeds' should not be lower than 3.0 to 4.0 percent. If this level of over 2.5 to 3.0 months the ROI will vary from 40-45 percent.
Three biological factors that cause tremendous loss of biomass in farms are 'ice-ice disease', epiphytism and grazing (thought the latter is not a ‘disease’).
Grazing |
Herbivores |
Fish & invertebrates |
Loss of biomass; occurs year-round |
Use floating method in deeper areas |
Epiphytes |
Benthic algae |
Filamentous |
Epiphytic blooms; occurs in summer |
Submerge 1 m below water surface in areas with moderate current |
‘Ice-ice’ |
Microorganisms |
Bacteria & fungi |
Slow growth rate; pale thalli; loss of shiny branch surfaces; presence of epiphytes & flotsam; occurs in calm weather & summer months |
Transfer to areas where water is cool & current movement good |
Suppliers of pathology expertise
Expertise in pathology can be obtained from the following sources:
- Microbiology Department, National Science Research Institute, College of Science, University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines 1101.
- Microbiology Section, Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Council, Tigbauan, Iloilo, Philippines.
- Marine Science Institute, College of Science University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines 1101.