A research which can support our understanding of how to develop the agriculture sector of a developing country.
Dear colleagues in West Africa,
"Concern" is commited to sharing ideas on their understanding of the challenges, weaknesses and limitations of social protection programmes in West Africa and to provide recommendations to address them.
Today it is widely recognized that there is serious lack of financial protection in many homes. There is wide empirical evidence that reducing the risk from shocks, by relaxing short term credit and resource constraints, is crucial for increasing productivity and investments which in turn should stimulate economic growth and reduce poverty. Although they differ in their generosity across countries, in most cases they provide a minimum of compensation in the event of illness, unemployment or retirement. In Africa, the implementation of these kinds of safety nets has just started. Moreover they often only cover a small share of the total population in need. BARRETT, C. (2006)
The implementation of social security is particularly difficult in Africa, because most of the countries in that region face serious budget constraints, making it almost impossible to finance often rather expensive insurances systems. In addition, the implementation and management of social security systems requires quite complex institutions which, again, are not available in most of these countries. Many low and middle income countries have secure to introduce many social protection programs but however it was only able to cover a small portion of the population, usually they only cover employees in the public and private formal sector. So unless a significant formalization of the entire labour force occurs, the large majority of the poor usually associated with the non-salaried and informal sector will remain excluded from social protection programs in the future.
It is also argued that the receipt of public funds discourages work effort because beneficiaries choose to engage in more leisure instead. Additionally, in cases where strict means testing a targeting method based on income is used, individuals may worry that if they work too much, they will lose access to their benefits. In addition to the effect on labor incentives, public safety net programs may change incentives of private individuals to assist family and friends; social safety nets might crowd out informal safety nets such as private transfers. ARDINGTON, C. C., A. & HOSEGOOD (2007)
The safety nets also focus on their affordability in highly resource constrained environments. Such concerns are often couched in terms of trade-offs between different forms of poor expenditures. However, this concern exaggerates the costs of many well targeted programs. Frequently social protection programs are less than 1 percent of gross national product (GNP), an amount that can often be financed by reallocating from unproductive expenditures that offer little tangible benefit for the poor.
Therefore it is important to explore how these problems can be tackled and to think about alternatives which could be used in the meantime. One measure that can be implementing is providing financial aid through partnership between bilateral or multilateral donor and an international NGO, which together provide the driving force in terms of project initiation and design, funding, technical assistance, monitoring, and evaluation. BARRIENTOS, A., HOLMES, R. & SCOTT, J.2008
Another initiative is to use an integrated, in order to exploit the opportunities for cash transfers and social welfare services. This can be used to ensure that cash transfers reach the poorest and most vulnerable persons, enhance protection outcomes and avoid negative impacts. An integrated approach means developing comprehensive national social protection strategies, rather than piece-meal approaches, preventing the ‘crowding out’ of social welfare services and applying an integrated approach, especially in ministries that have responsibility for a range of benefit programs and services
REFERENCES:
BARRETT, C. Food Aid's Intended and Unintended Consequences. Background Paper for FAO State of Food and Agriculture 2006.
ARDINGTON, C. C., A. & HOSEGOOD. "Labor supply responses to large social transfers: longitudinal evidence from South Africa." NBER Working Paper (2007)
BARRIENTOS, A., HOLMES, R. & SCOTT, J. Social Assistance in DevelopingCountries Database. Version 4.0. Brooks World Poverty Institute. (2008)
Chers collègues en Afrique de l'Ouest
« Concern » cherche à favoriser l'échange d'idées sur les différentes visions des défis, des faiblesses et des limitations des programmes de protection sociale en Afrique de l'Ouest et à formuler des recommandations pour les améliorer.
Aujourd’hui, tout le monde reconnaît que beaucoup de ménages manquent cruellement de protection financière. Nombreuses sont les preuves empiriques qui démontrent qu'il est crucial de réduire les risques résultant de choc divers, en allégeant les restrictions imposées aux ressources et aux crédits à court terme, afin d'accroître la productivité des investissements et contribuer ainsi à stimuler la croissance économique et à réduire la pauvreté. Bien qu’à des degrés variables dans les différents pays, ces programmes fournissent généralement un socle minimum de compensations en cas de maladie, de chômage ou de retraite. En Afrique, la mise en oeuvre de ce type de filet de sécurité est encore récente. Qui plus est, ils ne couvrent souvent qu’un petit pourcentage de la population totale dans le besoin. BARRETT, C. (2006)
La mise en place de programmes de sécurité sociale est particulièrement complexe en Afrique, car la plupart des pays de cette région ont des ressources budgétaires très limitées qui rendent presque impossible le financement de systèmes d'assurance souvent onéreux. En outre, la mise en oeuvre et la gestion de système de sécurité sociale passent par l'existence d'institutions relativement complexes qui font défaut dans la plupart des pays. De nombreux pays à revenu faible et intermédiaire ont réussi à introduire différents programmes de protection sociale, mais ceux-ci ne couvrent toutefois un petit pourcentage de la population, souvent limité aux employés du secteur formel public et privé. Par conséquent, faute d'une formalisation importante de l'ensemble de la main-d'oeuvre, la grande majorité des pauvres, généralement associés au secteur informel et non salarié, restera en marge des programmes de protection sociale.
