XI WORLD FORESTRY
CONGRESS
Antalya, Turkey, 13 to 22
October 1997
  VOLUME 3
CHALLENGES IN ENHANCING THE PRODUCTIVE FUNCTIONS OF TROPICAL RAIN FORESTM. N. Salleh NON-WOOD PRODUCTS AND SERVICESNon-wood forest products or minor forest products, the term used for everything the forest provides other than timber, are a cornucopia of useful goods for mankind. Often considered as forest by-products, the potential economic value (either monetary or in terms of utilisation) is usually unknown or unappreciated by forest managers. The fast rate of disappearance of tropical vegetation has injected an note of urgency for researchers to study in more detail the potential of the forest as a source of minor forest products, as non-wood products can give cash earnings and intangible values. Forest managers, in particular, should try to increase the productivity of the forests in non-wood forest products while at the same time continuing to provide essential products and services to mankind. Non-wood forest products as defined by Wickens (1994) refer to market or subsistence goods and services for human or industrial consumption derived from renewable forest resources and biomass, bearing promise for augmenting real rural household incomes and employment. The products include use of plants for food, beverages, forage, fuel and medicine; animals, birds and fishes for food, fur and feather; and the services of land for conservation and recreation. For millennia, rural people or forest dwellers had depended on non-wood forest products as sources of livelihood (Meulenhoff and Silitonga 1978). Compared with other natural resources, forests not only can meet practically all the needs of rural populations, including the provision of materials for housing, food, medicinal products, condiments, and cord, but also represent a potential source of cash earning. Harvesting, processing and marketing of non-wood goods for local craft production and small-scale industries or for international markets, can create employment since most of the processes are labor intensive. Employment in these industries can generate significant income for local collectors and processors. In Belize, Balick and Mendelsohn (1992) found that traditional medicinal plants can provide "bush masters" or gatherers, with two to ten times more effective annual income than farmers. IEA (1989) reported, an average annual income per family in Xapuri, Brazil from extracting rubber and nuts for local communities was US$960. If combined with other non-monetized activities such as fishing and hunting, the total annual income can be increased to us $1,500 per family. This is twice the earning of the general population in northern Brazil region. Non-wood forest products can be a major source of foreign exchange in some developing countries where the products have entered the international market and are taxed and recorded. For instance, 40% of the total revenue of the Forest Department in India in the 1990's are collected from non-wood forest products (Mukerji 1994). There was a 480% growth in export earning of non-wood forest products in Malaysia from 1986 to 1988. From 1982 to 1987, export revenues from non-wood products in Thailand, increased by 81% (de Beer and McDermott 1989). TRFs also contain many wild fruit plants, some of which are the ancestors and relatives of cultivated species, and many have medicinal properties or potential medicinal properties (Collins cited in McDermott 1988). Presently some 12,000 plants have been used for food but only about 2,000 have been domesticated and only about 150 commercially cultivated. Out of these, today, about 30 species provide approximately 90% of world's food supply (Mukerji 1997). In most villages in the Asia-Pacific region, domesticated fruit trees like Nephelium, Mangifera, Sandoricum and Eugenia, can be found planted by villagers (Wee and Rao 1980). Almost all of them have relatives in the forests. Petai (Parkia speciosa) for example, has generated between RM336,000 to
