There is a wide range of other causes of salt-affected soils and constraints to the adoption of technologies to control salinity development and improve productivity. The most important of these is the insecurity of tenure. There is a need for confirmed land tenure to ensure that the land users have a continuing interest in the productivity of the land. Traditional land rights have come under increasing strain as population density has grown and land has had to be increasingly fragmented as family numbers have grown and as members of each family require land to support their families. Problems of lack of secure tenure have been accentuated wherever land alienation has occurred. Land has often been cleared for development of "commercial" farming. The displaced farmers may be restricted to areas of less inherent productivity than the lands they formerly occupied, and to which their traditional farming techniques are unsuited. Other constraints include lack of capital for required inputs, inadequate infrastructure for movement of people, marketing of produce and purchase of inputs, inadequate understanding of the sources of the problems and lack of awareness of the methods by which they may be resolved. Non-involvement of farmers in the development and evaluation of technologies for restoration of salt-affected soils is the obvious reason. Farmers themselves are the best extension agents but they first have to understand how they will benefit from any changes.

Therefore, during the three meetings of the Network held in the Philippines, Egypt and Turkey the following related recommendations were confirmed:

1. Strengthening of research programmes on different aspects of salt-affected soils and requesting the Network participants, the authorities of various related ministries in their countries to give full support and funds for coordinating research in terms of equipment, tools, staff, etc. This should include design and implementation of programmes to create national awareness on the use, rehabilitation and management of salt-affected soils.
2. Strengthening the dissemination of information and experiences and development efforts in soil management of salt-affected soils in participating countries through the established Network (FAO Global Network on Soil Management for Sustainable Use of Salt-Affected Soils), and stimulate coordination work between different national and international organizations in the field of salt-affected soils. This should include inter-country visits and training within participating countries to share knowledge and experience.
   In this regard, government awareness in participating countries should be increased through newsletters, publications and enhanced communications. Production of a simple pamphlet on salt-affected soil and its extent, impacts on soil, environment and socio-economic conditions could be useful to increase awareness of policy makers and civil servants of the governments of participating countries. In addition, there is an important role of the education of the younger generation (schools and universities), to be made aware of salinity problems. In this regard, universities should be encouraged to orient part of their education programme on soils to focus some courses on different aspects of soil salinity and to try to benefit from the practical experience of scientists and specialists working in relevant authorities or institutes as lecturers.
3. As more than one authority or institute in each participating country are concerned and have related activities, data, maps, reports, research and development programmes, special institutional arrangements may be made to allow effective cooperation at country level. It is up to the country (participating institutes in the Network) to decide on formation of such arrangements.
4. Standardization of accurate and reliable methods of physical, chemical and biological analysis of salt-affected soils. Methods of soil and water sampling and analysis in participating countries should be standardized for better comparison of results and available data. In this context, it would be useful for the Network participating countries to initiate joint comparative studies of commonly used soil and water analytical procedures in contact with ISO and IUSS. The international dimension of these standard methods and procedures will allow across border competition and exchange of information.
5. Transmission of information and technologies necessitates a hierarchy of "transfer bodies": farmers-farmers-associations- extensionists-researchers-engineers-scientists, making possible mutual understanding, common language and permanent contact. To neglect one or more of these information transmission stations (because for example, visually high cost) is neither rational nor efficient. Farmers should become active participants in the development of an appropriate management system and should become the main originators of technical solutions appropriate to improving productivity of their salt-affected soils.
6. Various technologies have been presented during the meetings of the Network for the improvement of salt-affected lands. The prescribed results and long-term experiences showed that improperly planned and implemented reclamation, irrigation and drainage practices may lead to the failure of sustainable salt- affected soil management projects and result in environmental side-effects. Since rehabilitation and management of salt-affected soils requires a combination of agronomic and management practices depending on a careful definition of the requirements, it is recommended that the effect of integrated management approaches should be technically tested and economically evaluated under different conditions (soil type, hydrological, socio-economic, etc.). Information from results obtained should be disseminated between participating countries.
7. Independent evaluation and verification of technologies and uniform data collection are needed for effective technology transfer. However, cost comparisons between countries are difficult and lead to the choice of different technologies to address similar problems. Further information sharing among countries is needed to determine the long-term effectiveness of any suggested management technologies.
8. The preconditions of a rational and efficient soil salinity/sodicity control are adequate knowledge on present situation of the soil (information on present status of the characterization of soil and water), assessment of its spatial and time variability and changes (monitoring the rate of deterioration), and on existing salinization/sodication process (causes and mechanisms). Therefore, it is recommended that participating countries start to develop methodologies to update information about their salt-affected soil; to assess human-induced soil salinization/sodication; and to monitor changes in soil productivity in relation to local conditions. Particular attention has to be paid to the possible forecasting (prognosis, prediction) of salinization and alkalization processes and assessment of soil vulnerability to such processes and on that basis on their prevention). The elaboration of an integrated early system for salinity development is highly recommended (development of models, expert system, decision supporting system).
9. As a result of coordinated Network activities, the following priority problems have been identified that need further investigation and practical solutions at national level:

Other Issues, Recommendations, Institutional Framework, Policies and Major National Programmes to Combat Salt-affected Soils 

Countries with FAO Collaborative Projects

Ghana: Apart from physical and chemical conditions of the salt-affected soils to make them productive, there are a number of issues that must be addressed before the communities can adopt prescribed technologies.

