The Lama-protected forest, located between 6°55’- 7°00’N and 02°04’- 02°12’ E, is one of the remaining dense forests that covered the so-called Dahomey Gap. It covers some 16,250 ha gazetted by law in 1946 as forest reserve. The absence of a management plan during the period 1946-1986 permitted local farmers who specialize in agriculture on clayey soil, to encroach into the forest. This has resulted in a fragmentation and degradation of the original dense continuous forest. By 1987, there remained about 2,500 ha of dense forest scattered in a small stands throughout the protected forest. The zoning plan following the eviction of illegal farmers permitted the recovery of 4,777 ha of forest called the Central Unit, “ Noyau Central,” which is now fully protected for biodiversity conservation and scientific research. The remaining part of the forest was divided up for different uses: 7,000 ha for timber production, 2,500 ha for fuelwood production and to resettle the population who was evicted from the forest. Local residents are partners of the forest administration, through NGOs, in the management of the biological diversity of the Noyau Central unit and reforested areas. Intense research activities are going on in the core unit, one of the most species-rich forests in southern Benin. This site harbours the last populations of certain endangered mammalian fauna (Potamochoerus porcus, Tragelaphus spekei, Neotragus pygmaeus, Colobus vellerosus) or endemic sub species (Cercopithecus erythrogaster erythrogaster) in Benin. A zoning plan that includes resettlement of evicted people, biodiversity conservation and economical tree plantations is a well drawn up management plan for sustainable conservation.

Located in one of the last dry tropical forest regions, not only in Bolivia, but in all of South America, the Chiquitano is valued for both its unique ecology and its historical and cultural importance. The Seco Chiquitano Model Forest is located in a transitional ecoregion between the humid climate of the Amazonian region and the dry climate of the Chaco. Geologically, the area presents a rolling topography with small mountain chains and the Precambrian shield, a granitic rock formation underlying the soils of the region, with spectacular occasional outcrops.

Thirty-five years ago, South American farmers grew virtually no soybeans. Now, Brazilian farmers plant almost 13 million ha of soybeans and Brazil ranks as the world's second largest exporter (Waino, 1998). Bolivian farmers cultivate an additional 470,000 ha (Pacheco, 1998). Soybean expansion in southern Brazil contributed to deforestation by stimulating migration to agricultural frontier regions in the Amazon and the Cerrado. Since producing soybeans requires much less labour than producing coffee or food crops, when soybeans replaced those crops many small farmers and rural labourers lost their jobs and moved to the frontier. Elsewhere, in the Brazilian Cerrado and in Bolivia, farmers cleared large areas of Cerrado vegetation (natural savannah and open woodlands) and semi-deciduous forest to plant soybeans. Technology was the key in all this. In a sense, soybeans themselves were a new technology, since, up to the 1970s, Brazilian and Bolivian farmers knew little about how to produce them. The development of new varieties adapted to the tropics and the use of soil amendments permitted farmers to grow soybeans in the low latitudes and poor acid soils of the Brazilian Cerrado. More generally, new varieties, inoculants, pest control agents, postharvest technologies and cultural practices made growing soybeans more profitable in both Bolivia and Brazil and stimulated their expansion. ' Favourable policies and market conditions reinforced the new technologies' effect. Together, they helped soybean production attain a level that justified establishing the associated services and infrastructure competitive soybean production requires. High international prices and government subsidies encouraged the spread of soybeans in Brazil. Export promotion policies, favourable exchange rates and preferential access to the Andean market stimulated Bolivia's production. In both countries, road construction, government land grants and rising domestic demand for soybeans accelerated the crop's advance. This in turn increased the political power of the soybean lobby and enabled farmers and processors to obtain further government support. This chapter examines the relation between soybean technology and the loss of natural vegetation in south Brazil, central-west Brazil (the Cerrado) and Santa Cruz, Bolivia. We first present our theoretical framework. Then, for each case, we show how technology and other factors interacted to stimulate soybean expansion, look at the general equilibrium effects this generated in labour and product markets, assess the impact on forest and savannah and briefly comment on the resulting costs and benefits.

This national park contains Burundi’s only montane forest. Village communities participate in its management through a community conservation plan, which is a pledge of partnership among the people, the administration and conservationists. In addition, a new consultative body, the “local park watchdog committee”, set up in each of the communes around the park, appears to be a solution to the question of how to involve the people in managing the park. This management scheme is part of a process under which conservation is incorporated into the consolidation of peace in Burundi

The experiment in multiple-use (timber production and biodiversity conservation) management of the Pokola-Kabo-Loundoungou forest undertaken by one of the country’s major logging companies and Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) shows that cooperation among a number of partners (government, private sector and NGOs) can assemble the conditions for implementing a management plan incorporating the social, silvicultural and environmental procedures essential for forest certification. The Congo has no experience of applying this type of management and the pilot nature of the multiple-use management described in the case study is thus quite impressive.

Natura’s environmental-service payment initiative is centred in the Los Negros River watershed in the zone of the department of Santa Cruz referred to as Los Valles, or ‘the Valleys’. The watershed, spanning roughly 25 000 ha, borders Amboró National Park. Santa Rosa de Lima (hereafter referred to as Santa Rosa) is a town in the uppermost region of the watershed that includes part of the headwaters of the Los Negros River, sharing an extensive and disputed borderline with the park; Los Negros is a downstream community in a prime agricultural area. In 2004, the average annual income for a farmer in Santa Rosa was approximately 8000 Bs per year, or US$1024 (Vargas 2004). Compared to other rural parts of Bolivia, it is a fairly well off region. Los Negros was more prosperous with an average annual income of 11 400 Bs or US$1459.20 per household (Vargas 2004). Despite these hurdles, the PES scheme has taken off. In September 2003, the first payments were made to five property owners. The surface area under the first conservation contracts totals 562 ha, i.e with an average of 112.43 ha per owner, but spanning a range of 3–390 ha. The forest areas were mapped using a Global Positioning System (GPS) and contracts were drawn up with each landowner. A week-long beekeeping training seminar was given to the participants and, since then, several harvests of honey have taken place. At least eight additional forest owners have expressed interest in entering into a similar contract since October 2003, now assured that the contract was meant in earnest and was not some bogus promise by an outside NGO. By November 2004, seven additional farmers enrolled, while four of the five previous ones prolonged their contract for another year. This brought the total area under conservation contract up to about 1000 ha (N. Asquith personal communication).