Certains affirment également que le fait de recevoir des fonds publics décourage l'effort vis-à-vis du travail, car les bénéficiaires préfèrent ne pas travailler. De plus, lorsque la méthode de ciblage est basée sur le revenu, les individus peuvent se demander s'ils ne risquent pas, en travaillant trop, de perdre l'accès à ces bénéfices. Outre l'effet qu'ils peuvent avoir sur les incitations au travail, les programmes publics de sécurité sociale peuvent également avoir une incidence sur la façon dont les individus aident leur famille et leurs amis; les filets de sécurité sociale peuvent en effet déplacer les filets de sécurité informels tels que les transferts privés. ARDINGTON, C. C., A. & HOSEGOOD (2007)
Les filets de sécurité sont également axés sur leur accessibilité financière dans des contextes caractérisés par de fortes limitations de ressources. Ces préoccupations sont souvent formulées en termes de compensations entre différents types de dépenses en faveur des pauvres. Cette préoccupation exagère toutefois les coûts que représentent de nombreux programmes bien ciblés. Souvent, les programmes de protection sociale représentent moins de 1 % du produit national brut (PNB), somme qui peut généralement être financée par la réaffectation de dépenses improductives dont les bénéfices pour les pauvres sont peu tangibles.
C'est pourquoi il est important d'analyser comment ces différents problèmes peuvent être abordés et, entre-temps, envisager différentes alternatives. Une des mesures possibles est la fourniture d'une aide financière moyennant un partenariat entre un donateur bilatéral ou multilatéral et une ONG internationale, qui agirait comme moteur dans le lancement et l'élaboration de projets, son financement, l'assistance technique, le suivi et l'évaluation. BARRIENTOS, A., HOLMES, R. et SCOTT, J.2008
Une autre possibilité serait d'appliquer un programme intégré afin de tirer parti des possibilités de transferts monétaires et de services de protection sociale. Ceci peut garantir que les transferts monétaires parviennent aux plus pauvres et aux plus vulnérables, renforcent les résultats de la protection et évitent les impacts négatifs. Une approche intégrée implique que l'élaboration de stratégies globales de protection sociale à l'échelle nationale, plutôt que des approches fragmentées, de façon à éviter l'effet « d'éviction » entre les services de bien-être social et l'application d'une approche intégrée, en particulier au sein des ministères chargés des différents programmes et services de bénéfices.
RÉFÉRENCES:
BARRETT, C. Food Aid's Intended and Unintended Consequences. Background Paper for FAO State of Food and Agriculture 2006.
ARDINGTON, C. C., A. & HOSEGOOD. "Labor supply responses to large social transfers: longitudinal evidence from South Africa." NBER Working Paper (2007)
BARRIENTOS, A., HOLMES, R. & SCOTT, J. Social Assistance in DevelopingCountries Database. Version 4.0. Brooks World Poverty Institute. (2008)
Dear colleagues in West Africa,
"Concern" embodies the sentiments of an assembly of students of the University of Guyana committed to sharing ideas on their understanding of social protection and how these programmes can address the needs of West African countries.
In West African countries households and individuals usually have to deal with the instability of the global economy, conflict, disease, unpredictable weather and climate change. This may result in harvest shocks, death or unemployment of the breadwinner for the family, accidents leading to disability and illnesses which requires a lot of finance. Hence, shocks have an unfavorable impact on many households and may push them further into poverty and prevent others from escaping. (Oduro, 2010)
Therefore the implementation of social protection programmes are necessary to provide assistance to those vulnerable individuals such as children, women, elderly, disabled, displaced, unemployed, and the sick. The existence of ‘safety nets’ such as the provision of emergency assistance after a drought or flood can prevent households from falling into poverty traps. These programmes provide households with the desired push needed to recover quickly from unfavorable events. “Social protection programmes can take many forms such as transfers of cash through welfare payments, child allowances, or pensions; in-kind transfers such as food aid or school feeding programs; subsidies to goods purchased by the poor; or unemployment insurance and public works or workfare schemes.”