RM900,000 per annum depending on the locality in the domestic market (Aminuddin and Abd. Latif 1996). Woon et al. (1995) found that a combination of petai and durian (Durio spp.) land use option provides the highest net present value per hectare (RM42,461) compared with primary forest (RM266). Brazil nuts (Bertholletia excelsa), one of a few non-wood products traded on the international market, yielded $40 million in foreign exchange in 1988 for Brazil (CGBD 1989). Non-wood products can be a potential substitute to fossil fuel. The trunk of Copaifera langsdorfii, a leguminous tree of the Amazon produces an inflammable oil which is tapped and used locally as a replacement for kerosene (Whitmore 1990). Fuelwood and charcoal are important to local communities in developing countries as they are the major source of energy. Fuelwood and charcoal production world-wide grew 28% between 1975-77 and 1985-87 (WRI 1990). In 1985-87, fuelwood and charcoal production in South America, Asia and Africa were 67%, 75% and 88% of roundwood production respectively (WRI 1990). For millennia, the forest has been the source for man's medicinal needs. This fact is well documented in a number of early publications detailing the use of various plant parts for numerous ailments (Burkill 1966). Demand for medicinal products remains strong and stable in many countries especially in developing countries where up to 80% of the population may continue to depend on traditional remedies (WHO 1977). According to Whitmore (1990), America is the source of a muscle relaxant used in major surgery. Constituents of the arrow-poison curate is extracted from the root of a climber (Chondrodendron tomentosum) and quinine is collected from the bark of Cinchone. Cocaine also originates from South America which is prepared from the leaves of Erythroxylum coca. Diosgenin, a steroid used as the precursor molecule from which oral contraceptives and cortisone are made, originated from extracts from tubers of yam (Dioscorea), which can be found in the wild in both America and Africa. Extracts from Rauvolfia species, a shrub in both Africa and Asia, can produce reserpine, a cardiac glycoside, which reduces high blood pressure and also used to treat mental illness. The story goes on and on. In the Asia-Pacific, rattan, from the natural forest, is the major product from the forest after timber. Rattan cultivation has proved profitable both for small-holders and plantations in Indonesia and Malaysia. In 1983, rattan export earned Indonesia US$127 million, which represent 4% of the total value of Indonesia's entire timber export (Repetto and Gillis 1988). Indonesia provided 80% of world's rattan supply, of which 90% of the supply is obtained from the primary forests. The total gross value from rattan could amount to RM5 million (US$2 million) a month in Peninsular Malaysia. The value can increase to more than 21 to 25 times if rattan is processed as furniture or ropes and binds (Abd. Latif 1989, Abd. Latif and Aminuddin 1996). Total value of rattan furniture export in Malaysia increased 1,929% from 1985 to 1994, with a total value of RM 111.6 million (US$44 million) (Chew 1996). Production in Sarawak jumped from 533.7 tons in 1979 to 2,574 tons in 1987 (Pearce 1989). In addition to rattans, many others species of plants are widely utilized for craft-based industry include bamboo, kapok, and other species of palm, which are widely utilized as food wrappers, rice baskets, fish traps, and mats (Pearce 1989). Bamboo usually occurs in significant quantities in disturbed sites. World bamboo production is currently more than 10 million tons annually (Sharma 1980). In India, an estimated 2 million tons (dry weight) of bamboo provide 600,000 tons of paper pulp yearly (Lessard and Chouinard 1980). Abdul Razak and Abd. Latif (1988) estimated that bamboo covers an area of about 320,000 ha in Peninsular Malaysia with an estimated standing stock of about 7 million tons. The local market for bamboo products in Peninsular Malaysia is worth about RM3 (US$1.2 million) million annually (Aminuddin and Abd. Latif 1994). In Sarawak, locally woven mats and baskets are becoming popular with tourists (Pearce 1989). Orchids and pitcher plants are especially prized in Malaysia. The white slipper orchid (Paphiopedilum niveum), which is confined
to Langkawi Island, has been plundered by collectors (Kiew et al. 1985). Pitcher plants, especially Nepenthes rajah, which can fetch up to $1,000 per plant on overseas markets, can only be found in the mountains of Sabah and Sarawak and some collectors even use helicopters to reach the remote peaks (Briggs 1985). Forests are a biochemical storehouse. A large number of chemicals are present in various parts of the plants. Lignin is utilized for the manufacture of plastics, ion-exchange resins, soil stabilizers, rubber reinforces, fertilizers, vanillin, tanning agents, stabilizers for asphalt emulsions, and dispersants for oil-well drilling and for ceramic processing (Whitmore 1990). Cellulose can be utilized for rayon and plastics and as a raw material for hydrolysis to sugar which, using yeast, can be turned into alcohol and edible protein (Whitmore 1990). A good example is latex from the rubber tree which has demonstrated its commercial importance. In the past, the wood of Caesalpinia sappan was used to produce