• The communities must show interest in using the ameliorated lands for agricultural production. The prescribed crops adapted to saline conditions must be preferred by the communities. Rice is one crop that is surely to be recommended. The communities in affected areas must be educated enough before they will go in for rice farming.
• Credit and input availability will dictate the rate of acceptability of the generated technologies. With the Government present policy of removal of subsidies on agricultural input and the present high interest rates on credits charged by the banks, farmers will find it difficult to secure adequate funds to undertake the ventures.
• Staff of the Extension Services of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture must be available and well trained in the proper uses of these soils before they can raise the levels of know-how of the communities.
• Adequate quantities of fresh water must be available for use in affected areas. Apart from groundwater the nearest source of fresh water is the Volta River. Harnessing these for use in the farms will be very costly and beyond the affordability of the farmers.
• It will be difficult for the people to forgo their century-old vocation of fishing in the sea, lagoons and creeks and adopt agricultural practices in their salt denuded lands.
• Conditions of land tenure must encourage farmers to invest in the farming projects. The present conditions elsewhere in the country do not favour heavy investment by farmers since they cannot buy the land. The land is leased to them at short durations and at difficult terms
• The salt-affected soils of the country especially the Muni, Songaw, Truku, Keta and Ada soil series which have serious morphological and salt content problems are left unused as a result of lack of appropriate technologies. The only works conducted on these soils have been their mapping, description and classification. There have been no research studies on their drainage, salt content and fertilization problems to bring them into production.
• There is the need for the Ministries, the Research Institutions and the Universities to work in an integrated manner to bring these soils into production. Techniques for development and management of salt-affected soils must be undertaken to alleviate the plight of the communities within the Plains. In doing so, there is the need to seek adequate information from organizations in sister countries which have already developed appropriate technologies on drainage, levelling, fertilization and selection of adapted crops in an integrated system.

Kenya: Related issues to management of salt-affected soils in Kenya include:

• Reliable knowledge of soil and land characteristics is essential to respond to the various environmental and land degradation problems. Several global studies related to land resource assessments have been carried out such as World Map of the Status of Human-induced Soil Degradation (GLASOD), World Soils and Terrain Digital Database (SOTER) projects. The main objective of this global assessment was to strengthen the awareness of decision-makers and scientists on the dangers resulting from inappropriate water and soil management.
• In most areas of the ASAL, land is communally owned. Soil and water management techniques in salt-affected soils are long-term measures requiring regular maintenance. Group ownership and non-adjudication of land militate against adoption of permanent management measures. On the other hand, increased subdivision of land parcels makes it difficult to undertake optimal soil and water management layouts in salt-affected soils.
• Construction and maintenance of management structures such as drainage systems are labour intensive and therefore require substantial capital, especially during the construction phase.
• Use of crop management practices such as mulches, crop residues in the semi-arid areas is difficult, firstly because of the absence of the crop cover when it is most needed and secondly because crop residues are mainly used for animal feed. Crop residues, especially maize stover, are used as a dry season livestock feed. Labour for the construction of drainage structures, however, competes with labour for transporting boma manure to the field, herding, etc.
• Implements that can cultivate and plant in salt-affected soils are currently lacking.
• It has been argued that the level of risk associated with crop production in salt-affected soils makes it difficult for the smallholder farmers to realize the full benefits to rehabilitate them.
• Lack of knowledge of managing salt-affected soils has been cited by many farmers as one reason for not adopting specific measures. Although there have been some attempts to reclaim and increase productivity of salt-affected soils, mainly through the drainage systems, the information available is still insufficient to recommend the appropriate management techniques. Leaching (flushing with irrigation water) and planting procedures are considered to be the common ways of supplementing natural rainfall for leaching salts in areas with adequate drainage.
• In Kenya, before independence, soil conservation was mandatory by law. Now the resident population considers this as forced labour. The social stigma has lingered on in some areas even after independence though this legislation is practically null and void. After attainment of political independence, the Government gave the commitment to re-settle the landless and displaced people on the formerly held (white settler) extensive rangelands. This led inevitably to fragmentation of already marginal land.
• In principle, the Government policy is that reclamation of salt-affected soils on individual farms should be done by the farmers themselves. The main contribution of the Government is the digging of cut-off drains, which will take care of excess water flowing from areas outside the farm (plateaux, large hillsides, roadside ditches). But policies are Government commitments subject to availability of funds
• In 1980, the Permanent Presidential Commission on Soil Conservation and Afforestation was established to coordinate soil conservation and afforestation activities, including salt-affected soils. In 1996, the National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) was launched with a related proposal for controlling land degradation and desertification. There are several established regional and subregional organizations which coordinate different soil management and conservation programmes such as Southern African Development Community (SADC), Inter-Governmental Authority on Drought and Development (IGADD).

Nigeria: At the moment, the country is experiencing rapid decline and poor management of its resources and an uncontrolled environmental pollution that may threaten the agricultural potential of the country. These adverse situations can be averted if the country invests its oil wealth to develop and manage these resources, including its land and water resources in a sustainable manner.

Domestic agricultural production witnessed a stagnation. Agricultural policies to reverse the situation became inconsistent with every new regime changing existing policy before it had time to mature. Data for planning was generally inadequate in scope and duration. Data on agricultural production in most cases provided estimates of output rather than actual measured production and invariably lacking in estimates of requirement and whether or not surplus or deficit exists.

Tanzania: Many soil management and conservation schemes in Tanzania have been implemented without a sound scientific basis or socio-economic consideration. Both traditional and contemporary strategies have been employed in attempts to rehabilitate degraded lands including salt-affected soils. Some of the programmes such as HASHI and HADO have registered very limited success due to their top-down approach while a few of the more recent programmes such as SCAPA have been quite successful, because the programme is largely community-based and focuses on a multidisciplinary approach to address the problems, including a strong component of farmer participation.

At any rate, use, management and reclamation of these soils must consider the socio-economic, biophysical, chemical and environmental aspects of the whole task. Therefore the following roles should be considered for some of the key players involved.

• The Government (Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives) creates a forum which will enable scientists involved in the research, reclamation, management, and utilization of salt-affected soils and other stakeholders to meet regularly and exchange experience and to give salt- affected soils a priority, with respect to funding research and dissemination of the generated technology on their management and utilization as a matter of policy.
• Research to test the locally available management practices for effective reclamation programmes including use of high value tolerant crops and fodder and the cost. Research should be of participatory nature for the community. Considerable emphasis will be directed towards exploiting the locally available gypsum and pyrite resources and breeding programmes for salt-tolerant varieties of various crops. Breeding of varieties tolerant to salts has never been accorded any attention in Tanzania. The suitability and effectiveness of various locally available organic materials in the reclamation of salt-affected soils, either when applied alone or in combination with various inorganic materials should be investigated. The capacity of the present research set up, with respect to monitoring systems, decision support systems, modelling and salinity prediction through remote sensing techniques and other GIS applications should be increased. At present this area is in its infancy
• Private industry to fund reclamation, management or utilization research in salt-affected soils in whole or in part; to take part in the development and testing of the technology generated by research as well as its dissemination and to develop the pyrite mine at Samena for the purpose of availing the raw material for reclamation work.
• Non governmental organizations to mobilize, specially the resource poor farmers in the affected areas; develop and test different reclamation technologies in conjunction with researchers in a participatory manner; identify at community based level, the various research programmes that may help alleviate the problem; and mobilize the affected communities into using their own resources to overcome the problems caused by salt-affected soils in their farming systems by identifying alternative ways of utilizing these soils.

