The edges are smooth or curved upward so that the grains will not roll off on the ground. The upper part is round and smooth. At the lower end, mud is made in a form of a pot called a Kuwat or kodakomby to catch flour. Other utensils may be placed at the lower end to catch the flour. The top stone called a Megg is about 10 to 20 cm wide on the flat side and the upper part is curved to fit the woman. s hand. The woman moves it forward and backward when grinding. While grinding the woman is in a kneeling position, behind the Wefecho with the weight of her body on her forearms. Then she adds small amount of grain on the upper side and rolls the grain to the centre with her fingers and grinds it by crushing it between the two stones. After some use, the Wefecho becomes slippery and fails to grind well. Beating with a round or oval stone called a Mawkariya or a hammer roughens the Wefecho.

People living in and around towns, take their grain to the gristmill. In some villages they now have gristmills which are run by waterpower. Diesel engine milling facilities are available in areas where electric power is unavailable. (Figure 5). In towns and cities electrical powered milling machines are used for milling. These are much more efficient than any of above mentioned milling facilities.

 Figure 5: Diesel engine operated milling machine.

Studies have shown that in milling, tef gives a 99 percent return in flour, whereas wheat yields 60-80 percent (Ciferri and Bakdrati, 1939). Analytical Data physical characteristics of the grain or flours from tef or a combination of tef seeds, grain flour and ash are given in Tables 6 and 7, respectively.

Table 6. Analytical Data physical characteristics of tef grain or flour

Table 7. Composition of tef grain flour and ash according to Visco (1936)

Making Different Kinds of Tef Enjera
The main use of tef is for making Ethiopian bread, called Enjera of which there are many kinds. Enjera is the most popular type of bread, which is circular, thin, porous and pancake-like with numerous eyes. It has a sour taste. The average thickness is about 5mm and the diameter is 35 to 50cm. To make this kind of Enjera the flour is mixed with warm water and then worked by hand until the dough becomes hard. The water should not be either boiled or cold as this can result in an Enjera of very poor quality. The numerous eyes are the indication of good quality Enjera (Taddesse, 1969; Seyfu, 1993).

Making Enjera is mostly work for women. Enjera is prepared both in the rural areas, villages, towns and cities. Enjera is baked in a circular; almost flat earthenware pan called a Metad or Elle chabetta. This is a baking oven made from local materials, which is about 60cm in diameter. It is put on the open fire and heated gently. The Metad is raised slightly on three small stones at the corners called Gulecha. Then it is polished or greased by rubbing with ground Gommanzar (Brassica integrifolia) seed; or kalawa (Maesa lanceolata) seed; or Gullo (Ricinus communis) seed, cotton seed, or animal fat in a piece of cloth. People living in rural areas where electricity is unavailable or even in towns and cities where the electrical powered Mitad is too expensive, use the one which is heated by burning wood, animal dung, shrubs, etc. (Figure 6). Nowadays the Mitad is heated by electrical power in areas where electricity is available. Most of the families living in cities, towns and villages use an electrical powered Mitad (Figure 7).

 Figure 6: Mitad, an oven like used for baking Enjera, which is heated by wood, animal dung, shrubs etc. Please note that the concave shape lid of the Mitad called Akambalo, grey in colour.

 Figure 7: Mitad which is heated by electric power.

Below is the procedure and recipe for preparing tef Enjera (Ethiopian Nutrition Institute, 1980). The flow chart is shown in Annex 2a.

1. Procedure and recipe for preparing tef Enjera

Ingredients Weight

Tef flour 3 kg

Ersho* (local yeast) 480 g

* Ersho is starter, which is dough, saved from a previous fermentation and used as a starting fermentation in every new dough preparation.

Number of Enjera 18

Weight of one Enjera 450g

• Sift the flour into a container that is large enough to hold the entire recipe,
• Add the Ersho to the dough and then using a large wooden ladle or the hands stir the whole content,
• Add three litres of water and mix the dough well. Add three more litres of water gradually along with frequent stirring all the time. Use either a wooden ladle or the hands until it is mixed well,
• Cover the dough and allow it to ferment for three days.

• Pour away the water that has settled on top of the dough,
• Add a half-litre of dough to a litre of water and then boil it,
• Mix three litres of cold water into the dough. The hot mixture should be well stirred and allowed to stand for 30 minutes.