Afin de protéger les peuplements forestiers de l'Est canadien, c'est l'action directe contre les feux de forêts et les insectes défoliateurs qui a surtout été privilégiée jusqu'à maintenant. Ce mode d'intervention ne peut toutefois être appliqué à la majorité des maladies des arbres causées par des champignons pathogènes. Ces micro-organismes sont responsables annuellement de plus de 37 % des pertes ligneuses au Canada, le reste étant partagé entre le feu et les insectes. L'importance des dégâts causés par les champignons pathogènes oblige les forestiers à intervenir et à inclure ces ravageurs dans un plan de protection des forêts. Notre approche consiste à intégrer aux pratiques forestières des mesures visant à contrer le développement d'épiphyties de ces champignons pathogènes. Nous présentons trois exemples de maladies dont le développement des populations a été réduit par des interventions d'élagage ou d'éclaircie en plantations de conifères. Ces cas de maladies sont le chancre scléroderrien (Gremmeniella abietina) de race européenne sur les pins rouges (Pinus resinosa), la rouille vésiculeuse (Cronartium ribicola) du pin blanc (Pinus strobus), et la maladie du rond (Heterobasidion annosum) sur les pins rouges. Cette dernière maladie fait déjà l'objet de traitement dans quelques pays, mais d'autres pourridiés devraient être traités car ce type de maladie représente un très grand risque à long terme pour la productivité de nos forêts tropicales ou nordiques. La rouille vésiculeuse, le chancre scléroderrien et bien d'autres maladies devraient faire l'objet de contrôle sylvicole car même si les espèces forestières varient d'un pays à un autre, les interventions proposées peuvent facilement être adaptées aux conditions régionales.

This document describes some of the key constraints on productivity of plantation forests in the southern African context. The remainder is devoted to an experimental plan and a series of trials that had been proposed in 1998, to be carried out in collaboration with the CIFOR network project on .Site Management and Productivity in Tropical Plantations. The principal focus of the trials is on nutrient cycling processes in young stands and how these are affected by various intensive silvicultural operations such as harvesting, fertilisation and slash management. Three potential trial sites are described in terms of location, physiographic, edaphic and climatic features. A detailed experimental plan is given for the first trial to be established (located in the Midlands in the Province of KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa). The plan covers details of the treatments to be imposed and proposed methods for implementation, and relevant measurements.

Cattle in tropical Latin America have dual identities. To farmers, they represent status and stable incomes. To environmentalists, they constitute a chewing and belching nemesis that destroys forests and the atmosphere. These two views provoke a spirited debate about whether economic development conflicts with environmental preservation. At the centre of the dispute lies the issue of how advances in livestock and pasture technology influence deforestation rates. Since markets value forested land modestly in much of tropical Latin America, a private farmer's perspective of raising cattle extensively be converting additional forest for pastures appears perfectly rational. This certainly applies at present to the forest margins of the Amazon. However, in more developed regions with older forest margins in Central and South America, farmers tend to produce livestock more intensively to avoid pasture degradation and the high cost of expanding on to uncultivated land. Thinking about this second type of situation made us realize that we may have our initial research question backwards. Perhaps instead of asking whether pasture intensification increases or decreases deforestation, we should focus on how deforestation influences pasture intensification. From there emerged the unfortunate alternative hypothesis that forest scarcity is a prerequisite for technology intensification.

The aims of this study were to: 1) review existing forest policies and any changes to deal with chainsaw lumbering in Ghana; 2) discuss the effectiveness of any forest policy responses to the activity; 3) determine the size of the local timber market, the contribution of chainsawn lumber, and measures to reduce the demand for chainsawn lumber; 4) determine the effect of chainsaw lumbering on nearby communities. The outputs are recommendations for follow-up, including suggestions: i) to improve forest laws with regard to chainsawing; ii) to resolve the market/economic issues that may arise if chainsawn timber were taken out of the equation; iii) for other livelihood ventures for persons currently involved in the chainsawing industry. As it stands, chainsawing in Ghana is a subset of illegal forest activities. Therefore, the report examines the past actions or inaction that have encouraged illegal timber harvesting activities as well as the capacity of the Forestry Commission (FC) to deal with them. Law enforcement and governance are important with regard to the control of illegal forest activities.Hence, the various elements of governance in practice in Ghana have been reviewed in order to determine how chainsawing can be minimized and how transparency, accountability, civil society participation, law enforcement, and the tracking of chainsawn lumber improved. The cumbersome nature of the allocation of the timber utilization permits for the provision of lumber to the local communities and the impracticality of its implementation are also highlighted. The study describes the factors affecting the future sustainability of the trees both off-reserves and on-farm, which form a very significant part of the raw material base for the timber industry. Policy interventions are traced from 1991, when chainsawing was legalized in Ghana, to 1998, when it was banned. The effectiveness of the policy responses thereafter is analysed. The characteristics of the local lumber market and the role played by chainsawn lumber are discussed.

This case study examines the Nakuru-Nyandarua Farm Forestry Project (1990-95) in Kenya, which was started with the goal of raising trees for the farmers' benefit and easing pressure on existing natural forests. The case study outlines the assessments of woody biomass in both the Nakuru and Nyandarua districts. Using the photo-interpretation method and field measurements, surveys showed an increase in per hectare productivity. The productivity of trees on farms rose from 25 m3 in 1993 to 56.9 m3 in 1998, an increase of 128 percent, with an overall boost in productivity of 9.6 m3 in 1993 to 19.9 m3 in 1998 for the entire zone, i.e., up 107 percent for that period. The results revealed both the positive impact of the project and the usefulness and effectiveness of the inventory methodology, which is now being applied in other districts.

Positive and negative aspects of various actors' involvement in certification in Latin America were collated in this paper, based on a series of interviews in Central America, and on a detailed case study of one certified forest management unit in Brazil. Forest management units that had received certification from the Forest Stewardship Council tended to be the most innovative, already practising sustainable harvesting. Governments were uncertain of their role in certification and had provided few legislative incentives. Nonetheless, the strong demand for certified timber abroad kept certification an attractive option, though some critics felt that this represented the imposition of Northern philosophy and practitioners on the business interests of the timber industry in the South.

The concept of managing the forest resource by the people for their own benefit is so critical, such that it requires every means available to be put into practice in order to realise the full potential of a given forest resource. We all need the world forest resource to be managed sustainably in order to attain the global environmental management aspirations, such the slowing down of the global warming and the devastating effects of the changing weather pattern. At regional level the concern for the forest resource may be centred on the trade in forest products. However, at local level the ecological imbalance brings about untold misery to the users of the forest resource. Hence, the rehabilitation of a forest has a direct positive effect on the enhancement of the socio-economic status of the people. It is of vital importance to ensure that the local communities are at the centre of all the planning and implementation of every tree planting and rehabilitation of the environment. The local knowledge about forest conservation and management aspects, is an essential input to the community forestry programme The case of the Luangwa/Zambezi rivers confluence catchment area depicts a typical situation, where the forests resource was mismanaged to the extent of putting the population into a vicious circle of poverty. This situation has brought pressure on the inhabitants of the area, to fully participate in the rehabilitation of the forest resource in order to improve on their own living standards.