Social protection provides a level of security which gives small entrepreneurs the motivation needed to make investments, which can foster economic growth in West African countries. The provision of additional resources enables individuals and households to enhance their diet and improve their nutrition level. This results in productivity gain from improved physical capacity and reduced child and infant mortality levels. Promoting equity and reducing inequality is one of the key functions of social protection programmes. This facilitates the redistribution of wealth between different population categories. (Hoddinott, J. 2008)
In summary the proper implementation of social protection programmes in West African countries, will provide assistance to poor individuals, households and communities which will enhance their present and future well being and give them to capacity to manage risks better.
References:
Badiane, O., S. Odjo, and J. Ulimwengu. 2011. Emerging Policies and Partnerships under CAADP: Implication for Long-Term Growth, Food Security, and Poverty Reduction. Discussion Paper 1145. Washington, DC: IFPRI.
Devereux, S., and P. White. 2010. “Social Protection in Africa: Evidence, Politics and Rights.” Poverty & Public Policy 2 (3).
Hoddinott, J. 2008. Social Safety Nets and Productivity Enhancing Investments in Agriculture. IFPRI Discussion Paper. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Instit ute.
Oduro, A. D. (2010). Formal and Informal Social Protection in sub‐Saharan Africa
Chers collègues d'Afrique de l'Ouest,
« Concern » exprime la vision d’étudiants de l'Université du Guyana à propos de la protection sociale et de la façon dont les programmes de ce type peuvent répondre aux besoins des pays d'Afrique occidentale.
Les ménages et les personnes vivant dans les pays d'Afrique occidentale sont généralement confrontés aux fluctuations de l'économie mondiale, aux conflits, aux maladies, aux aléas et au changement climatiques. Ceci peut provoquer des chocs en termes de récoltes, de décès ou de chômage du soutien de famille, d'accidents pouvant conduire à l’invalidité ou à des maladies très onéreuses. Par conséquent, ces chocs ont des effets néfastes sur la plupart des ménages, peuvent aggraver la pauvreté de certains d'entre eux et en empêcher d'autres de sortir de la pauvreté.
C'est pourquoi il est indispensable de mettre en place des programmes de protection sociale qui fournissent une aide aux plus vulnérables, c'est-à-dire les enfants, les femmes, les personnes âgées, les personnes handicapées, les personnes déplacées, les chômeurs et les malades. L’existence de « filets de sécurité », par exemple la fourniture d'une aide d'urgence après une sécheresse ou une inondation, peut empêcher les ménages de tomber dans les pièges de la pauvreté. Ces programmes donnent aux ménages le coup de pouce nécessaire pour se récupérer rapidement d'événements défavorables. Les « programmes de protection sociale » peuvent adopter des formes multiples comme les transferts monétaires moyennant les allocations de sécurité sociale, les allocations familiales ou les pensions; des transferts en nature, tels que l'aide alimentaire ou les programmes d'alimentation scolaire; le subventionnement de biens achetés par les pauvres; ou une assurance-chômage et des travaux publics ou des dispositifs d'aide à l'emploi. »
La protection sociale fournit un socle de sécurité grâce auquel les petits entrepreneurs se sentent motivés à réaliser des investissements qui peuvent stimuler la croissance économique dans les pays d'Afrique occidentale. L'apport de ressources additionnelles permet aux individus et aux ménages de renforcer leur régime alimentaire et d'améliorer leur niveau nutritionnel. Ceci se traduit par des gains de productivité résultant de l'amélioration des capacités physiques et de la réduction de la mortalité des enfants et des nouveau-nés. Une des principales fonctions des programmes de protection sociale est de promouvoir l'équité et de réduire les inégalités. Ceci facilite la redistribution de la richesse entre les différentes couches de la population.
En résumé, une application correcte de programmes de protection sociale dans les pays d'Afrique occidentale permettrait d'apporter une aide aux individus, aux ménages et aux communautés pauvres qui contribuera à l'amélioration de leur bien-être présent et futur et de leur capacité de gérer les risques.
Références:
Badiane, O., S. Odjo, and J. Ulimwengu. 2011. Emerging Policies and Partnerships under CAADP: Implication for Long-Term Growth, Food Security, and Poverty Reduction. Discussion Paper 1145. Washington, DC: IFPRI.
Devereux, S., and P. White. 2010. “Social Protection in Africa: Evidence, Politics and Rights.” Poverty & Public Policy 2 (3).
Hoddinott, J. 2008. Social Safety Nets and Productivity Enhancing Investments in Agriculture. IFPRI Discussion Paper. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Instit ute.
Oduro, A. D. (2010). Formal and Informal Social Protection in sub‐Saharan Africa
Concern: concern embodies the sentiments of an assembly of students of the University of Guyana committed to sharing ideas on how we can improve food security across time horizons for our peoples. The dynamism of this topic (Food Security) will see us drawing lessons from many sources and fields of taught. Emphasis of our contributions will focus on developing countries as the core of our ideas. Food Security is an important subject!