After fermentation the batter is thinned again by adding a small amount of water. The fermented batter is then taken in a small can, or a gourd, called Mazoria or Masfiya from the Buhaka, and poured on to the Metad with a circular motion beginning at the outer perimeter and working towards the centre. It is covered with a Metad cover called an Akambalo. This is convex in shape. The edges of the Akambalo rest on the Metad, on the outer circle of the Enjera. Cracks or the openings between the lid and the griddle are covered with a strip of moist cloth. After 3-6 minutes the Enjera will be baked depending on its thickness and heat intensity (Figure 8). The Enjera comes loose from the Metad if the latter is well polished and well greased. Otherwise it may stick to the Metad. The baked Enjera is lifted up by hand and placed on a Sefed or lifted with the help of a Sefed, which is a kind of basket made of grass stems. The housewife makes Enjera either for one meal or for 2-3 days at one time. Enjera is used for all meals especially in the countryside.

 Figure 8: Baked Enjera on the hot Mitad.

Other important points to be followed in preparing Enjera are:

• The Mitad should be rubbed with oil or ground oilseed between each baking interval. The process should be repeated until all the dough is used to make Enjeras.

• Although no longer customary, oil is added to the dough along with the boiled water. Oil improves the appearance of the underside of the Enjera. It makes it shinier and gives it a better appearance.

• Even though tef flour is most commonly used to make Enjera, barley, wheat, corn, finger millet and sorghum flours are also used for the same purpose in some cases.

• The duration of fermentation time required depends on the climate: where the climate is hot, the Enjera is baked on the same day as the dough is mixed; in cooler climates the dough is left to ferment for a few days (2-3 days).

The dough should never be fermented for more than 3 days, or it will become too sour and might cause gastritis. Besides, the longer the fermentation time the higher the destruction of nutrients.

Traditionally the flour is mixed with water in earthenware, wooden or metal container called Buhaka. During mixing, water is added to the flour little by little until the desired thickness or texture is obtained. About three litres of water are added to two kilograms of flour. To this mixture a small amount of yeast which is called Ersho is added, and the whole content is thoroughly mixed by hand to form hard dough. The dough is next immersed in water and left for 2-3 days to ferment. The rapidity with which it ferments depends on the altitude of the area and the concentration of Ersho, (Stewart and Asnake, 1962). The Buhaka is not washed very often or thoroughly, so the fermenting agent is maintained in the container continuously. After baking, the batter on the inside of the Buhaka is washed down and left for subsequent use. As the batter ferments a gas is produced and as it rises, a thin yellowish liquid settles over the paste. This yellowish liquid is the Ersho. It is poured off and saved for the next batch. Sometimes, to make a clean looking thin Enjera with numerous eyes, a small amount of the fermented paste is mixed with water (1 part to 3 parts of water), boiled, and added to the fermented batter, called Lit.

The fermented paste is called Absit. According to Stewart and Asnake (1962) the primary agent responsible for fermenting flour in making Enjera has been identified as Candida guilliermondii (Cast) Longeron and Guerra. This yeast is known to occur naturally in the flour and seed of tef.

After baking is over, Enjera is placed on a Messob, which is a slender splendid basket with a flat top, and a base made from grass stems (Figure 9). Large flat plates may be used on Messob. It may also be placed on a Gebata, a container with a rather flat top, smooth or curved edge, and flat base made of wood, or on a flat plate. Then some Wot is put in a bowl of black clay called a Wachett, or in a wooden or metal dish and set in the middle of a Messob or a Gebata on Enjera. Wot may also come in a small earthenware bowl called Dest in which Wot is made. It is scooped out with a wooden or metal dipper, called Chelfa and spread over or placed at the centre of the Enjera (Figure 10). Then a piece of Enjera is broken off with the fingers, dropped on the Wot upside down, to absorb the Wot, folded and shaped with the fingers and placed in the mouth (Figure 11).

 Figure 9: Baked Enjera transferred on to the Messob.

 Figure 10:The sausage called Wot spread over Enjera.

 Figure 11: Eating Enjera with Wot.

Enjera can be broken into very small pieces to make Fetfet. Cutting Enjera into small pieces and dipping in to Wot or other sausages makes Fetfet. Enjera is eaten with the fingers except when Fetfet is prepared. Fetfet is eaten with spoon made from cattle horn, wood or silver.