This pioneering example of participatory management of forest plantations in Burundi has the main aim of producing fuelwood and poles. Management is carried out by village communities with the support of an NGO, on the basis of a management contract with the national forest service. It emphasizes the will of the people, particularly the women, to form an association to work together in managing a forest, thanks especially to an agreement on sharing revenue from plantation upkeep work. In the case of natural stands managed by the National Institute for Nature Conservation and the Environment (INECN), management focuses on expanding income-generating activities around these stands to benefit local inhabitants. The institute has set up buffer zones where the local people can obtain the products they need. In return, it requires their active participation in all forest protection and management activities.

The Chiloé Archipelago is home to relatively intact forests in one of the ecoregions that is of highest conservation priority in Latin America due to its biological distinctiveness on a global scale. Regionally, the Archipelago also has the highest conservation priority. The Chiloé forest is evergreen, also known as temperate forest, with a rich diversity of forest sub-types and flora and fauna, some of which are highly endemic. Despite the global importance of conserving the Chiloé forest, local practices are a threat to its stability. The area set aside initially for the Model Forest was 173 000 hectares, including the southern part of Chiloé National Park, Lemuy Island, two cities and several small private properties, some of which are owned by indigenous communities of the Huilliche ethnic group. After three years of operation, the Model Forest was expanded to include the entire Chiloé Archipelago, which has a population of 140 000, more than half of whom live in rural areas. The rustic landscape, along with its invaluable cultural and historical heritage, attracts tourists from other parts of Chile and around the world.

This experiment in participatory forest management concerns the organization of local inhabitants in structures – forest management groups – capable of managing this forest. The participatory approach has been recognized as the critical factor in the success of this management effort, whose main objective is the production of fuelwood and charcoal. In an effort to stop the damage to resources caused by the local population (from fires, overgrazing, etc.), a pilot management scheme was implemented in part of the forest (7 800 ha) with a view to involving the inhabitants, making them aware of their responsibilities and applying a set of techniques to achieve sustainable resource management.

Positive and negative aspects of various actors' involvement in certification in Latin America were collated in this paper, based on a series of interviews in Central America, and on a detailed case study of one certified forest management unit in Brazil. Forest management units that had received certification from the Forest Stewardship Council tended to be the most innovative, already practising sustainable harvesting. Governments were uncertain of their role in certification and had provided few legislative incentives. Nonetheless, the strong demand for certified timber abroad kept certification an attractive option, though some critics felt that this represented the imposition of Northern philosophy and practitioners on the business interests of the timber industry in the South.

Sokoine University manages the training forest jointly with the village government through the village environmental committee. Two members from the committee are employed by the university as forest guards for the forest. These are responsible for making routine patrols and they supervise different silvicultural activities that are done by villagers who receive daily wages in return. For example, the university involves villagers in clearing of forest boundaries to safeguard against fire. This is normally done during the dry season when the grasses are dry and vulnerable to fires. In the same boundary lines, villagers plant trees, which are used to demarcate the reserves and general village land. If there is fire outbreak, the villagers are also involved in extinguishing it. However, it may be noted that incidence of fire outbreak in the Training Forest Reserve have considerably reduced in recent years since local people have been involved in forest management.

The purpose of this study is two-fold. The first is to provide a detailed analysis of the processes and achievements of an FAO-assisted project to rehabilitate a degraded area in the Khao. Phu Luang National Reserved Forest in Northern Thailand through: the community forestry approach. In this respect, the study is written for development planners and foresters in Thailand as a means of helping these national experts evaluate the results of their efforts in this area, and to make appropriate decisions regarding the expansion of tide community forestry approach throughout rural Thailand. The second, more far-reaching purpose of the case study is to draw attention to elements of international relevance. Although it refers to a single, specific campaign, many of the experiences reported in the case study can be applied in a wide variety of socio-economic conditions. As a still relatively new concept, every community forestry effort has lessons to teach about forestry as a tool and a resource for rural development.

Se ha realizado una estimación de la biomasa y del dióxido de carbono que hay acumulado en las masas de Pinus sylvestris y Quercus pyrenaica de los montes «Matas de Valsaín» y «Pinar de Valsaín» (Segovia). Para ello se han utilizado los datos de muestreos realizados por el CIFOR-INIA para ambas especies. Se eligen al menos tres pies por clase diamétrica, se apearon y se separaron en fracciones de biomasa (fuste, ramas de diámetro mayor de 7 cm, ramas de diámetro entre 2 y 7 cm, ramas menores de 2 cm) que se pesaron en campo. Se extrajo el tocón de un pie por clase diamétrica y se pesó en verde. En laboratorio se determinó el peso seco de las muestras y se hallaron modelos para las distintas fracciones que relacionasen la biomasa seca y con el diámetro. Con estos modelos se calcularon unos valores modulares que se aplicaron a los datos del número de pies, obtenidos de los inventarios, para estimar la biomasa total de los montes. El CO2 se estima mediante la relación entre el porcentaje de carbono en la biomasa seca y la cantidad de carbono en una molécula de CO2. Se han realizado balances de fijación neta de CO2 conociendo los crecimientos y las extracciones anuales.

Several interventions have been tried to tackle environmental degradation in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia. One of which is the establishment of closed areas. Establishing closed areas is a method, by which an area is protected from human and livestock interference. This study tries to analyse the improvement of the vegetation in the degraded sites of a Juniper-Olea afromontane forest. This was achieved by comparing the vegetation of different aged closed areas, of 25 years, 5 years, a grazing land, and an ancient forest that has not been disturbed for at least 500 years. To achieve the intended objective, samples of 0.16 ha were taken from the above four sites, where the number of trees, shrubs, grasses and herbs was counted, and their species was identified. In addition semi-structured interviews were undertaken and analysed to assess how the local people understand and feel about the intervention From the information collected the species composition, abundance, dominance and frequency of trees was computed; species similarity indices were calculated; and species area curves were drawn for trees, saplings and shrubs, seedlings, and herbs and grasses. It appears that the ancient forest is in a degraded state. Both closed areas and the grazing land have very different species compositions as compared to the forest. Moreover, all land use types show very few tree seedlings, indicating a future problem in the development of a forest. The closed areas were established with the full participation of the local community. Yet there are some gaps regarding the future management and utilization of the closed areas. It is clear that intensive forestry and silvicultural activities are needed in order to manage and improve the productivity of the closed areas in such a way, that the conservation of biodiversity, environmental sustainability, and the demands of the local people can be met.