“Concern” contributions will reflect the views of each student as far as possible.
The question of how food can be secure across time horizons in developing countries is full of challenges to leaders. Nothing is static in real terms. The dynamics of change demand actions to improve nutrition to all people especially the poor. The identification of social relationships by Ms E. Omosa in the rural setting recognizes what sociologists refer to as “community spirit” which was most forceful in earlier times.
As an urban dweller evidence of how the market system has eroded social relationships is everywhere. Everything has a market price. Attitudes and behavior of urban residents reflect self interest and aggression toward those in need. Shift from community spirit to a competitive posture has taken hold. Waibel and Schmidt[1] (2000) argued for a more active role for cities in securing food. However, this is through the market. Given the commercialization of food production much of the social relations of “old times” are continuously neutralized or squeeze. However, this outcome provides for new types of relationships.
Urban setting is dominated by numerous types of groups. Community food clubs can be a vibrant mechanism used to disseminate food and information on the accessibility of cheap and free food. This sort of information can be valuable particularly to the urban poor. Arrangements of this nature need to be flexible and effective in getting across information in a timely manner. How information is collected can take many forms; to illustrate; an established member in the community or someone with connections to farmers’ associations or cooperatives could be used. State intervention can be used to provision of information and the setting up of sites where the same can be obtained. The fact that in urban settings people are bonded together by other factors than kinship is an opportunity. In Guyana, many new schemes and enclosed communities are popping up around it main city. Events such as community days or village days are ripe with potential for food sharing.
In conclusion, clubs, societies, village days are among potential avenues through which social relationships can be used to secure food. In a sense, these mediums are free of the barriers that would other exist. They also work as effective mediums to partially neutralize the impact of the market system. Hence, we can secure food in urban areas by forming new settings to accommodate for changing social relationships.
[1] Feeding Asian Cities: Food Production and Processing Issues Abstract
By Hermann Waibel and Erich Schmidt
The 2006 World Food Summit (WFS) defined the concept of food security as when “all people at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food which meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.”
This definition included nutrition relative to the previous concept. Nutrition in developing countries is not valued as highly as it should be. In the developed world, nutrition is vital to the development of human capital. In recent years, diabetes, high blood pressure; stroke, heart diseases, and cancer have been on the rise. They have replaced malnutrition and transmittable diseases as major public health problems. This goes in accordance with the paper, “The Agriculture, Food and Health Challenge” that was released in 2009 by Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture (IICA).
In recent times, developed countries have introduced several measures to help eradicate the harm to public health as a result of poor nutrition. In Guyana, for example, stakeholders inclusive of small farmers are advocating for a reversal of the current trend of consumption. Shifts from processed foods, beverages, and other such food products lose much of their valuable nutritional capacity rendering them less wholesome to foods produced organically.
Fresh food and fruits are abundant in Guyana. However, a major challenge to small farmers is getting that food to the people who want it. In a sense, this is a typical case of market failure. The inability of sellers and buyers to meet or food to reach to those who desire it most is not occurring. This results in a natural case where the food which actually reaches the market is sold at higher prices resulting in lesser consumption. This tragedy has harmed both famers and consumers. Opportunity is here created for all stakeholders’ government, civil society, and the private sector to work together and bridge the gap.
It has been estimated that on average Guyanese do not consume 2 serving of fruits per day. Such estimates reflect less than half of what is required. The majority opt for aerated beverages over water, or fruit juices. One should note that manufactured fruit juices are not as healthy as they may appear; the sugar level and the amount of preservatives added often neutralize the vitamins that were there to begin with. Yet Guyanese prefer those products over the local juices available.
With these choices that consumers tend to make, it is not surprising that outcome is ill health. Many of the consumers of these processed foods are children, teens and young adults, when one takes a good look at what happening, it is deplorable. In another 10 years when these children turn into adults, the rate we are currently seeing they are likely to have a number of health related issues. This is not a future we would like to have.
Some of the measures that can be taken to help prevent these inevitable outcomes are; reshaping the way the population sees agriculture and its products. This refers to educating the public of the blatant blunders in their judgment as it comes to food consumption. The media plays a central role in this aspect. Advertisements and programs can be broadcast to expose the nation to the better ways of living and should also reveal the detrimental effects that not reforming can have on them all. This would enable the population to greatly change their skewed perspective of what agriculture is and the benefits of fresh agriculture produce. Many are under the impression that consuming local products is a sign of being inferior to the high class of society. This false impression should be washed away form the minds of the people through sensitizing programs.