Other types of Enjera are called Aflangna or Chumbo, or Bekuo. It is a very heavy cake 3-4cm or thicker near the edge, thinner nearer to the centre, and 40-70cm in diameter. It is baked from relatively unfermented dough, 12-14 hours, on a bigger and heavier Metad than that used for ordinary Enjera. This kind of Enjera is quite common in rural areas, especially at Debo, that is, work projects with neighbours helping each other on the farm, building a house, etc., or for large families where making thin Enjera is very time consuming. In baking Chumbo, a large Metad called an Elle Chumbo, small concave Metad called a Bedde, and the cover called Akembalo are used. Bedde is placed on the fire upside down and heated until it is very hot. Then the Elle Chumbo is turned upright and cleaned by rubbing it with a piece of cloth. Bedde is placed in the centre of the Elle Chumbo upside down. In baking Aflangna, Bedde is not used. Then batter somewhat thicker than that is used for Enjera is poured onto the back of the Bedde. There it spreads out. Next a cover known as Akembalo is placed on the Elle Chumbo and cemented together along the edge with cloth or mud reinforced with tef straw. This is done to prevent the steam from escaping. It requires 1-3 hours to bake depending on its size. Chumbo is eaten with Wot made from pulses, other vegetables, and cheese. Meat Wot is not usually used with Chumbo. Chumbo is almost always made from red tef.

Hongochy; is heavier and larger than Chumbo. It is made from rather unfermented batter, and baked for similar occasions or purposes as Chumbo, a small Metad called Bedde, and an Akembalo is needed. These are heated until very hot. Then the bigger Metad is turned upright, cleaned by rubbing with a piece of cloth, and the thick batter is poured in the centre. Next the small hot Metad is set in the centre upright on the batter and hot coals are added to it. An Akembalo is placed on the Metad and the two cemented together along the edges with mud reinforced with tef straw. Hongochy is baked slowly for 2-4 hours and eaten like Chumbo. It is almost always made from red tef. The flow chart is shown in Annex 2b.

Annababaro or Chabetta or Hansa. This type of Enjera is made by doubling two ordinary thin Enjera. First, one thin Enjera is baked and removed from the Metad and batter for the second one is poured on the Metad. The baked Enjera is then placed on it usually upside down and baked for five to ten minutes. It is made from a fermented batter of either red or white tef and eaten like thin Enjera. The flow chart for baking Annababaro or Chabetta or Hansa is shown on Annex 2c.

• Eremmto (or Bittile or Daguwale) is a small flat bread like loaf baked on hot coals in a fireplace. It is made from a thick unfermented batter. It is wrapped in leaves of kale (Brassica integrifolia), banana, Ensat (Ensete ventricosum), or Baggi (combretum paniculatum), and placed in a fireplace. Hot coals are added over it. Ermto is baked for children to east as snacks. It has a sweet taste and is eaten without Wot.
• Kitta or Matino is made from fresh or unfermented dough. It is prepared when the housewife does not have enough time to make fermented batter. It is slightly salted and eaten with milk. Usually kitta is baked on an earthenware or metal Metad. It is sometimes decorated by making an impression with the fingers in the dough. Usually a red tef, called Dabi is used for preparing kitta. The flow chart for baking Kitta or Matino is shown in Annex 2d.

Other types of enjera are usually made in rural areas, where farmers and farmers. cooperatives are found. They are not well known in the cities and large towns. Their methods of preparation follow.

• Bedena Balla means Enjera made in a leaf. This is a large loaf, which are about 4-6cm thick, 8-20cm wide and 40-60cm long. This Enjera is made from a fermented thick batter with a lot of spices are added. The common spices which are commonly added are chopped onion locally called kayy Shenkurt, chopped garlic called Nach Shenkurt, ground black cumin called Tekur Azmud and ground white cumin called Nach Azmud chopped ginger called Zenjeblle, Korarima or false cardamom, Afrannum korrarimam Zingiberacease and salt. It is baked in a large Metad; batter is poured on layers of banana, Ensat, or Baggi (Comparatum paniculatum) leaves, which are laid on a Metad. Another layer of leaves is put on the top and the hard dough is completely wrapped in a leaf. Usually two pieces are baked at a time. Bedena Balla is characterized by sweet flavour and has an inviting aroma. Wot is not used with this Enjera. This kind of Enjera, made from red tef is baked for special occasions. When a mother visits her married daughter she often takes Bedena Balla, a native alcohol, with her. Also a married daughter takes the bread to her parents when she visits them. Relatives living a little distance from each other will usually take it with them during a visit as well. The flow chart for baking Bedena Balla is shown in Annex 2e.
• Tibbennya or Bedena Galla or Luflufo is a loaf similar to Bedena Balla except that this is very small. It is made from dough fermented for one and half days, wrapped in leaves and baked on a Metad. It is spiced similarly to Bedena Balla, and is used as reserve food called Senk by persons going to markets a long distance away, hunting, war or other types of long journeys. It keeps well for two to four weeks. It is usually made from red tef. The flow chart for Tibbennya or Bedena Galla or Luflufo is shown in Annex 2f.