Bangladesh: Many factors including socio-economic limitations govern the land use patterns in Bangladesh.

• In the coastal areas land use is further complicated by the presence of fluctuating soil salinity levels, on the one hand, and more recently by the tendency of profiteering by the shrimp businessmen. Unauthorized digging of channels for the intrusion of saline water for shrimp culture creates agronomic problems and also social conflicts and public health hazards. Although badly needed, there are no effective government regulations to rationally look after the conflicting interests of the shrimp entrepreneurs and local farmers.
• Appropriate extension programmes for the diffusion of modern technologies are lacking. Extension personnel trained in saline soil management is inadequate.
• Large-scale land ownership, unfavorable land tenure systems and dominance of absentee landlords discourage the adoption of modern crop production technologies by the vast majority of small farmers. Poor communication and marketing facilities retard agricultural development.
• Research requirements in the country include: continuous monitoring of salinity; development of models for the prediction of the degree of salinity {Evaluation of soil and water salinity in the coastal areas is occasionally done by the Soil Resources Development Institute (SRDI) and the Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB). SRDI has produced a soil salinity map of Bangladesh using the GIS technique. However, continuous monitoring of soil and water salinity is required given the fluctuating soil and water salinity levels}. The Space Research and Remote Sensing Organization (SPARRSO) of Bangladesh has to take the responsibility to carry out the required remote sensing and ground truthing techniques, and improvement of soil physical conditions to facilitate speedy and effective salt leaching during the wet season (the application of organic matter like green manure, crop residues, rice husk, saw dust, animal dung, farm yard manure etc. will be especially useful. Most of these products are used up by the small farmers as kitchen fuel and thus these are almost never recycled to the soils. The Department of Agricultural Extension and NGOs working in the rural areas may help farmers realize the benefits of the application of organic matter to their fields); and proper fertilizer application to maintain an appropriate ionic balance in the soils (crop research institutes such as the Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI) and the Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI) can conduct such research for rice and other crops). Research should also cover water management and crop management aspects
• National institutions and organizations like the Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council (BARC), the Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI), the Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI), the Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB), the Soil Resources Development Institute (SRDI), the Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE) and a few NGOs have been working for the development and dissemination of agricultural production technologies for the coastal saline areas for quite some time now. The Ministry of Agriculture is in the process of planning a coordinated research and development effort and providing necessary policy guidelines for the overall development of the coastal zone.
• The Ministry of Agriculture formed a Task Force for the Development of the Coastal Areas of Bangladesh. This Task Force consisted of representatives of BRRI, BARI, BWDB and SRDI. The Task Force, under the leadership of BARC, reviewed the problems and potentialities of agricultural production in the coastal areas of Bangladesh, and submitted its recommendations to the Ministry. At present meagre research and development work is being carried out by different organizations but with little coordination.
• Shrimp areas must be clearly demarcated and prevented from disturbing agricultural land. Adequate controlling regulations are needed. The mangrove forests (the Sunderbans) must be preserved at all costs. The coastal afforestation programme should be strengthened. This will accelerate land accretion and consolidation.

China: The government, scientists, extension service, and farmers themselves, all play important roles for controlling salt-affected soils of China. The government highly encourages scientists', extension services and farmers' activities on control of salinization. In China, some successful regionalization has been contributing significantly on salinity management and salt-affected soil utilization such as regionalization introduced in Tian-Ran-Wen-Yan Canal Basin of North Henan. Principles and practices of salinity management in one basin can be used in another basin or region with similar bio-climatic and social-economic conditions.

• Decision-making on expansion and planing of irrigation layout have been conducted by taking all possible negative impacts into accounts.
• Some advantageous policies are drawn up for farmers in affected areas such as tax deduction. As a result, coastal regions attract more investment on land exploitation and utilization and on management of salt-affected soils. In China, the farmland is usually contracted from the local government to the farmer as "responsible land". One family often operates farmland less than one ha. Land tenure varies from 5 years to 50 years, although long-term tenure has been encouraged recently. In some regions farmers are cooperating to form a large farm, where on-farming irrigation/drainage facilities will be greatly improved and abilities against salinization will be enhanced. Short land tenure is not good for long term investment of land, especially in problem soils such as salt-affected soils. Therefore, appropriate land tenure should be longer than 10 years in salt-affected regions. In China, land tenure in some coastal salt-affected regions can be extended up to 50 years.
• In some regions, especially river water irrigation districts, irrigation charges are collected according to the land area rather than to accurate water amount consumed by the farmers. Therefore, some farmers have not paid much attention to saving water and preventing rise of ground water table on farmland. In the regions where irrigation water charges are collected according to water consumed, the watertable is easier to control than in other regions, owing to farmers' enthusiasm both in regard to saving water costs and maintaining land quality.
• Research on salt-affected soils in China is suggested to include: monitoring, assessment and prediction of soil salinity (Remote sensing and GIS techniques can be used as tools of middle and long-term monitoring of salinity evolution and even prediction of secondary salinization); optimal model and technique systems on salinity management and utilization of salt-affected soils (the model should be integrated with as many choices of techniques on salinity management as possible, to be suitably used in different natural conditions, management patterns, agricultural layouts); multiple-objective decision making supporting system (the system should be developed to assess, analyze and compare advantages and disadvantages of all aspects involved, and to help on decision-making in an optimal manner); and studying human-induced salinization impacts on environment and ecology, besides those on agriculture.
• Overall national agricultural planning for improvement of salt-affected soils is one of the effective ways to solve nationwide salinity problems. Recently improvement of salt-affected soils is included in the national agricultural plan for improving low-to-middle yield soils (including all problem soils) in China. Such agricultural plan covers all provinces and regions where salt-affected soils and other problem soils are distributed.
• In China, the Commission of Salt-affected Soils of National Soil Science Society has been actively involved in improvement of soils and planning, by organizing workshops, exchanging information and putting forward some project proposals.
• Institutions from the Chinese Academy of Sciences (such as the Institute of Soil Science), agricultural universities and the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences are the main forces dealing with salinity problems and management of salt-affected soils in the country.