Government can have a program which is aimed at strictly sensitizing the public of their nutrition and what they can do about it, to improve it. Schools and women should be major targets because children are easier to mold than adults, women are the ones who often do the cooking and therefore if they are educated in better nutritional practices it will better the entire family. Families are what make up communities. The spill off effect of such a simple feat would lead to such major improvements in nutrition. Agriculture pays a major role in better nutrition; after all the products which are consumed all stem from the agriculture sector. Educate the population about better nutrition and the agriculture sector is bound to flourish.
Effective Governance Contribution to Nutrition Enhancement in Developing Countries
“Good governance of the nutrition sector entails making adequate policy decisions in a timely manner, committing the necessary financial and organisational resources to their effective implementation, that is ensuring that benefits reach the majority of the population, preferably the most vulnerable. Good governance also entails a sustained political commitment to ensure that nutrition programmes and policies are able to withstand threats and constraints from changes in national leadership and political and socioeconomic upheavals.” [1]
Effective governance is essential in developing countries in order to provide strong leadership and to efficiently coordinate policies and programmes to eliminate food and nutrition insecurity. Therefore the following changes need to be embraced in order to accomplish goals for nutrition enhancement in developing countries.
Governance need to encourage the participation of actors from the state, market and civil society in the decision making process. Their collaboration is vital in order to design and implement nutrition policies that cater for the ‘most vulnerable groups, including women, food insecure households and small scale farmers’. All individuals should have equal access to resources and opportunities to enhance their welfare.
Impartial legal frameworks need to be enforced in developing countries in order to ensure that the right of every individual is protected. "An independent judiciary and an impartial and incorruptible police force will also be required for efficiency."
Fundamental information related to nutrition budget expenditure should be transparent and accessible by the private sector as well as the civil society.
Lastly, “all organizations should also be accountable to individuals who would be affected by their decision. Not only governmental institutions but also the private sector and civil society organizations must be accountable to the public and to their institutional stakeholders. Who is accountable to whom, varies depending on whether decisions or actions taken are internal or external to an organization or institution.” [2]
Sources:
[ [1] ]Solon, F.S. (2007) ‘Good Governance for Nutrition in the Philippines: Elements, Experiences, and Lessons Learned’, Food and Nutrition Bulletin 27.4: 343–52
[ [2] ] UnitedNations. (2013). What is Good Governance? Thailand: United Nations Economic & Social Commissionfor Asia & the Pacific. Retreivedfrom:http://www.unescap.org/pdd/prs/ProjectActivities/Ongoing/gg/governance.asp
UNDP (1997) Governance for Sustainable Human Development. United Nations Development Programme
Concern: concern embodies the sentiments of an assembly of students of the University of Guyana committed to sharing ideas on how we can improve food security across time horizons for our peoples. The dynamism of this topic (Food Security) will see us drawing lessons from many sources and fields of taught. Emphasis of our contributions will focus on developing countries as the core of our ideas. Food Security is an important subject!
“Concern” contributions will reflect the views of each student as far as possible.
Unleashing current and future constrain through partnerships and enhanced nutrition today
The well-being of developing countries and their peoples are hinged on several components of which ‘partnership and nutrition’ are significant. Partnership, however, especially among Government, Private Sector, and Civil Society is no easy feat. The goals of these bodies often collide resulting in many destabilizing outcomes injurious to citizenry. Nevertheless, “…recognition and respect of differences in ideologies, values, interests and practices among partners…[1]” (all else equal) can provide the bridge needed to set the motion of progress forward.
An example of partnership among the agents stated above can be seen in “Kenya Private Sector Alliance (KEPSA)[2]” which “partners with civil society to advocate for sound policies. Another reference can drawn from the wide spread support garnered to address the issue to HIV/AIDS. Today, changes in attitudes, behaviour, and institution have had major impact on the fight of this life taking disease.
What is the point? Where the right issues are identified coupled with partnerships and the common will to achieve a set goal, that objective becomes a reality. The issue of nutrition is one of grave importance to a nation. Poor nutrition has a certain kind of a “circular cumulative trap”. Its impact on over-all health and well-being is deep. Poor health contributes to high mortality rate, high health cost, to the firm, low productivity, absenteeism, among others.
Developing countries need the right types and design of policies which will provide space for these three agents to operate. The private sector needs to know its property is protected and the existence of an independent judiciary, civil society is concern about security to execute their agenda. The role of government is to use it policy making leverage to create institutions which will allow for the innovative capacity of both the private sector and civil society to move process. Practical lessons can be learnt from China[3] and Brazil[4] which provides modern approach to agriculture.
For there to be genuine change in the nutritional value derived from our farm products it is critical that all three agents herein recognize their role. Policy formation should be coordinated among the agents to design the needed institutions to influence all sectors inclusive of technological development component.