Porridge, which is locally called Ganfo, is made directly from flour or from fermented batter called Marka Buko (meaning porridge from batter). To make this porridge the housewife puts the Tuwe Marka, (a pot for porridge) onto an open fire. This is raised with three stones at the corners, water is boiled and flour or batter is added. Stirring is done with a piece of wood with a flat end, known as Bogeto. The pot is held in place with a piece of Y shaped wood that is called Ejeta. It takes about 20-40 minutes to cook porridge. Porridge is eaten with cheese or with soup made from thin, well-fermented batter. In eating the porridge women usually use their hands, children use plates, and husbands use spoons. The wife puts pieces of porridge flavoured with cheese or soup on the husband. s spoon. Often porridge is eaten in the morning. It can be prepared either from white or red tef. It is also prepared from maize, sorghum, barley, etc. (The flow chart is shown in Annex 2g).

In some parts of the country, namely Wollega, soup known as Muk is made from thin fermented batter. When it is cooked, salt and spices are added and it is eaten with a spoon. Muk is prepared when there is very little food available or for a sick person. It can be prepared from red or white tef. The flow chart is shown in Annex 2h.

T' ella is a native beer made from grains such as finger millet (Eleusine coracana), grain sorghum, corn, barley, etc. Occasionally red tef is used for kitta; bread made from unfermented hard dough. This is especially used in brewing a native alcohol called Katikalla. T' ella prepared from red tef is very strong. It is called Embushbush or Bawuza.

Hunkuro also known as Dabbo Kolo are bread grains cut with scissors in small sizes. Wheat is preferred for Dabbo Kolo, but in areas where wheat is not grown, white tef is used. Warm water is added to the flour to moisten it. The cereal is then roasted on a Metad over an open fire. It is stirred constantly with a piece of flat wood until small hard bread balls are formed. This is usually seasoned with spices and butter. Because it keeps for a long time without spoiling, travelers use it. White tef is preferred to red tef for the preparation of Dabo Kolo. A flow chart for making of Dabo Kolo is shown in Annex 2i.

Fermentation of Tef

Studies conducted using tef as the sole source of microorganisms indicate that a metabolically associated heterogeneous group of fermentative, aerogenic, gram-negative rods, lactic acid bacteria, Bacillus spp. and yeasts growing in succession were involved in the fermentation process of tef. This is reported to be unlike the fermentation process in wheat where a single organism is involved in the breadmaking process (Berhanu et al. 1982). The initial fermentation activity is performed by a group of microorganism (gram-negative aerogenic rods) such as Enterobacter, Hafnia, Citrobacter, Klebsiella, Escherichia and Proteus. Their population as a group increases substantially during the first 36 hours of fermentation and decreases thereafter. The yeast Saccharomyces spp., even though present during the whole of the fermentation process, becomes abundant after the pH level reaches below 5. This yeast become the predominant group of organisms in the liquid layer after 50 hours of fermentation, i.e. after the complete separation of the liquid/solid and is responsible for the . rising of the dough. during the second stage of fermentation (Berhanu, et al. 1982).

According to Chaltu and Abreham (1982), out of the 22 identified yeasts isolated. 14 were the type most commonly found during the peak time of fermentation. The dominant yeast flora at the peak of fermentation of tef dough comprises two physiological groups belonging to the general Saccharomyces and Torulopsis. Yeast of the general Candida and Pichia become prominent in the yellow fluid that settles on top of the dough in the latter stages of fermentation Table 8.