Indonesia: The Government has launched different programmes to reach self-sufficiency in rice and other food crops, especially maize and soybean. To cope with this target, agricultural activities have been extended to problem soils including coastal salt-affected lands.

Pakistan: Approaches tried in Pakistan to control and arrest the problems are: (a) commissioning of Government-sponsored large salinity control and reclamation projects (drainage projects over about 8 million ha); (b) leaching of salts by applying increased irrigation water and chemical amendments, organic wastes and plants (small local level interventions); and (c) promoting saline agriculture bioreclamation techniques using tolerant crops, bushes and trees, and fodder grasses.

The R&D infrastructure in the country for salinity and waterlogging includes the Drainage Research Centre at Tandojam (Sind), the International Waterlogging and Salinity Research Institute, the Punjab Directorate of Land Reclamation and the Mono Reclamation Experimental Station.

The Philippines: The mitigation measures for salt-affected soils goes beyond the provision of technologies. As the communities in these areas are very poor, the provision of poverty alleviation measures, non-farm or off-farm livelihood activities, that will improve their financial conditions to enable them to access and afford available technologies appropriate for their production problems is critically important.

• A long term research that will record, monitor, and evaluate changes in productivity, soil quality, and cost of interventions is a major requirement for research on salt-affected soils. A multi-disciplinary, integrated research is important as the farmers in affected areas are resource poor, less educated, have no access to capital and technology, food insecurity, and their production cycles are uncertain and vulnerable to recurrent attacks of increasing unpredictability of adverse climate changes.
• The 1997 Agriculture and Fishery Modernization Act (AFMA) in the Philippines, provides a two-pronged measure for making the farmers competitive and productive. One deals with research, technology development and extension and the other on the basic needs programme that emphasizes livelihood options for resource poor farming communities. The AFMA National Research Agenda has just developed a specific research network on natural resources where the Bureau of Soil and Water Management (BSWM) is designated as the national coordinator. The Network under the unified research plans and programmes will tap, interconnect, and harmonize all research efforts in the country. The Network shall focus on the subject matters that relate to sustainability of the use and re-use of soil and water resources in the country. On the other hand, the BSWM is likewise a recipient of a 5-year programme that will deal with research, development, and application of appropriate soil and water management technologies for marginal soils including coastal salt-affected soils in the country.

Thailand: Although the degraded soils particularly saline soils can be solved by present technologies, land deterioration has continued to be a problem. Salt production and shrimp farming which have caused salinity problems in large areas have also continued to grow. Legislation can be a better measure so that the government can impose policies to protect arable land from various harmful activities. In 1989, the government banned illegal salt production in the Northeast region and in 1998, also banned shrimp farming in fresh water areas of the central plain.

• Legislative issues were introduced in the country on i) effective use of natural resources; ii) conservation of land resources, rehabilitation and development of degraded lands; and iii) pollution prevention and eradication.
• The importance of research on soil salinity is of primary concern in Thailand, as expansion of salt-affected areas by both natural and anthropogenic sources and their adverse effects on agricultural production and surrounding environment have continued. This is presently focused on the use of integrated technologies to increase crop yields, sustainable use of salt-affected soils and land resources. Varying from place to place, based on soil characteristics and other environmental circumstances, the research on soil salinity in Thailand covers: monitoring soil salinization (this could be done using remote sensing and GIS techniques); fundamental study on the mechanism and formation of salt-affected soils; soil and water management including practical models for different salt-affected areas of the country, depending on various environment and socio-economic circumstances; and crop management (selection of crops and varieties most tolerant to salinity, rotation of crops and development of cultural practices).
• An Agricultural plan for improvement of salt-affected areas was included in the National Economic and Social Development Plan. In the period of the 5^th and 6^{th plan} (1982-1991), it placed emphasis on increasing crop yield with low cost and practical techniques for farmers. The areas in the low land in the Northeast of the country, which are suitable for rice cultivation were the primary focus. The 7^th plan (1992-1996) considered the reforestation area for salinity control in 800 000 ha. In the 8^th National Economic and Social Development Plan from 1997-2000, the Land Development Department plans to improve salt-affected lands (in addition to other objectives, the plan covers the development of Tung Samrit).

Viet Nam: High salinity is a major constraint to crop production especially during summer due to lack of irrigation water to leach salts from the root zone, poor drainage during the rainy season, lack of high yields salt-tolerant crop varieties and also to existing land tenure and land use system (land allocation to the farmers is practised but land use planning by integrated management to protect, improve the soil fertility and environment are problematic).

• Research should cover establishment of database management of natural resources on coastal salt-affected soils using GIS technology; monitoring, assessment and prediction of soil salinity (practical computer model should be developed for salinity assessment); different management activities under different land use patterns; dynamics of salt intrusion along the river systems from estuaries and its control; salt-tolerant rice varieties, especially high quality rice; mangrove forest protection in appropriate combination with fish-shrimp culture and land use policy and environmental protection in salt-affected soils regions.
• The Government of Vietnam is allocating a large part of agricultural, forest lands and barren lands (unused land according to the Land Law) to people with the aim to effectively use the land, planting new forests and protecting existing natural resources. The farmers in these areas have the right to use their lands for a long time to improve and conserve soil fertility at the same time with effective use of lands to develop crop yields and production. But the forest land use planning and forest land allocation could not carry this out in good time due to shortage of funds and of a proper and feasible methodology. Farmers received agricultural land and forest land certificates.
• The government pays more attention to investment for construction of protection systems on flat land, especially for sea saline water control by establishing dykes and linking culverts for increasing food production and food security.

Europe 

Hungary: The Government put some principles in its plan for sustainable use of salt affected soils areas including: rational land use and cropping pattern; adequate agrotechnics for surface water management and soil moisture control; reduction of ecological constraints and practising rational plant nutrition only in the slightly or moderately salt-affected areas and proper infrastructure for extensive (low input) farming and/or wetland management in the strongly saline/sodic regions.