-----------
[1] Government, Private Sector and Civil Society for Sustainable Development: Toward a Collaborative Synergy in Latin America
[2] How can the private sector effectively partner with civil society to promote good governance in Kenya? (Raphael Obonyo 2013)
[3] China’s Agricultural Policies and Rural Development
[4] Policy, Technology, and Efficiency of Brazilian Agriculture
Concern 3
Challenges and opportunities – needs for support and interventions
According to the FAO’s State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture Report 2012, more than 90% of all capture fishers are operating in the small-scale sector, with women playing a key role in post-harvest activities. The livelihoods of about 357 million people, primarily in developing countries, depend on the sector which often constitutes a fundamental way of life as well as an important economic activity. These guidelines establish principles and criteria for the elaboration and implementation of policies and strategies for the enhancement of small-scale fisheries governance and development. It also provides practical guidance for implementation of these policies and strategies. However, theses guideline are subject to challenges as it regards to the implementation process.
Meeting present and future food needs, ensuring environmental integrity and providing income and employment in the fishery sector is a balancing act given the finite productive capacity of resources and a complex challenge given the uncertainty over this productivity. However, addressing these issues is what makes governance possibly the most complex of the challenges. There are potentially many stakeholders who may wish to gain access to, or control over fisheries resources or influence management decisions. These individuals and groups may have very differing views of what sustainability is, based on their world views and attitudes to risk, and therefore what sorts of priorities, decisions and outcomes would be appropriate for a fishery.
Due to poverty and vulnerability, small-scale fishing communities may lack the incentives to participate in resource management and these aspects of poverty need to be addressed first, or simultaneously. Appropriate incentive structures (institutional, legal, economic, and social) are needed to enable small-scale fishing communities to sustainably manage the aquatic resources they and future generations depend on for their well-being without jeopardizing their social and economic development.
It is important to create opportunities for exchange of views among stakeholder groups to learn from each other. Accordingly, for both implementation and monitoring along with the development of capacity at all levels, appropriate institutional arrangements are required, including partnerships for policy formulation and involvement of grassroots level organizations. Partnerships among all stakeholders are critical for this process. Many opportunities for establishing and strengthening these partnerships already exist and given financial and human resource constraints, existing platforms and institutional arrangements should be used for this purpose. Fisheries agencies for example could interact with peers in other countries and regional organizations (e.g. in Africa, NEPAD Sub-regional Fisheries Commission, in Asia, SEAFDEC, ASEAN, SPC etc.) could play a critical role in facilitating regional, sub regional and national implementation strategies and plans focusing on the issues pertinent to the specific regions and countries.
In the Philippines for example, the Fisheries Code endorses the establishment of Fisheries and Aquatic Resource Management Councils, formed by fisheries organizations, cooperatives and NGOs at the national, municipal and village level, which are mandated to carry out a number of advisory functions in close collaboration with the local government units. Existing inter-sectoral processes and collaborative arrangements such as for climate change adaptation, coastal zone management or socio-economic development and planning at different level are other potential entry points.
FURTHER READINGS: Toward sustainable fisheries management by M.R.A.G.
Supporting instruments for the Implementation of small fisheries guidelines
A key starting point in establishing a sustainable platform can be capacity building of users within targeted zones. By zones we mean fishing areas where several communities or tribes derive their living. Training and education organized through private public partnership can serve as instruments to sensitize users of risks associated with poor practices relative to that of a sustainable behavior. Education in this context of sustainability needs to be mindful of the user background especially in developing countries (DC). Many fishers in DC are so by possibly culture or socialization. Hence, terms such as open access, replenishing rate, depletion and so on may have little value. This form of education must be specialized so that the issues are clearly understood. In addition, information dissemination through technological sources where possible can also provide a ready source of prompt response to users with uncertainty regarding usage of these zones. Training will target best practices.
Odusina identified the role of advocacy as a critical component in supporting the implementation of voluntary guideline of SSF. However, by extension, the nature of advocacy should also focus on empowering citizens not only for change but to enforce change. This enforcement capacity has been the weakness of several types of implementations whether it be laws or otherwise. Therefore, to ensure cohesion between guidelines and practice capacity needs to be built so that enforcement is achievable. When enforcement is possible, accountability across all levels becomes a realistic objective.
One of the engines to support the implementation process is partnerships. By partnerships we mean lobbying governments in DC to provide an enabling environment for the Private Sector, NGO, Civil Society, FBO and other organization to freely participate in the process of implementation. Legislative protection must also be part of this partnership framework. It would be difficult for some of these groups to work effectively in potentially challenging environment without a sense of protection. It is natural for people to try to circumvent at some point, rules they may have agreed to sometime in the past. Therefore legislative enactments serve as a deterrent motivating factor.