It is important to note that in studies conducted by Berhan et al. (1982) the fermentation of tef, the whole process is done without making use of Ersho (yeast) at the beginning . Whereas according to Chaltu and Abreham (1982), Ersho was added at the beginning of the fermentation process, since their experimental samples were taken from private homes and food processing enterprises that mass produced tef Enjera and where Ersho is traditionally practiced. Ersho is traditional yeast added to tef dough and used as a starter to enhance fermentation; it is usually obtained from previously fermented tef dough. This may account for the difference in the reports of the two studies cited above, regarding the population density of the various microflora observed at different times during the fermentation process.

The studies of both Berhanu et al. (1982) and Chaltu and Abreham (1982) agree that the yeast genera Saccharomyces are involved in the fermentation process of tef, although their reports vary concerning the population density and prime time of occurrence of these genera during the process of fermentation. Both of these studies also reported that they did not find Candida guillermondii as the yeast responsible for the fermentation of tef dough, as earlier reported by Stewart and Asnake (1962).

Enjera showed no aflatoxin contamination when prepared and handled and fermentation of the dough or storage of Enjera for prolonged periods did not increase aflatoxin B1 contamination (Besrat and Gebre, 1981).

During the latter part of the fermentation process of tef this separates into dough that settles down forming a liquid layer at the top. Because of the acidic nature of this liquid that remains at the top, it is discarded just before Enjera is baked. In the process of pouring off this liquid layer, other soluble compounds (amino acids, sugars, and minerals) and a large portion of the microorganisms involved in the fermentation process are also removed. Moreover, a significant quantity of tef nitrogen is lost at the end of the fermentation process. The nitrogen loss in tef, which amounts to 4 to 13 percent, can however, be avoided by stopping the fermentation process at about 31 hours, just before the liquid/solid separation. Enjera with minimum acidity and no or minimal loss of nitrogen, can be baked before the liquid/solid separation occurs in the fermentation tank for about 31 hours (Berhanu, et al. 1982 as cited by Seyfu, 1993). The nitrogen content of the various fractions of fermenting tef flour are presented in Table 9.

The effect of fermentation on the bioavailability of iron, phosphorus and zinc was studied, in tef and in wheat. Samples were cleaned and washed in the laboratory using tap water and 25 hydrochloric acid. Fermentation at room temperature was followed by dialysis of the batters. Fermentation of tef and wheat decreased pH of the dough from 6.8 ± 0.1 to 4.5 ± 0.1, with partial breakdown of soluble starch. This also increased the dialyzable portions of their Fe, P and Zn contents from 9.0 percent ± 0.4, 16 percent ± 2.0 and 7.0 percent ± 1.0, respectively, to 24.0 percent ± 0.7, 60.0 percent ± 3.0 and 43.0 percent ± 2.0. The increase in dialyzable Fe may have a positive effect on its bioavailability, and may thus explain the rarity of iron-deficiency anaemia among tef-eating populations in Ethiopia (Ramachandran and Bolodia, 1984).

In an experiment carried out by Umeta and Faulks (1988), indicated that the fermentation is generally spontaneous but may also be initiated by the addition of a starter culture from the previous fermentation. The changing pattern of free sugars during fermentation was the same in both varieties. A change in the microbial population dynamics also resulted in changes in the pH of the dough. Fructose was the main free sugar in the fermenting dough and cooked product. After 72 hours of fermentation, the microbial population utilized 9 percent of the starch in both varieties. The non-starch polysaccharides (dietary fibre) were not affected.

New Recipes for the Utilization of tef

Many people are showing great interest in introducing tef into their countries. Hence, efforts are being made to discover and introduce other methods of utilizing tef. Ten new food recipes have been developed and introduced for the utilization of tef in the United States (Wood, N.D., cited by Seyfu, 1993). These recipes are given below.

• Tef breakfast cereal
• Tef waffles
• Whole grain muffins
• Moroccan chicken
• Jalapeno tef fillets
• Great chocolate cake
• Chocolate mint refrigerator cookies
• Tef banana bread
• Date cake
• Double-tef butter-pecan tea cakes

The recipes for some of the above mentioned new methods of using tef are presented below:

 Yields: 3 cups

Time: 15 minutes

Tef breakfast cereal is a good diversion from oatmeal breakfast. It is quick to cook breakfast cereal that is nutritionally and energetically superior to oatmeal. Most importantly, it is delicious. It takes only 15 minutes to prepare 3 cups of this breakfast cereal.