The problems of salt affected soils and their management, are investigated in the country through i) The Research Institute for Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, ii) The Department of Soil Science and Microbiology of the Debrecen Agricultural University, iii) Debrecen Institute of Soil Tillage and Amelioration of the Debrecen Agricultural University, Karcag .

Romania: Research concerning reclamation of salt-affected soils has a long tradition (beginning in the 'fifties) in Romania. The leading institutions are the Research Institute for Soil Science and Agrochemistry, Bucharest and the Central Research Station for Improvement of Salt-affected Soils, Brăila. Investigations have been carried out in several experimental fields located in the main areas with salt-affected soils as follows: Socodor, Arad county (reclamation of sodic soils mainly Solonetz from the Western Plain by Oradea, Agro-Zootechnical Experimental Station); Ruşeţu, Buzău county (reclamation of saline soils mainly Solonetz and Solonchaks from the Călmăţui Valley); Polizeşti, Brăila county (reclamation of salinized soils by rice cropping by RIISA. and Brăila Experimental Station); Măxineni-Corbu Nou and Gulianca, Brăila county (intensive reclamation of salt-affected soils and of salinized soils by RIISA. and Brăila Experimental Station). On the basis of the research results a series of methodologies and procedures were prepared in classifying, mapping, and reclamation of salt-affected soils.

• The survey of salt-affected soils was the responsibility of RIISA, as coordinator, and of the county soil survey and testing agencies.
• The reclamation of salt-affected soils was of concern in order to increase the incomes of farmers applying higher inputs, especially within the irrigation schemes where the higher investments were available, the cost being completely supported by the state.
• Salt-affected soils represented a special issue within the national soil quality monitoring system according to a special procedure since 1977. As a result, significant areas of salt-affected soils were improved. Within the national programme for salt-affected soils reclamation, rice cropping was one of the most profitable farming systems. Thus since 1980, the rice cultivated area increased from 19 800 ha to 49 300 ha in 1989. Unfortunately, it then decreased down to 4 000 ha in 1997. Most of these former paddy soils could be rehabilitated with economic profit.
• As Romania faces a severe economic crisis, investments for land reclamation decreased very significantly. The issue of salt-affected soils reclamation is focused on those areas where very important socio-economic problems arise.

Turkey: The General Directorate of Rural Services (GDRS) has carried out reclamation studies all over the country. Issues related to reclamation of salt-affected soils include completion of detailed soil survey to have enough inventory data about salt-affected soils and to characterize each of them on different scales; determination of areas having potential salinization problems especially in irrigated areas; construction of drainage systems with irrigation systems; only using high quality water for irrigation; providing coordination of government agencies and research institutes; organization of private sector irrigation; monitoring changes in salt-affected soils and irrigated soils and to apply new advanced technologies such as GIS, RS, and computer modelling for monitoring and management of salt-affected soils.

In Turkey, studies are focused on assessment of the full extent of salt-affected soils suitable for reclamation (some of the successful project examples are Iğdır, Konya-Ereğli, Aksaray, Gediz, Lower Seyhan, Menemen, Bafra, Söke, Salihli, Kayseri-Karasaz, Eskişehir-Alpu, Denizli-Acıpayam plains and Çankırı Kızılırmak Basin); hydrologic and drainage response aspects of managing water excess; development and calibration of computer-based models (DRAINMOD, SALTMOD, Gypsum and Leaching Water Requirement); characterization of the properties of waste and drainage water of importance to re-use them and their impacts; diagnosis and predicting of the soil salinity and alkalinity (applied research and modelling for salinity development and management using GIS and RS techniques) and ecology of halophytic vegetation in salt-affected lands in Turkey ( Soil and Fertilizer Research Institute and some Research Institutes of GDRS, with the collaborative work of Universities that have carried out a five-year research programme for diagnosing halophytes and characterizing saline, sodic and boron affected soils).

Argentina: Institutes involved on studies and management of salt-affected soils in Argentina are: Secretariat de Agricultura Ganaderia; Instituto Nacional de Tecnologia Agropecuaria, Insituto Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnicas Hidricas; Laboratorio de Humus y Biodinamica del Suelo of the Universidad Nacional del Sur; Corporacion de Fomento del Valle Inferior del Rio Colorado, Pedro Luro and Agricultural experimental stations, universities and specialized institutes throughout the country.

Brazil: Brazilian governmental institutions like Superintendência do Desenvolvimento do Nordeste (DNOCS), Companhia de Desenvolvimento Nacional de Obras Contra a Seca

(CODEVASF) and Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária (EMBRAPA), mainly through the Agricultural Research Center for the Tropical Semi-Arid (CPATSA) have joined efforts to develop research studies in order to alleviate the situation.

Cuba: The government, scientists, extension services, and farmers play an important role in controlling salt-affected soils in Cuba. The extension service makes demonstrations on large scale and work on the extension of the technologies to the farmers.

• Legal aspects related to the control of salt-affected soils in Cuba appear in the Decree No. 179 of 2 February 1993. This deals with their protection, use, conservation and regulation, as one of the principal national legislations related to the environment. The law states that any new systems or management practices to be established must protect the soil against salinization and before the rehabilitation of salt-affected lands, a planning adapted to avoid environmental effects, economic losses and social conflicts should be prepared. Example of the implementation of such low is in the Genetic Enterprise "Manuel Fajardo", in Granma province. In other places where the soils are strongly saline and the cost for recovery is very high, the lands have been turned from cropland into pasture for cattle-raising.
• In Cuba, some successful regionalization has been contributing significantly to the management and use of salt-affected soils including Guantánamo and Cauto Valleys, which are densely populated zones and have most of the salt-affected soils. The fundamental objective has been to introduce gradually a rehabilitation and management system that permits to stabilize the local populations, to improve their living conditions, and to prevent environmental damage such as degradation and salinization.
• However in addition to the efforts of the Cuban government, technical and economic assistance through international cooperation projects based on the planning of the land-use at community level is required to combat salt-affected soils.
• The research programme in the country includes monitoring of soil salinity and development of models for the prediction of salinization; optimal model and technological system for use and management of salt-affected soils (in Cauto and in the Guantánamo Valleys, such models and techniques should be developed in more detail); and development of multiple decision making supporting systems.
• In Cuba, the national plan for the improvement and conservation of salt-affected soils is directed by the Ministry of Agriculture, in coordination with the Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment, that generates and establishes procedures and methodologies on the use, management and conservation of salt-affected soils. The credit and technical assistance of this plan are provided by the Cuban government. In the execution of the plan various public and private institutions are involved, that stimulate the training of farmers for the conservation and management of salt-affected soils and generate conservation services in the local, provincial and national areas, taking into account the possibilities and needs of each zone within the country.