Finally, to achieve optimal compliance some form of verification and monitoring should be established. Where zones require the use of small boats licensing, would be insufficient to influence operators to adhere to these rules since a cost may be imposed. Therefore to the extent whereby deviation of standard practice is observed a form of corrective measure should be applied to ensure that norms are upheld.
Concern 3
What will be required at the local, regional and global levels to ensure an effective partnership?
Small-scale fishing is much more significant than most people realize. Like small-scale agriculture, small-scale fishing is widespread and crucial to employment and food supply in innumerable communities in developing nations, where some 95 percent of all fishers ply their trade (FAO 2002a) quoted in (Yumiko, et al., 2004).
Raising awareness of the importance of small-scale fisheries is particularly relevant not only because these livelihoods depend on sustainable use of the natural resource base, but also because these fisheries provide vital local nutritious food and a safety net for many poor households in coastal communities in developing countries (World Bank, 2010).
In addressing the issues of communication among small scale fisheries one need to first address the issues by strengthening the political and economic rights of the small-scale fisheries actors, empowerment and capacity building. Fishing communities should have access to health, education and other social services. Their resilience needs to be increased – in general and with regard to natural disasters and climate change consequences in particular. It requires a focus on reducing vulnerabilities and promoting responsible fishing practices together with addressing social and economic development needs. While some experience exists from such integration of resource governance and social development, tools and methods still need to be developed in order that environmental, resource and community rights and sustainability are considered concurrently.
When it comes to ensuring an effective partnership at the local level strengthening local organizational structures help people to be represented and take part in decision-making processes. There is a need to work with communities to enhance their organizational capacity, building on existing structures and strengths. The focus should be on enabling individuals and institutions to effectively use their newly acquired capacity to address their priority needs. Also at the local level the evolving of women isimportant because about (47 percent) of women, mainly engaged in the post-harvest activities, handling the fish after it is caught and ensuring that this important source of nutrition reaches more than 1 billion consumers for whom fish is a key component of their diets (World Bank, 2010).
Moreover, an effective partnership at the regional level can be promoted by fostering a link between stakeholders NGOs and research institutions. These organizations often have specific skills in training extension, communication and research that can assist both government and communities with their responsibilities for fisheries management. These organizations can also help local managers formulate and evaluate their management plans by providing knowledge and advice and helping design and implement effective data collection systems. Other important related roles might include developing communication networks and facilitating information sharing.
Additionally at the global level ensuring an effective partnership can be implemented by supporting knowledge mobilization, leadership capabilities (of men and women), research partnerships and the use of effective communication tools (making use of new technologies and social media). Programs and networks for experience sharing and collaboration would aid in the context of strengthening existing organizations and ensuring that the necessary institutional structures and capacity are in place to secure sustainable small-scale fisheries. Also the need for empowerment through organizational development and collective actions is one of the key elements of SSF Guidelines implementation.
Further readings International Guidelines for Securing Sustainable Small-scale Fisheries,2012. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Challenges and opportunities – needs for support and interventions
According to the FAO’s State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture Report 2012, more than ninety percent (90%) of all capture fishers are operating in the small-scale sector, with women playing a key role in post-harvest activities. The livelihoods of about 357 million people, primarily in developing countries, depend on the sector which often constitutes a fundamental way of life as well as an important economic activity. These guidelines establish principles and criteria for the elaboration and implementation of policies and strategies for the enhancement of small-scale fisheries governance and development. It also provides practical guidance for implementation of these policies and strategies. However, theses guideline are subject to challenges as it regards to the implementation process.
Meeting present and future food needs, ensuring environmental integrity and providing income and employment in the fishery sector is a balancing act given the finite productive capacity of resources and a complex challenge given the uncertainty over this productivity. However, addressing these issues is what makes governance possibly the most complex of the challenges. There are potentially many stakeholders who may wish to gain access to, or control over fisheries resources or influence management decisions. These individuals and groups may have very differing views of what sustainability is, based on their world views and attitudes to risk, and therefore what sorts of priorities, decisions and outcomes would be appropriate for a fishery.
Due to poverty and vulnerability, small-scale fishing communities may lack the incentives to participate in resource management and these aspects of poverty need to be addressed first, or simultaneously. Appropriate incentive structures (institutional, legal, economic, and social) are needed to enable small-scale fishing communities to sustainably manage the aquatic resources they and future generations depend on for their well-being without jeopardizing their social and economic development.