Tef cooks well in varying amounts of water. For a firm cereal, cook a cup of tef in two cups of water. Cooked tef, regardless of the water proportion sets up firm and lends itself to panfrying.

• three cups of water
• few grains of salt
• a half cup of tef (white, brown, or red)

Boil water and salt in a pan. Add tef, cover the pan, and simmer for 15 to 20 minutes, or until the water is completely absorbed. Towards the end of cooking, stir it intermittently and serve it with milk, maple syrup, or honey.

Table 9. Nitrogen content of the various fractions of fermenting tef flour Nitrogen content on dry weight basis (percent) 

Duration of fermentation in hours.
Sample	0	24	48	72	96
Tef	1.59	1.59	1.60	1.58	1.59
Fresh dough	1.60	1.58	1.59	1.59	1.60
Fermented dough	1.60	1.58	1.51	1.46	1.40
Liquid layer	-	-	0.07	0.13	0.20
Total loss of starting nitrogen in the liquid layer (%)	-	-	4.40	8.10	12.5

• Add a quarter cup of raisins and a quarter teaspoon full of cinnamon and cook with the tef.

Yield: 9-inch tube cake

Time: 50 minutes

It just takes one taste to know how great this tef bread is. Tef's full range of blandly sweet earth flavour gives depth and adds to its unique and tender crumb.

Ingredients

• 1 ¾ cups of brown tef flour
• ½ cup of chopped dates
• 1 cup of currants
• ½ cup chopped hazelnuts
• 1 ½ teaspoonful salt
• ½ teaspoonful of baking soda
• ½ teaspoonful of baking soda
• ½ teaspoonful of baking powder
• 1 teaspoonful of cinnamon
• 1 cup of natural sugar
• ½ cup of unsalted butter
• 1 egg, beaten
• ¼ teaspoonful of anise extract
• 1 cup of mashed ripe banana

• Preheat the oven to 350 degrees.
• Toss a few tablespoonful of tef flour over dates, currants and hazelnuts and set the fruits aside. Blend together the baking soda, baking powder, salt and cinnamon with the remaining flour.
• Cream together butter and sugar. Mix in an egg, anise and banana and add these to the dry ingredients, including nuts and fruits, and mix well
• Spoon into a 9-inch oiled tube pan and bake for 40-45 minutes or until a toothpick inserted in the centre comes out clean

Grated carrot can be substituted for banana. The anise also can be replaced with cardamom, and raisins can replace dates and currants.

• Blueberries can also be substitutes for banana. In this case, the dried fruit is not added;
• Substitute applesauce for banana. Replace the anise with ground cloves.

Yield: 6 waffles

Time: 30 minutes

Tef waffles are superior to wheat waffles. Tef. s superbly delicate crumb and full flavour offer so much more than wheat (whole or white), which demands sugar to make it palatable. Red tef is used.

Ingredients:

• 1 ¾ cups of red tef flour
• 2 teaspoonfuls of baking powder
• ¼ teaspoonful of salt
• 2 beaten eggs
• 3 tablespoonfuls of unsalted and melted butter
• 1 ½ cups of milk

• Heat a waffle iron
• Sift the flour and the baking powder together in a mixing bowl and add salt. Make a hole in the centre of the sifted ingredients.
• Pour the liquid ingredients and stir them together with a few quick strokes that are enough only to moisten the dry ingredients. The batter will still have a pebbled look. Then cook in the hot waffle iron.

• Cook the pancakes on a griddle or skillet;
• Add a cup of blueberries or sliced bananas;
• Working quickly, sprinkle sunflower, poppy, flax or sesame seeds on top of the lower iron. Pour on the batter. Sprinkle the seeds on top of the batter and cook as usual.

Yield: 18-inch round layer cake

Time: 25 minutes

This recipe is a special alternative for people have allergies to the gluten in wheat. Tef. s light and tender crumb, plus its full range of subtly sweet earth flavours make a very good chocolate cake.