Few would imagine that the path to good forest management could be paved with small sheets of plain hand-made paper. But this is exactly the case for a vibrant community forest in the far reaches of western Nepal. "The Shree Binayak Pimidanda Community Forest in Bajhang is unquestionably one of the best managed forests in the country," commented Rama Kanta Yadav, a ranger with the District Forest Office. "It has become an excellent example of how a forest should be managed, largely as a result of the establishment of a paper factory. The members of the local Forest User Groups are very serious about sustainable forest management, as well as managing the commercial assets of the forest. With minimal support from outsiders, the community has dispelled the common belief that industries in the high mountains cannot operate profitably."

This case study looks at Woodside Forest, a holding belonging to John and Rosalie Wardle, which is now one of the most innovative in terms of forest management in New Zealand. But in the past, it was almost totally devoid of forests. This management strategy is unique in New Zealand. The traditional New Zealand plantation forestry model is one of single-species (usually Pinus radiata) stands, and a single age class, clear-felled at maturity. The Wardle’s approach reflects a desire to manage their forest in a way that is more consistent with natural ecological processes, albeit applied to exotic tree species. Indigenous forest management has been the subject of much public and political debate in New Zealand over the last 30 years. There has been a strong lobby (from some non-forest owners) against harvesting any indigenous forest. The Wardles, however, have always believed in conservation of indigenous forests through active and adaptive management. This vision was put into practice at Woodside Forest through the development of a long-term plan, dedicated commitment to the vision and plenty of hard work.

The Model Forest lies on the flat forested terrain in the boreal (taiga) region. The forests are mainly composed of spruce (Picea abies and P. obovata, 36.2% of spruce dominant stands), Scotch pine (Pinus silvestris, 19.6%), birch (Betula spp., 32.2%) and aspen (Populus tremula, 12.0%). Pristine (old-growth) forests cover 11.4% of the area, while remaining forests have been logged and regenerated by various methods. The biodiversity-rich Model Forest harbors 208 threatened and endangered species of flora and fauna. No major human settlements are found in the Model Forest, and the area has a low population density (1.8 people/km2).

In Tambacounda region, the relatively favourable climatic conditions have resulted in a forest of considerable significance for the whole country. In Kedougou district the forest vegetation is abundant, but more and more species are threatened and in some places they have already disappeared. At first sight this does not appear to be too serious, but it hides a process of exploitation in which selected trees disappear completely. Species like ‘ronier’, a type of palm called ‘siboo’ in the Mandingue language, are almost extinct in these areas. Of the 160 tree and shrub species, 46 are in grave danger and a further 25 are likely to be so soon.

This case study analyzes the use of elephants to haul logs, as they are in many ways the ideal tool for forest operations. In the fragile ecosystems of tropical wet evergreen natural forests, mechanized logging causes ten times as much heavy damage as traditional logging using animals. Damage caused is both direct and indirect, including prevention of natural regeneration _ which can lead to genetic erosion; damage to the soil structure; and hydrological modification. In contrast, elephant logging contributes to conservation of the natural environment and is of major positive significance in any environmental impact assessment (EIA).

In this study spruce forests were studied in Artvin, Giresun and Trabzon districts to determine damage status of Dendroctonus micans (Kugelann) (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) and effectiveness of Rhizophagus grandis Gyllenhal (Coleoptera: Rhizophagidae) on it. In 33 plots, a total of 1186 trees were evaluated. D. micans damage was determined on 195 trees (28%) of the studied trees present on all plots. It's determined that the damage continues to last on 84 trees (12%), and the damage continues and on 111 trees (16%) D. micans damage had already taken place before the study was conducted. It was observed that D. micans damage was still continuing 43% of the harmed trees. The damage was found to have occurred before the study on 48 (48%) of the 101 (%14) injured trees and still continues on 38 trees (38%). Eighty-six trees (44%) out of 195 trees damaged by D. micans, and 38 trees (45%) out of 84 trees on which D. micans was still active were wounded trees. In the studied plots, a total of 4548 entry and exit holes were counted on 191 trees. Fifty one percent of the entry and exit holes, an indicator of the active D. micans individuals density were counted on the bole of the trees from ground level up to 1 m high. R. grandis, the spesific predator of D. micans, were determined in 22 D. micans galleries on 18 trees in 14 plots. In these galleries, a total of 384 R. grandis and 997 D. micans were counted in different biological stages. The effectiveness of R. grandis on D. micans in plots was 84%. The effectiveness was %29, when the galleries with and without R. grandis were evaluated together in plots. When D. micans quantity in whole plots was evaluated, the general effectiveness of the predator is 15%.

El articulo da a conocer un proceso de formación de una pequeña empresa forestal para la producción y comercialización del carbón, incluyendo sus logros y dificultades. La experiencia se llevó a cabo mediante un proceso participativo de interrelación entre el Proyecto Silvicultura de Bosques Naturales del CATIE/COSUDE y la comunidad de Villa Mills, localizada en la cordillera de Talamaca en Costa Rica. La experiencia demuestra que a través de la organización de las comunidades es posible poner a producir una pequeña empresas forestal, generar fuentes e trabajo, también para mujeres, y aumentar la confianza y autoestima, tanto de varones como de mujeres.

Summary This model forest is located in the Futaleufú watershed, in the Patagonian region of Argentina. The area includes Los Alerces National Park, provincial land and a few private properties. Some 35 000 people live in the region. The main economic activities in the region are livestock, forestry and tourism. Agricultural production in the fertile valleys is devoted mainly to livestock, as well as horticulture and floriculture on a smaller scale. The downfall of the wool industry and subsequent changes in national and international markets during the 1980’s had an adverse effect on the area's economy. This has since been alleviated by economic growth fuelled by the tourism industry. Cattle raising practices and varied management processes are endangering the forest's natural resources. Very few alternative means of production have been developed in the area. Several local institutions are actively involved in natural resource management, but they lack integration and collaboration.

In the semi-arid valleys (Los Valles) of Santa Cruz province, water is an increasingly scarce resource, as farmland under irrigation expands, populations grow and other intervening factors such as deforestation and climate change affect water levels. Water quality is also deteriorating as cattle ranching expands, soils are compacted and cow waste contaminates potable water sources. In 1985, the Eastern Training Institute (ICO, in its Spanish acronym) was founded and began working with the small 24-household community of La Aguada to construct a potable water system. In 1993, water users identified the need to protect the headwaters of the watershed by fencing areas bordering the river or creek, thus impeding access in particular by cattle. Since these areas are often either privately owned or used by cattle ranchers, there are opportunity costs to this type of watershed protection, which is where a potential for PES comes into the picture. On the other hand, some vegetated areas near waterways have a general protection status, which the ICO initiatives have relied on in their persuasion techniques, although in the past this law has often not been enforced. Since the inception of the La Aguada project, ICO has expanded the protection activities to 14 other micro-watersheds. The model became known as the ‘Water Planting Project’ (Siembra del Agua, in Spanish). In Vallegrande province, nine communities have created conservation areas around their water sources with the help of ICO. The ICO projects are the only PES-type projects in this overview of Bolivia that are not in or near a larger protected area and supported by a conservation-oriented NGO. The focus is thus purely on water-users. The number of water-users benefiting from the nine established conservation areas totals 2084 (ICO 1999). The total surface area protected is 534 ha divided among 562 households, which corresponds to 0.95 ha per household.