It is important to create opportunities for exchange of views among stakeholder groups to learn from each other. Accordingly, for both implementation and monitoring along with the development of capacity at all levels, appropriate institutional arrangements are required, including partnerships for policy formulation and involvement of grassroots level organizations. Partnerships among all stakeholders are critical for this process. Many opportunities for establishing and strengthening these partnerships already exist and given financial and human resource constraints, existing platforms and institutional arrangements should be used for this purpose. Fisheries agencies for example could interact with peers in other countries and regional organizations (e.g. in Africa, NEPAD Sub-regional Fisheries Commission, in Asia, SEAFDEC, ASEAN, SPC etc.) could play a critical role in facilitating regional, sub regional and national implementation strategies and plans focusing on the issues pertinent to the specific regions and countries.
In the Philippines for example, the Fisheries Code endorses the establishment of Fisheries and Aquatic Resource Management Councils, formed by fisheries organizations, cooperatives and NGOs at the national, municipal and village level, which are mandated to carry out a number of advisory functions in close collaboration with the local government units. Existing inter-sectoral processes and collaborative arrangements such as for climate change adaptation, coastal zone management or socio-economic development and planning at different level are other potential entry points.
FURTHER READINGS: Toward sustainable fisheries management by M.R.A.G.
Supporting instruments for the Implementation of small fisheries guidelines
A key starting point in establishing a sustainable platform can be capacity building of users within targeted zones. By zones we mean fishing areas where several communities or tribes derive their living. Training and education organized through private public partnership can serve as instruments to sensitize users of risks associated with poor practices relative to that of a sustainable behavior. Education in this context of sustainability needs to be mindful of the user background especially in developing countries (DC). Many fishers in DC are so by possibly culture or socialization. Hence, terms such as open access, replenishing rate, depletion and so on may have little value. This form of education must be specialized so that the issues are clearly understood. In addition, information dissemination through technological sources where possible can also provide a ready source of prompt response to users with uncertainty regarding usage of these zones. Training will target best practices.
Odusina identified the role of advocacy as a critical component in supporting the implementation of voluntary guideline of SSF. However, by extension, the nature of advocacy should also focus on empowering citizens not only for change but to enforce change. This enforcement capacity has been the weakness of several types of implementations whether it be laws or otherwise. Therefore, to ensure cohesion between guidelines and practice capacity needs to be built so that enforcement is achievable. When enforcement is possible, accountability across all levels becomes a realistic objective.
One of the engines to support the implementation process is partnerships. By partnerships we mean lobbying governments in DC to provide an enabling environment for the Private Sector, NGO, Civil Society, FBO and other organization to freely participate in the process of implementation. Legislative protection must also be part of this partnership framework. It would be difficult for some of these groups to work effectively in potentially challenging environment without a sense of protection. It is natural for people to try to circumvent at some point, rules they may have agreed to sometime in the past. Therefore legislative enactments serve as a deterrent motivating factor.
Finally, to achieve optimal compliance some form of verification and monitoring should be established. Where zones require the use of small boats licensing, would be insufficient to influence operators to adhere to these rules since a cost may be imposed. Therefore to the extent whereby deviation of standard practice is observed a form of corrective measure should be applied to ensure that norms are upheld.
Concern 3
How can progress in implementing the SSF Guidelines be measured and reported in a useful way?
This post is aiming to make a contribution towards the Information and communication aspect of the article, more directly, “how can progress in implementation the SSF Guidelines be measured and reported in a useful way?”
Assuming that fishermen have been sensitized and understand the importance of staying in accordance with the proposed guidelines the following are thoughts in which the implementation of these guidelines can be measured. Setting up agencies in different parts of the world, which would be tasked with measuring the implementation of the guidelines by fishermen is one way of collecting data worldwide. Different parts of the world would need to pay more attention to different aspects of the guidelines. The general principle of the guidelines however remains intact.
One way in which the measurement of the implementation can be done is having the captains of the vessels or boats make a report as to how they have abided by the guidelines provided and hand in that report to officials as they return from sea, or at least before they leave the dock.
This process may be biased, because the captains would not want to let out any information that would tarnish their reputation and hamper their fish market.
Another approach is to have agents at the docks and market site who would make records as to what species of fish was caught and what quantity, this would put the agents in a better position to understand where the fishers were fishing, if the stayed within their permits and the quantity would tell more about what considerations were taken when allowing for the ecosystem of the species to survive and strive. This is however, making the assumption that the agencies set up have full knowledge of the ecosystems, their whereabouts, and all other necessary information that would put them in a position to evaluate the data collected by the agents.
Holding quarterly meetings with fishermen, ecologists and market representatives to obtain their inputs on how the implementations of the guidelines have affected them or their surroundings and to what degree they believe the guidelines are being implemented, and what are their recommendations on bettering the processes.
These are some of the measures that can be put in place to assist in the collection of data to measure the degree of which the guidelines are being implemented and to some extent their effectiveness.