Mexico: The private sector is not really involved in such kinds of problems as the case of salt-affected soils, except some companies that manufacture, sell and install drainage pipes. Mainly government institutions are aware of the magnitude of the problem, led by the National Water Commission (CNA), which is promoting and investing in extensive soil reclamation projects. Other related institutions are the Mexican Water Technology Institute (IMTA), and some research centers like the National Research Institute of Agriculture, Livestock and Forestry (INIFAP), as well as some state and federal universities.

• Current research includes using satellite images, SIG and a portable sensor to assess soil salinity and poorly drained soils (four reference crops were used, maize, wheat, cotton and sorghum) encompassing about 160 000 ha and a geographic information system (GIS) was used to estimate poorly drained areas in the most critical month (November).
• The Federal Government (Ministry of Agriculture and Hydraulic Resources) formerly controlled all irrigation districts in Mexico. In the late 1980s, after several economic recessions during the 1970s and 1980s, most of the ID infrastructure became obsolete and deteriorated, and together with subsequent personnel cuts, reflected on an overall deficient administration and operation. Since 1989, the Mexican Government, through the newly-created Comision Nacional del Agua or National Water Commission (from then the federal office in charge of the administration, regulation and conservation of the water resources nationwide), has transferred most of the ID of the country to the landowners for self operation and administration, so they could be financially sound, and the available resources could be better utilized. The process of ID transference basically included the formation of local growers’ associations, through which the Federal Government granted the use of the water and hydraulic infrastructure, as well as the ID operation and conservation, to landowners in terms of Water Concession Titles. This situation encouraged the Instituto Mexicano de Tecnologia del Agua (IMTA) or Mexican Water Technology Institute, jointly with local growers’ associations, to promote extensive reclamation projects using adequate technologies according to particular situations.
• Nowadays, the National Water Commission is promoting the installation of subsurface drainage systems, through the Programa de Desarrollo Parcelario or Field Development Programme, in which the Government covers 50% of the cost of the materials (pipes and accessories) and the installation work as well; the other 50% is covered by the landowner. This programme has been implemented mainly in the northwestern IDs (Culiacan, Valle del Carrizo, Rio Yaqui, Rio Fuerte, among others). By 1999, the project also covered the Valle del Carrizo, Rio Mayo and Colonias Yaquis ID.

Near East 

Egypt: The government activities for reclaiming salt-affected soils and improvement of their productivity are concentrated through three main programmes. The first programme is introducing tile drainage systems to cover all cultivated areas in Egypt, under the supervision of the Egyptian Ministry of Public Work and Water Resources (Tile Drainage Authority). The second is a land improvement programme and the third is a reclamation programme of new lands. The last two programmes are under the supervision of the Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation.

By the end of 1988, more than 5.5 million acres of cultivated land in Egypt were covered with a network of open collector drains. For that area, more than 3.2 million acres were provided with tile drains at the field level. It is planned that tile drainage will be expanded to cover a total area of 5.2 million acres by the end of 2000.

Since its establishment in late 1970 by the Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation, the Executive Authority for Land Improvement Projects (EALIP) has had the overall responsibility of all types of land improvement in Egypt including salt-affected soils, with the main function to promote activities and actions which lead to increased yield and productivity of old lands. It has a yearly plan to improve 750 000 acres in different Governorates of Egypt. EALIP undertakes soil improvement programmes which include gypsum application, subsoiling, land levelling and reshaping for better water management and improvement of the drainage and canal systems for salinity and waterlogging control.

Reclamation of new land including virgin salt-affected soils in Egypt covers new land with high saline watertable, virgin saline or potentially saline soils with relatively deep watertable, e.g. desert areas and oases; and reclamation of waterlogged salt- affected soils in the Nile Delta.

• Agriculture Extension Programmes are quite active and cover all the country at village level through the Agriculture Extension Sector of the Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation.
• Research programmes on all aspects of management of salt-affected soils and related soil mapping, monitoring systems, modelling, expert system, GIS, has a long history in Egypt and are running within the activities of the Soil, Water and Environmental Research Institute, Agricultural Research Center; National Research Center and Soil Science Departments of different Universities all over Egypt.

Iran: Several research plans are prepared for conducting long-term investigations on soil salinity including: preparation of soil salinity/alkalinity map; establishment of a number of representative sites for monitoring changes in salt-affected soils in the country; selection and/or breeding of salt-tolerant varieties of different crops including highly salt-tolerant plants such as Kalar grass; study of the conjunctive use of saline and non-saline waters for crop production and the optimal use of fertilizers under saline conditions and increasing the organic carbon content of the soil.

• For more than 30 years, different researches focused on solutions to salinity problems in Iranian agriculture have been carried out by Soil and Water Research Institute (SWRI). However, other organizations such as the Ministry of Power, Ministry of Jihad, and some faculties of agriculture have also been engaged in certain studies pertinent to this subject. So far, most of the research findings concentrated on leaching requirements and, to a lesser degree, the type of suitable amendment materials such as sulfur, gypsum, and sulfuric acid (this has been carried out in Khuzestan and Fars provinces in governmental projects). Farmers and private sector are always involved (intermittent leaching is common under farmers^, conditions).
• Besides small-scale, as well as large-scale, reclamation projects should receive due attention as such projects may prevent small rural communities from abandoning their land and migrating to the cities. Such migrations result in social and environmental problems in rural and urban areas.
• Farmers should become familiar with different possible alternatives of production systems under saline conditions. Using crops for production of fuel, wood, paper, dyes, and animal feed are examples for which salt-tolerant species are available and could replace the existing crops. Establishment of pilot projects to demonstrate the sustainable methods of managing saline agriculture is highly recommended. It is important that credit policies be supported by the pertinent government agencies to help farmers overcome the problems associated with the harsh environment and make greater contributions to the agricultural development of the country.