This tree farm of approximately 70,000 ha is located near the town of Hamilton in southwest Victoria, and there are many others like it nearby. They have been established on land previously used for other agricultural enterprises, primarily grazing. In both the "Green Triangle" region of southwest Victoria and southeast South Australia, and in the southern part of Western Australia, large areas of blue gum have been established over the past 10 years by a number of companies. Plantation companies have had to develop many skills since tree farms began being established on a large scale in the early 1990s. As one of the leading plantation companies in Australia, Timbercorp has been continuously developing improved establishment and management methods, as well as learning how to be a good neighbour in the rural communities where it establishes tree farms. High-technology approach to forest plantation characterizes the forest management of the Timbercorp Forestry. The seemingly innocuous rows of trees Mr Aaron Soanes, Treefarm Operations Manager for Timbercorp Forestry, was examining have been the subject of considerable controversy in many rural communities, where the introduction of tree farming has not always been viewed favourably

In this study spruce forests were studied in Artvin, Giresun and Trabzon districts to determine damage status of Dendroctonus micans (Kugelann) (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) and effectiveness of Rhizophagus grandis Gyllenhal (Coleoptera: Rhizophagidae) on it. In 33 plots, a total of 1186 trees were evaluated. D. micans damage was determined on 195 trees (28%) of the studied trees present on all plots. It's determined that the damage continues to last on 84 trees (12%), and the damage continues and on 111 trees (16%) D. micans damage had already taken place before the study was conducted. It was observed that D. micans damage was still continuing 43% of the harmed trees. The damage was found to have occurred before the study on 48 (48%) of the 101 (%14) injured trees and still continues on 38 trees (38%). Eighty-six trees (44%) out of 195 trees damaged by D. micans, and 38 trees (45%) out of 84 trees on which D. micans was still active were wounded trees. In the studied plots, a total of 4548 entry and exit holes were counted on 191 trees. Fifty one percent of the entry and exit holes, an indicator of the active D. micans individuals density were counted on the bole of the trees from ground level up to 1 m high. R. grandis, the spesific predator of D. micans, were determined in 22 D. micans galleries on 18 trees in 14 plots. In these galleries, a total of 384 R. grandis and 997 D. micans were counted in different biological stages. The effectiveness of R. grandis on D. micans in plots was 84%. The effectiveness was %29, when the galleries with and without R. grandis were evaluated together in plots. When D. micans quantity in whole plots was evaluated, the general effectiveness of the predator is 15%.

The case study was conducted to highlight the impacts of pitsawing in Uganda and the approach of policy-makers to this industry. This report provides an assessment of current forest management practices, forest policies and laws with regard to pitsawing. The current Uganda Forest Policy provides for the development of forest-product processing industries with regard to both pitsawing and sawmilling. A strategic sector plan sets out goals and strategies that will implement the forest policy. The policy objective is to promote a modern, competitive, efficient and well-regulated forest-product processing industry in the private sector. The 2003 National Forestry and Tree Planting Act provides legal support for the implementation of the Uganda Forest Policy and the National Forest Plan. In order to promote the development of the forest industry in Uganda, attempts are underway to transform pitsawing in its present form or phase it out all together. In this regard, the National Forestry Authority is already restricting pitsawing and has piloted the use of chainsaw sawmills.

The island of Espiritu Santo - the largest in Vanuatu at 4 010 km2 - is the centre of the country's forest harvesting operations. Rapid expansion of commercial logging activities, however, has raised concerns among many of the people living on Santo. "Most of our forests have already been logged. We have to do something to ensure that in the future our forests are harvested in a sustainable manner and with minimal damage to the surrounding environment," said Tom Ker Dick, the Regional Forest Officer in East Santo. In stark contrast, the South Pacific Community Eco-Forestry (SPCEF) project, which operated from 1997 to 2001, demonstrated that forests in Vanuatu can be managed effectively by - and for - local people. The project was implemented as part of the regional forestry programme of the Foundation for the Peoples of the South Pacific International (FSP-International), a network of eight South Pacific non-governmental organizations. "We work with interested landowning communities in Vanuatu, the Solomon Islands, Fiji, Tonga and Kiribati in developing country-specific and appropriate models for community-led sustainable forest management," explained project manager Mark Kalotap.

The Nature Conservancy (TNC), a través del Proyecto Ambiental Regional para Centroamérica (PROARCA) para el sitio Amistad-Cahuita-Río Cañas, el cual se ejecuta con la colaboración financiera de la Agencia para el Desarrollo Internacional de Estados Unidos (USAID), impulsó el desarrollo de un Plan de Conservación para el Sitio (PCS) mediante la participación activa de organizaciones e individuos especialistas en el manejo y la conservación de recursos de la zona. Entre sus planes para este año 2006 se dispuso impulsar un Estudio de Capacidad de Carga Turística para el Parque Nacional Cahuita en Costa Rica. Este Parque Nacional cuenta con 1068 hectáreas en el área terrestre, 600 hectáreas en el área de arrecife y 22.400 ha en la parte marina. Esta área silvestre protege uno de los Arrecifes Coralinos mejor desarrollados de la costa caribeña y uno de los más importantes de Costa Rica.

The Berslagen area contains an important transition zone between the northern boreal forest, or taiga, and the temperate climate, or nemoral, zone. It is probably the sharpest bio-geographical transition zone in Sweden and is important because of the very different conditions for human settlement. More or less all land is fertile and the area has a moderate precipitation. The population in the area is about 1.75 million people. The land base is composed of: • Forests (64%) • Lakes, rivers and streams (10%) • Wetlands (7%) • Mountains (1%) • Farmland (11%) • Urban areas (1%) • Protected areas (6%) The area has a long history of landscape use. Iron ore production was an early important source of income. It began as a small scale activity and later grew to be the main iron production area in the world. To feed the industry, forest resources were over-used for coal production. Today, there is no iron ore production in Bergslagen and the forest industry has slowed. Rural inhabitants are opting to move to the cities in search of employment.