a red dye in Malaysia (Burkill 1966). Rhizophora mucronata which has high percentage of tannin in wood is used in the tanning industry (Burkill 1966). Forest dwellers in Malaysia collected resins from old and new wounds on some dipterocarp trees. Camphor, extracted from Dryobalanops aromatica, which was used for medicines, incense, and embalming, was a particularly important export from Sarawak (Han 1985). Amazon forest dwellers use Copaifera spp. Couma spp. Manilkara spp. trees to produce commercial resins or resinous oils (Dubois 1996). On an industrial scale, oil extracted from babassu palm (Attalea speciosa) kernels is used to produce soap or margarine (Balick 1988). A similar situation occurs with neem (Azadirachta indica) in India (Tewari 1992). Latex, resins, cosmetics, condiments, and other biochemical products that are exploited for their unique chemical properties may offer high value-added potential when collected and semiprocessed in the wilds. However, once their value in international trade passes a certain threshold, their production in developed countries is likely to be replaced by synthetic substitutes as what happened with natural dyes extracted from Caesalpinia sappan (Burkill 1966). Faunal non-wood forest products such as wild animals, birds, fishes, reptiles and insects are potential resources for game, food, fur and feathers which have commercially high value. Wildlife is critical to regional and local economies. To the rural population, wild animals and fish are the only non-vegetable protein (Clay 1988). In Africa, countries like Cameroon, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Zaire and Nigeria depended on wildlife (between 20 to 90%) as source of animal protein (de Vos 1977, Asibey 1978, Ajayi 1979). These animals range from elephants to small ungulates as well as rodents, reptiles, and birds. Afolayan (1980) estimated the total value of bushmeat in Nigeria at US$30 million. In Ghana, the annual bushmeat consumption was valued at US$7.36 million (de Vos 1977). In Peru, fish from the Amazon River are the major source of animal protein (Prance and Lovejoy 1985). Wildlife and fish not only provide food but also source of income to longhouse population in Sarawak (Caldecott 1987). Bearded pig (Sus barbatus) comprised 32% of the total consumption of meat and fish. Other wild meat such as mouse deer (Tragulus sp.), barking deer (Muntiacus sp.), and samber deer (Cervus unicolor) contributed 7%, fish 18%, and domestic pork, beef, and chicken made up the remainder. In 1984, total value of RM4 million (US$1.6 million) of bearded pig (10,200) and deer (1,400) were sent downstream along Rajang River, while 6,400 pig and 2,300 deer carcasses were purchased for local consumption. In Kapit, Sarawak, traders exported fish weighing 3,456 kg a month, with tenggadak (Puntius schwanenfeldii) being by far the most valuable (Caldecott 1987). RM100 million (US$40 million) is needed to replace 20,000 tons of wild meat harvested a year in Sarawak with domestic meat (Caldecott 1987). In Thailand more than 60% of the rural people depend on fish as their main source of animal protein (Brennan 1981). Pierret and Dourojeanni (1966) reported that despite the availability of cattle and domestic pigs, rural populations in Amazon consume about 85% meat from fish and wild meat (peccary, deer, and tapir). Rare species can provide significant local income and foreign
exchange. Butterflies, for instance, generated close to US$100 million through export worldwide in the eighties (Collins and Morris 1985). Malaysia, Philippines, India and Taiwan are the major exporting countries (Sayer 1990). Tourism is also a major source of income especially for African savanna countries. Kenya earned between US$350 million to US$450 million annually from tourism industries (Dixon and Sherman 1990). Nature-oriented tourism in Costa Rica generates between US$3 million and US$10 million annually (Laarman 1987). The park entrance fees alone, can generate US$200,000 yearly to Rwanda's economy (Weber and Vedder 1984). The TRF of Africa generate foreign exchange primarily through export of live animals. In 1985, Ghana generated US$0.5 million from export of 16 species of wild animals. WRI (1990) reported in 1986, Tanzania exported more than 84,000 parrots with an estimated value of around US$2.5 million. Worldwide, animal skins appear to have the greatest potential as raw materials for craft-based industry. However, the final processing of furs and pelts are taking place in the importing countries (Panayotou and Ashton 1992). While the above paragraphs indicate both the values obtained and potential of non wood forest resources, the