• 2 ¼ cups of brown tef flour
• 2 teaspoonfuls of baking powder
• ½ teaspoonfuls of baking soda
• teaspoonfuls of cinnamon
• ½ teaspoonful of salt
• 1 ½ cups of natural sugar
• ½ cup of unsalted butter
• 2 slightly beaten eggs
• 1 cup of milk
• 1 teaspoonful of vanilla
• 2 ounces of melted and cooled chocolate

• 1 ½ cups of any chocolate icing
• ¾ cup of raspberry jam
• 2 cups of almond slices

• Preheat the oven to 350 degrees.
• Sift the tef flour, baking powder and soda together. Add the cinnamon and salt.
• Cream sugar and butter together until fluffy.
• Combine the eggs, milk and vanilla. Stir into the sugar mixture. Then gently add the dry ingredients. Pour into 2 oiled and floured 8-inch round cake pans. Bake for 25 minutes or until the toothpick inserted in the centre comes out clean. Cool on racks for 5 minutes and then remove from the pan and leave it to completely cool.
• Place one cake layer on a plate. Spread raspberry jam between the two layers of the cake. Spread chocolate icing on top and decorate with almond slices at the sides of cake.

• To make a marble cake, put a cup and two tablespoonfuls of brown tef in bowl and another 1 cup and two tablespoonfuls of white tef in a second bowel Combine the remaining dry ingredients and divide these into the white and brown tef bowls. Do the same for all the other ingredients except for the chocolate. Reduce the chocolate quantity to 1 ounce and add it only to the brown tef mixture. Alternating between the light and dark batter, pour large spoonfuls of batter in well-prepared cake pans.
• To make cupcakes, set paper baking cups in a muffin tin, pour in ½ inch of the batter and bake for 20 minutes or until a toothpick inserted in the centre comes out clean.

Yield: 18, 1 ½ inch cakes

Time: 30 minutes

Rich but not too sweet, small but filling, lavish but nourishing, these dainty shortbread are very delicious. Tef teacakes keep well for a week when thoroughly cooled and then placed into an airtight container.

• ¼ of unsalted and softened butter
• 2 tablespoonfuls of cooked white tef
• 2 tablespoonfuls of maple syrup
• ¼ teaspoon full of vanilla
• 2 tablespoonfuls of pecans
• few salt grains
• ½ cup of white tef flour

• Preheat the oven up to 350 degrees.
• Cream butter, cooked tef, maple syrup and vanilla together.
• In a blender, grind pecans with salt until fine. Add ground pecans and tef flour to the creamed mixture.
• Shape the creamed mixture into 18 balls. Then place each on an oiled baking sheet and flatten them with a cookie press, a candy mould, or with a thumb or moistened fork. Bake for 15 minutes. Allow to cool, before taking them from the baking sheet.

• Substitute the almonds with pecans and the almond extract with vanilla
• Substitute honey for maple syrup

Whole Grain Muffins

Yield: 12 muffins

Time: 45 minutes

Three different grains make these nutritious muffins extra tasty. The oat brand and wheat germ add nutty flavours and the tef contributes to the fine texture.

• ½ cup of ref tef
• ¼ cup of boiling water
• 2 cups of whole wheat pastry flour
• ¼ cup of oat bran
• ¼ cup of wheat germ
• 1 ½ teaspoonfuls of baking soda
• ½ teaspoonfuls of salt
• ½ teaspoonfuls of cinnamon
• ½ cup of honey
• 2 tablespoonfuls of sesame oil or unsalted softened butter
• a cup of butter milk or yoghurt
• Slightly beaten egg
• Tablespoonfuls of grated orange rind

• Preheat the oven up to 375 degrees, oil or line it with paper baking cups to make 12 muffins tins.
• In a medium mixing bowl, pour boiling water onto the tef flour. Stir to moisten all the tef. Cover the bowl and leave for 10 minutes.
• In another bowl, mix whole-wheat pastry flour, oat bran, wheat germ, baking soda, salt and cinnamon together.
• When the tef mixture cools, add honey, softened butter or oil, buttermilk or yoghurt, egg and grated orange rind and stir together. Add the dry ingredients, mix them with a few quick strokes, spoon into prepared muffin tins, and immediately place them into the preheated oven. Bake for 20 minutes and them cool for 10 minutes before taking them out of the tins.

• Add a ½ cup of chopped nuts either to the batter or on top of the muffins before baking;
• Add currants, plumed raisins, fresh or frozen blueberries, or chopped dates to the batter;
• Substitute a ½ cup of applesauce or grated vegetables such as carrots, zucchini, yams or pumpkins, or mashed banana for the ½ cup of buttermilk;
• Add a ½ cup of wheat bran to the tef before adding the boiling water, thus replacing the oat bran and wheat germ;
• Substitute a cup of Soy milk and a teaspoonful of lemon juice for the buttermilk.