This paper explained the achievements to date and proposed future activities of the long-term and large-scale Madeleña Project, focusing on its activities in El Salvador and Costa Rica. Based at CATIE, the project's history illustrates how lessons learned from implementation in particular countries have lead to a reorientation of project goals away from an early focus (1981-85) on improving and disseminating foresterial techniques for fuel wood species, to an emphasis in 1986-91 on multi-purpose trees, training at all levels, and the development of a database on soils, climate, tree growth and ecology, silviculture, socio-economics and forestry extension. A third phase (1991-95) intended to concentrate on developing horizontal and vertical inter-institutional collaborations to share the wealth of technical information gathered by the project.

Demonstration forest is defined as "a small-scale version of a working forest that can demonstrate techniques of forest management." Over the past number of years the Keirstead - Howlett woodlot has been developing an educational experience of this type on its 400 acre woodlot. At the present time there are 8 km. Of trails and 10 signed interpretive points on the topic of New Forestry. As well there is an interpretive program dealing with the history of Maple Syrup. This past season 1000 students enjoyed this maple sugar program. To further enhance the program an educational guide must be developed. This guide would give on overview of the program offered as well as a map. In order to develop this map it would first be necessary to GPS all the trails. This map, if produced properly, could also be used for orienteering. Interest has been expressed by members of Orienteering NB.

In Canada, there are still extensive tracts of boreal forest consisting of stands that have resulted from natural disturbances. The country’s forests are a mosaic made up to a large extent of old-growth forest that is beyond commercial harvesting age, especially in the boreal forest of eastern Canada. As areas of boreal forest under management steadily expand, as demand for forest products continues to grow and as rotation periods become shorter in response to silvicultural practices, the forest cover will inevitably become younger, causing changes to the structure and composition of the mosaic of forest stands that will affect the aspect of entire landscapes. These changes may have an adverse impact on biological diversity. Forest birds are one group of living organisms that may respond quickly to the advent of younger forest landscapes, thereby acting as a biological indicator. In this paper, we discuss some of the problems that birds face as a result of the truncation of the age-class distribution of managed forest landscapes in eastern Canada’s coniferous boreal forest, using data obtained from our research in the Clay Belt region of Quebec and Ontario. More specifically, we look at how birds respond to changes in forest structure and composition in terms of time since natural disturbances, and to variation in dead trees availability. We then consider the impact of the prospective rejuvenation of the forest cover in managed forest landscapes, and possible solutions aimed at mitigating that impact through new management strategies based on the maintenance of forest ecosystem diversity. The ability of these new management strategies to maintain the ecological integrity of bird communities provides an indication of their potential as tools for contributing to the maintenance of biological diversity in a broader sense.

El desarrollo integral de la región es primordialmente un proceso sociopolítico de mediano y largo plazo, en donde la participación y liderazgo de las instituciones regionales, los gobiernos locales y la participación plena de las comunidades son fundamentales para establecer una estrategia común para el desarrollo de la zona. La Cuenca del Tempisque es rica en tradiciones culturales, recursos productivos y ecosistemas naturales. El manejo integrado de la Cuenca es la única alternativa para mejorar la calidad de vida de sus pobladores, desarrollar sistemas productivos sostenibles y mantener la integridad ecológica de sus sistemas naturales. La OET, a través de las acciones que desarrolla en la zona, aporta un grano de arena en la búsqueda del equilibrio apropiado entre los requisitos de los sistemas productivos y las necesidades hídricas de los sistemas ecológicos de la región.

This case study addresses forest management in Southern Tasmania, which has developed a detailed planning, monitoring, auditing and reporting system in response to international and national agreements and policies. It operates in a climate of widespread community debate and general dissatisfaction over the felling of old-growth forests. Tasmania has the most vehement environmental controversies in Australia. These have deeply divided the community and in spite of many attempts to resolve the controversies politically. It is under intense scrutiny from environmental and other groups with very high expectations of what should - and can - be achieved. Although the context is often contentious, forest management generally proceeds in a clear, orderly and professional way.

Queensland Department of Primary Industry Forestry manages extensive exotic pine plantations consisting mainly of slash pine, Honduras Caribbean pine and the hybrid of these two taxa. Most of these plantations are located on the infertile coastal lowlands of south-east Queensland. They are managed intensively and there is concern about the maintenance of long-term productivity. One of the major opportunities for influencing sustainability is the period between harvesting and establishment of the succeeding crop. Removal of nutrients in logging and the use of fire to prepare second-rotation sites results in significant loss of nutrients from the site and large changes in the availability of nutrients. Ecologically sound harvesting combined with other desirable management practices are needed to ensure sustainable production. These practices need to be underpinned by a sound scientific basis. Estimates of biomass and nutrient distribution in the biomass were made to provide a basis for interpreting changes in nutrient dynamics and tree response to residue management practices. An experiment testing a range of clearfell residue manipulation treatments was established on a typical second-rotation slash pine site at Toolara in south-east Queensland. Growth of F1 hybrid pines on this site is being monitored. Retention of litter and logging residues has not affected survival but has improved height growth by 11-24% at age 17 months. The site is to be used as a reference site in further investigations of key soil processes. The direction of future research required to interpret these findings and to provide a scientific basis for best forest management practices is discussed.

At the beginning of the 1980s a senior DGF official helped stimulate the creation of several private sector organisations in the forest sector, mainly representing the interests of loggers, transporters and processors. One of these was the Forestry Development Corporation of San Carlos or CODEFORSA, founded in 1983. The name was later changed to the Commission for Forestry Development of San Carlos.

This study is one in a series of case studies being undertaken by the FAO Forest Harvesting and Transport Branch as part of its efforts to promote environmentally sound and sustainable forest practices in both natural and plantation forests. This report documents a study on the use of construction crane for wood extraction in mountainous terrain in Austria, providing information on the advantages and limitations of this type of low impact harvesting system. The aim of this study is to draw attention to forest harvesting specialists in countries where an abundance of building cranes exist which could be favourably employed for forest operations in areas with good road development standards and where special silvicultural prescriptions have to be applied such as those safeguarding advanced forest regeneration and extracting single tree stems in selective cuts from old growth forests. The study proposed that extracting tree length stems or whole trees proved technically feasible with little or no damage to the younger trees of the remaining stand as well as to the soil. The study also provides indicative figures on productivity and costs, along with suggestions for possible use in combination with wood processors.