fact remains that much needs yet to be done to develop the resource on a sustainable economic manner so that they can play a long term role in the economic life of the rural people. With few exceptions, nearly all the resources are harvested from nature and there is no security of supply, no control on quality and oftentimes the "tragedy of the commons" will come into play. With the diminishing and degraded forests remaining, problems of continued supply of non wood forest products are becoming real. Furthermore, there is very little scientific knowledge being generated through research on the biology, the physiology and the genetics of these resources. The initiative of the International Development Research Council (IDRC) of Canada to promote R&D in bamboo and rattan is lauded and this effort has culminated with the formation of INBAR (International Network on Bamboo and Rattan). However, bamboo and rattan are the only non-wood forest products that a dedicated international institution has been formed to address these products. While many national programmes exist addressing medicinal products from forests, it is the large multinationals from developed countries that are reaping the harvests from this resource. Much more R&D needs to be undertaken, but who should do it and where can the funds come from? An international global strategy needs to be developed and resources redirected from less relevant/urgent programmes. The task is urgent and requires a concerted effort by both national governments and international bodies. The first urgent task is to ensure that the resources do not become extinct. A concerted effort needs to be launched to identify the resources which are endangered due to over use or destruction of the ecosystem and a resource conservation programme developed. Modern scientific techniques using cryopreservation and/or other biotechnological techniques need to be used to conserve those resources identified. Institutions with the capacity to undertake such activities must be adequately funded to enable them, especially national institutions, to do so. The second urgent task is to identify areas of potential and develop dedicated programmes. For example, the world will need to find an economic renewable and environmentally friendly fuel to replace fossil fuels. It is also a long term strategy. While Malaysia has succeeded to produce products from oil palm to run specially designed car engines, the potentials of other alternatives such as the Amazon Copaitera langsdorfii need to be investigated. Other potential resources for fuel energy calls for urgent attention. As the world depends on energy in all human activities, the pursuit of alternative energy sources to fossil-fuel, is a challenge that the forestry community, especially R&D, should undertake. The forestry community through the planting of trees and custodian of the global forest resources, has a tremendous opportunity to truly create an impact on human lives through the development of an environmentally friendly, renewable and sustainable energy source. However, we cannot sit on our laurels but have to mobilise our energies and commit ourselves to
the cause. There may be other areas of potential that urgently need our attention, such as in the field of pharmaceuticals from the forest. High value products hold the key to the economic use of our forests and there is an urgent need to identify and develop them. Finally, there is the area of R&D. Forestry research and forestry science lag far behind other sciences. Information technology and the science of electronics have developed by leaps and bounds over the last decades and agricultural sciences have progressed significantly as well. However, the sciences of forestry has stagnated and lagged behind. While ICRAF and CIFOR are now in the CGIAR (Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research), we are over 20 years behind IRRI, CIAT and the other international institutions addressing agriculture research. In terms of finances and trained manpower, forestry research is far behind agriculture. The same lack of support is reflected in national programmes worldwide and the propensity to reduce forestry programmes in developed nations is a real cause of concern. Thus, while non-wood forest products could hold the key to the survival of forestry as a discipline and as a profession, there is so much to be done in understanding the production systems of these products. Until they are truly understood, there is little likelihood that their full potential can be harnessed. Previous Section Next Section What is a Pdf file ? |
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