Yield: 4 servings

Time: 30 minutes

For those who enjoy Italian polenta but who do not want to spend 45 minutes standing over a stove stirring it, the tef potential is a good change. Polenta is similar to the southern version of fried cornmeal mush.

Tef takes a fraction of the time to cook and requires stirring once or twice. Compared to corn, tef sets quickly and holds together equally as well.

• 3 tablespoonfuls of unsalted butter
• a clove garlic, minced or pressed
• 3 diced shallots
• a small diced onion
• a jalapeno chili, broiled, steamed, peeled, seeded and diced
• a tablespoonful of red pepper flakes
• a quarter teaspoonful of salt
• a half teaspoonful of pepper
• 3 cups of vegetable stock
• a cup of white, brown or red tef

• Heat a tablespoonful of butter briefly in a two-quart pot. Put aside the remaining butter.
• Sauté the garlic, shallots, onion and jalapeno together. Add pepper flakes, cumin, salt and pepper, and sauté the mixture together for another minute.
• Add stock and bring the mixture to boil. Add tef, and bring to boil again, reduce the heat, put the lid on and allow to simmer for 15 minutes or until the liquid is absorbed. Stir once or twice during the last 5 minutes of cooking.
• Rinse an 8 x 8-inch pan with cold water. Spoon the tef mixture into the pan and put it aside for an hour or so until it becomes cold.
• Slice the tef into ¾ inch thick and 4 inches long fillets. Heat the remaining two tablespoonfuls of butter in a skillet. Fry the tef fillets in a medium heated pan until they become golden on each side.

• Fry white tef fillets on one side, turn and top with slices of provolone or Dunlop cheese. Serve with tomato sauce.
• Slice brown or red tef into finger-sized strips and use them as substitutes for ham on Chef. s salad.
• Substitute curry, peas, carrots, raisins and pistachio nuts for the jalapeno, pepper flakes and the cumin.

Utilization for Animal Feed

According to the FAO Production Yearbook of 1985, Ethiopia had an estimated 26 million head of cattle, 17.26 million head of goats and 23.5 million head of sheep. This clearly indicates the heavy requirement of animal feeds as well as its importance to the agricultural economy of the country. However, the production of forage crops is not widely practiced. Hence, crop residues play a significant role as a source of livestock feeds.

Tef is not grown as a forage crop in Ethiopia. However, when grown as a cereal, its straw is stored and used as a very important source of animal feed, especially during the dry season. Cattle prefer tef straw than straw from any other cereal and its price is higher than that of other cereals. For example, tef straw costs about 40-50/100 Birr/kg while the price of wheat is about 30-40/100 Birr/kg in the Ada region (Seyfu, 1993).

The national average grain yield of tef is nearly 1 tonne ha^-1. With a national average of biomass production of 4.1 ha^-1 and a harvest index of 24.4 percent on 1.38 million hectares of land currently under production, the country produces on average 4.3 million tonnes of tef straw annually. The price of tef straw varies depending on the region as well as the season. However, taking the price in Ada region as a base, it is possible to roughly estimate that the national price tef straw produced per annum is between 129 million Birr and 172 million Birr. Both the amounts of tef straw produced as well as its price clearly indicates the important role tef straw plays as a crop-residue for livestock feed in Ethiopian agriculture.

According to Lulseged and Jemal (1989), the quantity and quality of residues from various crops vary greatly depending on the crop species. Wheat and barley usually give high straw yields though of inferior quality. Among cereals, straw of tef is relatively the best and is comparable to good natural pasture-hay. Indication of the relative importance of various crop residues is given in the Table 4. According to Lulseged and Jemal (1989), the performance of animals on residue diets is also known to vary depending on the crop species.

According to Burt-Davy (1913), the chief value of tef as a hay crop lies in its palatability, high nutritive value, narrow albumin ration (for a grass hay), high yield, rapid growth, drought resistance and ability to smother weeds. In South Africa tef is grown as a forage crop.

According to Taddesse, (1969), tef produces more than twice as much forage as weeping love-grass (Eragrostis curvual), producing on average of 14.5t ha^-1 green material in three months. This again shows that tef has a great potential as a forage crop. Hence it can be used as a dual or multipurpose crop, i.e., both as a cereal and as forage feed (Seyfu, 1993).