Les mesures développées en Wallonie, visant une gestion forestière multifonctionnelle adaptée à une région densément peuplée, comprennent des mesures d'adaptation à l'évolution du climat. L'objet de ce document est de montrer les convergences entre ces mesures et les différents aspects de la gestion multifonctionnelle. La difficulté de prévoir l'ampleur locale du changement climatique impose le maintien ou l'amélioration du potentiel d'adaptation de l'écosystème forestier, selon deux axes complémentaires. Il est primordial de développer au sein des peuplements une diversité biologique plus large, grâce à une diversification des essences principales et d'accompagnement, mais aussi par la diversification génétique et des mesures sylvicoles adaptées. Il faut également installer les essences et les provenances les mieux adaptées aux conditions stationnelles actuelles, afin qu'elles supportent les modifications de leur environnement tant abiotique que biotique. Le choix des essences et des techniques sylvicoles prend spécifiquement en compte la prévention des risques accrus de tempêtes et de développement de déprédateurs, les stress climatiques résultant d'épisodes extrêmes, l'augmentation globale des températures. Une sylviculture dynamique, caractérisée par des écartements plus larges et des éclaircies précoces et fortes, permet d'atténuer les chablis et améliore le bilan hydrique et donc la résistance aux épisodes de sécheresse; elle contribue, par la présence d'une végétation de sous-bois, à la biodiversité et à la protection du sol; elle favorise le recyclage régulier des éléments minéraux et prévient leur lessivage. Les mesures de protection de l'eau et des sols améliorent la régulation des cycles hydrologiques par les écosystèmes forestiers. Le traitement en futaie jardinée accroît la résistance de l'écosystème aux stress climatiques et aux déprédateurs. Ces choix sylvicoles répondent à divers objectifs écologiques, économiques et sociaux, et contribuent à stocker davantage de carbone, en forêt par augmentation de la biomasse, et en aval en favorisant les produits ligneux aptes aux emplois de longue durée. Mots clés:Changement climatique, mesures d'adaptation, gestion multifonctionnelle, sylviculture, diversité biologique, protection de l'eau.

World Forestry Congress, Quebec, Canada. Summary............................................................................................................................................................... Partnerships between communities and forestry companies are becoming increasingly important in sustainable forest management. This paper examines the experience of the Atikamekw of Wemotaci in central Quebec who are establishing a sawmill in partnership with two forestry companies. This case supports the work of other analysts who have investigated the potential benefits and difficulties of such partnerships. As a study of community-company collaboration in forestry, the Wemotaci experience also demonstrates the importance of social and cultural factors in a partnership. In particular, there are important differences in relation to forest management institutions, the objectives of the parties, the history and rights of each, systems of consultation and communication and development goals. In terms of these factors, each party possesses its own forestry paradigm, which serves as the foundation of their ways of understanding and managing the forest. Successful partnerships will therefore need to develop innovative structures and techniques for forest management in order to respond to the differing interests of the partners.

This case study was carried out under the FAO-Netherlands Partnership Programme to support Sustainable Forest Management in Low Forest Cover Countries in the Near East and African Regions. It is one in a series of six carried out in Iran, Oman, and Tunisia in the Near-East Region to form the basis of the Teheran Workshop, 28-31 October 2002 and Mali, Ethiopia and Namibia in the African Region to form the basis for the Nairobi Workshop 26-29 November 2002. This case study was conducted to evaluate the role of planted forests and trees outside forests in supporting sustainable forest management and landscape restoration in low forest cover countries. Natural forests, rangelands, woodland resources, trees outside forests, agroforestry, urban and peri-urban forestry all play important roles in supporting the social, cultural, environmental and economic landscapes, particularly in low forest cover countries. This case study report outlines the causes and effects of deforestation and forest degradation in Namibia, lessons learned and priority needs, strategies and methodologies to enhance the role of planted forests, trees outside forests in integrated landscape management, and the economic significance of wood and NWFPs. The report also outlines recommendations for development proposals.

This pilot experiment in joint sustainable management of the "gorilla resource" brings together conservation and the local population's participation in management of this gorilla sanctuary. The advantage of a multidisciplinary approach to the sustainable development of a forest zone in Central Africa is described in this example, especially the anthropological approach in establishing and maintaining partnerships among the various stakeholders. The experiment, so far unique in the subregion, deserves encouragement and should be adapted to other similar contexts. This experiment is notable first for the fact that rights-holders decided to give up their ancestral lands to create the sanctuary and then for their involvement in managing the gorilla sanctuary in order to reap the financial benefits generated by ecotourism – income that is then used for community initiatives. Those with customary rights over Lossi lands were identified in 1996. The boundaries to the zone were fixed in the same year by the local people with the supervision of the FTRP anthropologist and support from primatologists and the head of the ECOFAC-Congo component. The participatory mapping technique allowed rights-holders to define the zone to be declared a sanctuary, while keeping a large zone for subsistence activities.

Tree systems outside forests, in addition to their ecological importance in carbon sequestration, account for over half of wood production in Costa Rica. It is therefore imperative to conserve and enhance them. With this in mind, the regional project TROF: Tree Resources outside Forests worked out a methodology to inventory and monitor these resources. The data from the inventory methodology tested in Costa Rica should make it easier for users and policy makers to include Trees outside forests in their development and management policies. The TROF Project covering the Central American region has been in operation since 1998. Implemented by the MAG in collaboration with CATIE and the University of Fribourg in Germany, its dual objective is to formalize an inventory and monitoring methodology and to disseminate the ensuing data.

Biological and chemical (fertilising, liming) amelioration are among the principal tools used to restore degraded sites. These techniques were also used on the Ore Mts. plateau on plots prepared by bulldozing. We evaluated the impact of these amelioration techniques by measuring tree species primary production and humus form restoration. Begun in 1983 - 1985, this project studied growth reaction of forest stands by measuring height and diameter increment, for the following species: (Blue spruce Picea pungens Engelm., European larch Larix decidua Mill., Lodgepole pine Pinus contorta Dougl., Eastern white pine Pinus strobus L., alder Alnus incana Moench., European beech Fagus sylvatica L.) during the period 1994 - 2000. The growth potential by species decreases in the following order: larch, alder, lodgepole pine, white pine, blue spruce. Beech was almost exterminated by red deer browsing and the harsh climate; pines suffered heavily from browsing and bark stripping. Holorganic horizons were measured and basic soil chemical and mechanical characteristics were determined - pH, soil adsorption complex characteristics (using Kappen's methodology), content of the humus and total nitrogen, exchangeable acidity and plant available macronutrients, granulometric composition of mineral soil horizons. Our results confirmed the relatively long-lasting effects of soil amendments, as well as the amelioration effects of alder, and the relatively inhibiting effects of larch and blue spruce.

The countries of the Amazon basin face the challenge of making their farm sector economically productive and environmentally sustainable. Part of that challenge involves getting small farmers, who are major actors in the region's agricultural development, to clear less forest. One influential school of thought considers low agricultural productivity a key factor favouring small-farm forest clearing. According to this view, settlers respond to declines in agricultural productivity by opening up new areas rather than adopting land-saving practices, because they perceive frontier land as abundant. These analysts argue that the limited availability of inputs, such as fertilizer, weak agricultural extension services, policies that discourage adoption of yield-increasing technologies and widespread poverty reinforce this process. From their perspective, increasing the productivity of frontier land would deter settlers from the cycle of continually clearing, so governments should aggressively encourage technologies that have that effect (World Bank, 1992). Evidence from frontier settlers in the north-eastern Ecuadorean Amazon suggests that the introduction of new, externally generated technologies and production systems that provide more revenue and/or higher yields per hectare is not the only way to reduce forest clearing by small farmers and could be counterproductive. Many settlers in the region have adopted farming systems that minimize forest clearing without introducing high-yielding technologies.