Syria: In the Khabour and Euphrates Basins, the expansion of irrigated agriculture without implementing the required drainage systems has led to the rise of the saline watertable with subsequent salinity development. Use of saline well water in irrigation increased the salinity problems in Syria. During 1993-1996, the Euphrates Basin study was completed by many different foreign companies. These studies confirmed the necessity to develop the Northeastern- Region of the country. The studies also concluded that irrigable areas by the Euphrates water amounted to 528 000 ha. After construction of dams and hydro-electrical stations, it was realized that it was too ambitious to achieve that figure because the implementation materials had not been developed and even parameters and specifications of such materials were not clearly identified. The reclamation programmes according to real priority have been ranked (1997) as 168 000 ha in Balkish Basin, 147000 ha in the Euphrates Plain, 40 000 ha in the Upper Mayadin Plain and 25 000 ha in the Al-Rassafeh Plain. These programmes are being implemented through the General Organization for Investment and Development of Euphrates Basin and General Administration for the Development and Exploitation of the Euphrates Basin, Ministry of Irrigation.

• The Directorate of Soils of the Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform was established with the responsibility of all studies and experimental work to be carried out in Syria, related to agriculture development including soil survey, soil fertility and salt-affected soils. The Directorate cooperates in these fields with the Directorate of Research, Agriculture Extension Department and the Provisional Directorates of Agriculture all over the country.

Tunisia: The Directorate of Soils, Ministry of Agriculture, is the specialist unit in Tunisia responsible for all studies and experimental work to be carried out in Tunisia, related to agriculture development including soil survey, water quality, soil fertility and salt-affected soils.

Associate Countries

Australia: There is a need for study of the use of a wide variety of institutional policy tools to address salinity issues. These include measures at federal, state and local government levels and include taxation rebates for approved activities, flexible use of state and local government rates and charges, the possibility of imposition of an "environmental levy" on measures that have an adverse effect through salinity on the environment.

For dryland salinity conditions, main research areas required include investigations into landscape salinity processes; trees and other techniques for groundwater management – recharge reduction; salinity guidelines for land clearing; vegetation of saline areas; managing discharge areas; shallow groundwater as a potential source of water; low cost pumping systems for control of shallow water tables and salinity hazard mapping. Main research areas required for irrigation areas affected by salinity include developing improved irrigation management practices to maintain root zone salt balance and prevent waterlogging; investigations into water and salt balance in the crop root zone; developing crop and forage species with improved salt-tolerance; economic modelling and developing effective and economic drainage disposal options for different situations.

All salinity control and management activities in Australia are now coordinated through the Land and Water Resources Research and Development Corporation (LWRRDC) established since 1990 by the Federal Government. Within LWRRDC, there are two main programmes aimed respectively at irrigation and dryland area salinity: (a) the Murray Darling (MD) Basin Salinity and Drainage Strategy (SDS); and (b) the National Dryland Salinity Programme (NDSP), which operates in parallel with the SDS of the MD Basin which was established in 1993. These draw together many activities that were previously carried out under other individual programmes aimed at dryland salinity. The aim of the NDSP is to achieve better coordination of research, development and extension activities directed towards better management of dryland salinity across Australia.

Canada: Membership of Canada in the FAO Network is to exchange experiences and views between the ongoing Praire Salinity Network in Canada and the FAO Network. The objectives of the Canadian network are to solve dryland salinity problems, understand the physical nature of the problem and to recommend an ameliorating strategy to address the problem (including satellite geo-positioning systems to define the salinity, mathematical models and use of salt-tolerant crop varieties to ameliorate salinity damage). Since 1980, on-farm salinity investigation has depended on electromagnetic induction meters, the EM38 and the EM31. The EM38 measures to1 m depth, and EM31 detects to 3.5 m. Development of the Global Positioning System (GPS) permits continuous all-weather navigation and areal tracking within agricultural fields. Both technologies were used together to provide rapid, low cost soil salinity assessments

Assessing the occurrence, extent and severity of salinity has been a major activity on the North American Prairies. Farmers formed local organizations to work with governmental agencies, which provided technical assistance and financial support to assess agricultural salinity problems. Lowering government funding has greatly reduced this activity. The salinity Assessment Monitoring and Prediction System was created. Seven saline sites throughout the Prairie were instrumented and are being monitored for change in salinity status. Also, soil survey information obtained over the years has been gathered and collected resulting in defining a Salinity Risk Index.

Colombia: The National University of Colombia, Palmira, approved a research programme on saline soils which is the only well organized programme existing in the country. The programme is running in cooperation with other universities and specialized institutions in the country. The main concept is to identify the problem and its causes and processes of formation, its spatial and time variability and the assessment of the present situation working out possible solutions, management practices and sustainable use of salt-affected soils.

COLCIENCIAS, the national institution for development of science and technology, has approved a special research plan in Mg-affected soils to be executed in two years. Sustainable agriculture production in Mg-affected soils is more difficult than in soils affected by other kinds of salinity problem. Amelioration of Mg-affected soils is not effective at present because there is not a thorough understanding of the mechanisms by which Mg negatively affects soil structure.

Salinity, sodicity and magnesium problems affect the most important potentially productive areas which are considered the future of the competitive agriculture of the country. Population affected by the different salinity problems could be greater than 4 million people.

India: Technology for reclamation of waterlogged saline lands in India concentrates on the use of subsurface drainage. Drainage design criterion for monsoon climate has been established and tested on a pilot scale. Also, the methodology for re-use of drainage effluents has been extensively tested and refined. Large-scale pilot projects are being implemented adopting this technology. Tecno-economic analysis shows that the technology is highly profitable but it requires community participation at a large scale.

A number of institutions at central and state levels have been established to facilitate land reclamation programmes. These include scientific institutes to provide research back up (such as the Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal); the Land Reclamation Corporations, Command Area Development Authorities (CADA) and non-governmental organizations etc., to support implementation at the field level. There is a well-laid out policy to provide financial support for alkaline land reclamation programmes in the country.