Management of the Luba Crater Scientific Reserve helps to ensure the conservation of its remarkable biological wealth, encompassing ecosystems and habitats unique in Equatorial Guinea. Its position on an island makes this reserve a refuge for many species of terrestrial and aquatic wildlife. The zone has a great density of primates, some of them endemic, and also shelters one of the last remaining populations of drills. Green turtles can be observed in the beach areas. The management system described in this example was established in 1995 by an NGO and entails a biodiversity conservation programme focusing on protection of the green turtle.

Nakavu Forest is on communally-owned native land belonging to members of the Yavusa Nabukebuke tribe, which comprises six distinct clans residing in nearby Nakavu Village. Being native land, negotiations were conducted with the Native Land Trust Board and the landowners, enabling the Forestry Department to formally acquire a 50-year lease over the 315-hectare project site - effective from January 1991 - with provision for review of the lease agreement at 10 year intervals. The "Nakavu Model" has several advantages for the landowners. Key among these, as pointed out in the project's final report, is that landowners will have a more stable income from royalties, logging jobs, and management jobs over shorter felling cycles. The development of the Nakavu Model has been a significant milestone in the effort to improve management of Fiji's remaining natural forest resources.

Du Verdon, tout le monde connaît les vertigineuses gorges qui entaillent les calcaires de Haute-Provence. Mais, si on se donne la peine de remonter le cours de cet impétueux affluent de la Durance, on découvrira rapidement un tout autre paysage: la vallée s’élargit en vastes cuvettes, les sommets s’élèvent jusqu’à culminer au-dessus de 2000 m, le climat et la végétation prennent une tonalité montagnarde. Cet ensemble qui forme le lien entre le pays méditerranéen et la haute montagne alpine, autrefois très peuplé et parcouru d’immenses troupeaux, ne s’anime plus qu’en période estivale. Depuis une quinzaine d’années, dans un souci de gestion de l’espace rural, l’Office national des Forêts, en collaboration avec de nombreux partenaires, y mène des opérations de rénovation d’anciens parcours ovins, progressivement colonisés par la lande et le Pin sylvestre. Après une description rapide du contexte régional, nous examinerons plus en détail l’exemple de remise en valeur sylvopastorale de la Colle Saint-Michel sur la commune de Thorame-Haute, qui est entrée dans sa phase de gestion depuis 1988. Nous le compléterons par des observations faites sur d’autres opérations menées depuis dans les communes voisines, pour essayer, en conclusion, de dégager les éléments de réussite de tels projets.

In some parts of India, community institutions have initiated protection and management of forests - independently of government programmes. This generally occurs because the communities concerned are economically dependent on forest resources, for either subsistence or income. Presently, there are several thousand of these self-initiated community forests. Currently, an estimated 8 000 village groups in Orissa are protecting approximately 2 million hectares of forest (Pattanaik 2002). Forest protection has usually been initiated in response to a scarcity of forest products resulting from forest degradation. Such efforts have emerged as village-based initiatives, without the support of the government, and are successfully protecting degraded or partially degraded stands in reserved and protected forests (Box 1). Communities generally begin by developing various institutional rules and directives, such as regulations covering extraction and distribution of forest products and penalties to be applied to offenders. Direct forest protection mechanisms vary, but typically include voluntary rotational patrolling or employment of paid watchers.\ Nayagarh District, which houses 864 000 people, is located in the eastern part of the State of Orissa. With a total area of 424 200 hectares, the district has an undulating topography with a broken mountain system intersected by plains, valleys and streams. Forest areas in Nayagarh District cover approximately 220 800 hectares and contain a range of forest types including semi-evergreen, moist mixed deciduous, riverine, moist peninsular sal (Shorea robusta) forest, and dry mixed deciduous forest. The Forest Survey of India notes that approximately 63 percent of the district's forest areas possesses a canopy density greater than 40 percent closure. The Indian Forest Act of 1927 legally designates government forests into three categories that offer graduated degrees of protection. The greatest protection is afforded to reserved forests, in which only activities that are specifically permitted may be carried out. Conversely, in protected forests, a more limited degree of protection is provided. In practice any activity is allowed unless specifically prohibited. A third forest classification, unclassed forests, comprises forest land owned by the government, but not constituting a reserved or protected forest. There are fewer restrictions for unclassed forests as compared to reserved and protected forests. Community protection of forests in Nayagarh District began in the late 1960s, but gained momentum only in the 1970s. The process was further strengthened in 1982, with the emergence of a voluntary organization - Brikshya O' Jeevar Bandhu Parishad (BOJBP) - which formed when 22 villages situated around the Binjhagiri and Malati hills united to protect forests on these degraded uplands under the leadership of a group of schoolteachers and respected leaders in the village. Both hills were heavily deforested and streams originating in the hills were drying up. The surrounding villages faced fuelwood scarcity, shortages of water and increased soil erosion (Kant et al. 1991).

These plantations were established with Pistacia atlantica, which is one of the important endemic species in Iran with wide distribution and high economic value. Therefore, reforestation and plantation with the species is very necessary. Governmental and participation plantation was started at 1986 and 1989 in two similar conditions (semi- arid, with winter cold and warm summer, regosols....).Both near Kermanshah province. Factors including, height, diameter (collar and diameter breast height) crown form, stem height, mode of branching and etc. were compared and results were as follows: 1 - In participation plantation, tree height, collar diameter, D.B.H., canopy diameter of seedling were 2.3, 2.5, 7, respectively and 2.5 times more than those of governmental project. 2 - Mean annual height increment, D.B.H, canopy growth in participation plantation and governmental projects were 23.25 (cm.), 2.9 (mm), 12.03 (cm) and 8.15 (cm), 0.34 (mm), 7.29 (cm) respectively. 3 - In participation plantation 82% of seedling crown form was regular and closed and 18% oblang- ovate, but in governmental project 78% of oblang- ovate and 23% regular and closed. 4 - In participation plantation 80% of seedling mode of branching was unforked and 20% forked without any broomed branching, but in governmental project 20% of unforked and 80%forked and broomed. 5 - Management,,tending and protection in participation plantation are much better than government project. 6 Percent of survival and seedling vitality with usage of native knowledge in participation plantation were excellent. Accordingly planting and developing of these methods around the villages and degraded lands will be successful, if the government were able to pay a loan to rural or to fund the project.