The thrust areas of the perspective research plan includes: (a) development of a methodology for preparation of a database on salt-affected soils through use of remote sensing and GIS. Manpower is being trained and infrastructure to undertake these studies is being strengthened; (b) salinity management on a sustainable basis is essentially a problem which has regional dimensions. Developing acceptable technology for varying physical, social and economic environments calls for decision-support models for the system at various levels. Models of regional agro-hydro-salinity and integrated hydraulic and economic optimization are required to be developed; and (c) high cost of agro-chemical and hydraulic technologies compared with bioreclamation technology needs priority attention. Development of crop varieties tolerant to high moisture and salinity which would facilitate use of high salinity land and water will be pursued vigorously.

Rehabilitation of degraded lands and checking their further spread has been identified as one of the major priority area and finds place in the policy documents prepared by the Government of India. States are preparing their master plan for drainage and land reclamation. The Central Government is assisting states through special schemes of land reclamation and command area development programmes. International linkages to facilitate land reclamation programmes, such as the World Bank, SAARC, ILRI and FAO have been established. More such linkages should be further planned.

Italy: A large number of national agencies deal with the problem of desertification including salt-affected soils in Italy. At the State level, the responsibility is of the Ministero dell’Ambiente through the National Environment Agency; at regional level, responsibilities are shared among Assessorati. In Italy none of the different government levels (national, regional and sub-regional) have specific rules aimed at solving or preventing desertification including salt-affected soils. The first act specifically aimed at combating degradation was the ratification of the International Convention on Desertification. The problem of soil degradation in Italy has been recently discussed in an international session (Forum on Local Development in Support of CCD). Some other international; conventions have been already ratified by the Italian government as The National Plan for Sustainable Development, The Convention on Climate Change and the National Plan for Biodiversity.

The National Environment Agency has been created only recently, the corresponding activities at the regional level should be carried out by the Regional Agencies, none of which are located in Southern Italy.

The purpose of the specific study contributing to the FAO Network activity is to show a) the relevant influence that reductions in hydraulic conductivity due to increasing sodicity (ESP) play in water transport in the soil-crop system; b) possibility for predicting the hazard of salinization/sodication due to irrigation with saline/sodic waters.

Spain: The contribution to the FAO Network includes several studies and research projects which will advise the Government on: a) the issue of integrated soil management of natural salt-affected areas (dryland salinity); b) problem of main seawater intrusion in the agricultural coastal area, its impact on the quality of groundwater and irrigation waters (secondary salinization induced by irrigation with saline water), and the appropriate soil and water management measures. A map of salt-affected soils in the Comunidad Valenciana at detailed scale is under preparation.

The Research Unit of Geomorphology and Salt-affected Soils of the Universitat de Valencia has performed since 1988, several studies on genesis and cartography of salt-affected soils, in Valencia and in other counties. It has contributed to the development of regional policies regarding the management and conservation of natural salt-affected ecosystems. In 1995, it organized and hosted the "International Symposium on Salt-Affected Lagoon Ecosystems", in collaboration with the ISSS, UNEP and FAO. Research focuses mainly in geochemistry of soils and water, modelling of soil salinity and halophytes. Several projects (granted by the EU, local government and in collaboration with other countries), on-going or finished, reflect the country's activities on salt-affected soils.

Sudan: The majority of salt-affected areas are located in the low rainfall regions in Northern Sudan in the higher terraces along the Nile River, South Khartoum, North Gezira and the White Nile Scheme, north of Kosti, due to climatic conditions (desert, semi-desert and semi-arid).

The Government of the Northern State is planning to develop about 400 000 acres in the higher terraces which are affected by salinity. The surveyed areas of the saline/sodic soils belong mainly to Aridsols. The Reclamation and Conservation Department of the Land and Water Research Center, Agriculture Research Center is the main Unit in Sudan dealing with studies on salt-affected soils.

Uzbekistan: The State Committee for Land Resources (SCLR) of the Republic of Uzbekistan is in charge of land resources research, planning, development and usage. It also monitors the main land capability indicators of irrigated and rainfed lands. The Water Resources Department of the Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources Management is in charge of water resources research, planning, development and distribution. It also undertakes the construction, operation and maintenance of the irrigation and drainage networks at national, provincial and local level. It plans the required measures for irrigation and drainage network maintenance and for the reclamation of degraded lands, including leaching, repairing and cleaning of drainage-collectors and network rehabilitation.

The Agricultural Academy of Sciences (AAS) is in charge of agricultural research and extension. The Uzbek Scientific Cotton Institute and Soil Science & Agrochemical Institute of AAS carries out multi-year experiments and trials in different regions of Uzbekistan.

The Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources is also in charge of agricultural research and extension, on-farm agricultural and land reclamation development, and on-farm operation and maintenance of the irrigation networks.

The Uzbek State Institute "Uzgipromeliovodkhoz" (the former ''Sredazgiprovodkhlopok" Institute), is the largest design-survey and scientific institute designing irrigation systems, reclamation and rehabilitation of irrigated lands in Uzbekistan, Pre-Aral, in Central Asia and in abroad. The Goskompriroda (Environment State Committee) is in charge of water quality monitoring and control of industrial and municipal pollutants.

Integrated research for decision-support-systems with particular attention to the development of National and Regional Information Systems as a tool for sustainable use salt-affected soils is of particular importance and necessity. In Uzbekistan a National GeoKadastr and Informational Centers of different ministries and institutions have been created, but current economic problems limit their development and mastering. Remote sensing (Bukhara project) and GIS technologies are available but with very limited use. Since 1995-1996, implementation has begun at the level of the regions (provinces) districts and planning zones by the TACIS EC-WARMAP-WARMIS project of Aral Basin Information System.

The implementation of modelling and expert systems is also limited due to the lack of special equipment, software and absence of qualified personnel.

The National Action Plan, as the major component of the Sustainable Development Strategy of Uzbekistan, is to increase agricultural production and improve food security through the reclamation and rehabilitation of degraded lands in the Amu Darya and Syr Darya basins. It is fully consistent with addressing environmental damage from mismanagement of soil and water management. As part of the National Plan, an Irrigation and Drainage Development Strategy for the Republic of Uzbekistan will be started in 2000. The Project will be financed from a Netherlands Trust Fund with the World Bank.

Recently a National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) has been completed for Uzbekistan. The NEAP identifies the scarcity and pollution of surface water and groundwater, the salinization and degradation of land, and the desertification and biodiversity losses as key environmental problems in the country. .