Background

Justification and Objectives of the Survey

Breadth and Scope of the Effort

Methodology for Implementation

Participating Countries

Basic Characteristics of the Modernized Irrigation Systems

In early 2002, The International Programme for Technology and Research in Irrigation and Drainage (IPTRID), a multi-donor Trust Fund programme of FAO, upon review and in line with its activities, decided on the need to document and analyze the efforts that were taking place, world wide, in relation to modernization of irrigation systems. With that in mind, a survey on selected cases of irrigation modernization was designed and its implementation begun. Subsequently, the Land and Water Development Division enlarged its involvement with the active participation of the Water Resources, Development and Management Service (AGLW). The activity became known as the Irrigation Modernization Survey Initiative. Experiences from 18 different countries were documented through the preparation of case studies of irrigation systems that had undergone, or were in the process of, a modernization effort.

Despite permanent efforts by the international irrigation and drainage community directed towards improving the quality and relevance of the research and rural development activities undertaken in developing countries, there seems to be a continuing gap between potential and achieved irrigated agriculture results. Misdirected research and outdated practices continued to curtail the benefits of technological innovations in many developing areas of the world. However, there is an opportunity to adapt technology, at relative low costs, from developed countries. In the current climate of population growth and increasing competition for the water resource, programmes like IPTRID and the AGLW Service can play a leading role in helping developing countries to improve their approach towards irrigation and drainage sector issues. Thus, modernization of irrigation schemes can enhance the potential of irrigated agriculture in many areas of the world where both the agricultural and economic productivity have stagnated or declined. The collaborating organizations in their catalytic roles as supporters and facilitator of irrigation- and drainage-related activities have a comparative advantage over other players in the international scene.

The overall objective of the survey was to identify common features of successful modernization initiatives, analyze both favorable and constraining conditions that were present, and the methodologies used. The results are to be used as feedback mechanisms for those governments or other organizations planning to undertake an irrigation modernization process. In addition, the survey was meant to identify gaps or limitations in the irrigation technology currently being applied, providing direction for potential research needed to overcome these deficiencies. Thus, it was expected that the surveys would shed light into the best practices for the modernization process of irrigation and helped develop more successful modernization programs.

Specifically, the survey was meant to:

• Document actual cases of irrigation modernization taking place in a number of selected countries,
• Analyze and discuss different approaches and methodologies being utilized within those modernization processes taking place; in particular the survey was meant to capture the concept of what constitutes modernization on the part of different stakeholders,
• Synthesize causes, interventions and impacts of irrigation modernization as feedback to further develop and improve on-going and future irrigation modernization processes,
• Provide a mean to identify gaps and limitations on our current knowledge on irrigation modernization that can lead to better application of technology and research in irrigation and drainage. This was initially a major goal that was to feed into the modernization theme activities.

Because of both time and financial limitations, the survey was conceived as exploratory in nature by selecting one irrigation system per country (with the exception of Italy on account of being the host country and thus two irrigation systems were finally considered). Its final breadth and scope would be determined by the interest shown by potential stakeholders. Terms of reference and the conditions for participation were prepared in three languages: English, French and Spanish to assure maximum response. In addition, this material was placed in IPTRID's web page to assure wide promotion.

The rationale behind the survey's design was based on the concept of modernization presented elsewhere in the website. However, care was taken not to influence potential contributors upon the perception they could have on what constituted a modernization process, since the capture of these different modalities was in itself an objective of the exercise. The survey proper included four main areas for consideration, as follows:

• General description and characteristics of the scheme,
• Description of the modernization process that took place,
• Impact of the modernization process, and
• Perceptions by the evaluator on the process that took place.

Initially, ten countries were selected: Spain and Italy representing Europe; Mexico and Argentina in representation of Latin America; Mali, Egypt and Senegal from Africa, and Jordan, Pakistan and Taiwan to represent Asia. After joining forces, the survey was expanded to include a second case from Italy that represented a significant different approach within the country; Peru from Latin America; Morocco from Africa and Israel, China, Indonesia and India to assure wider coverage for Asia; in total, 18 countries representing a wide sample of world irrigation. Recognizing that 18 irrigation systems can hardly be representative of world irrigation modernization, the realities dictated by human and financial resources constrained the sample to that level. But, there will always be scope for further expansion of the exercise something that the organizers would be looking forward to.

Details on the survey were sent to a number of countries were information was readily available that irrigation modernization was taking place; further promotion was done through existing water-related newsletters and web pages. The survey was meant to be a worldwide effort and thus criteria for selection of the case studies included, among others, regional representation; system type and size, and reasonable availability of a minimum set of information. Terms of Reference and precise instructions were prepared.

Before the survey was contracted out with a particular organization or individual consultant, they were asked to submit an assessment on both quantity and quality of information available that would allow completion of a significant portion of what was being requested in the survey's format. Subsequently, individual case study contracts were issued and a time frame for submission was set. The documents underwent an internal review and were sent to authors for clarifications, additions and final upgrade. Verification of information received was done to the major extent possible. At the end, final responsibility on the veracity and accuracy of the information necessarily lies with authors.

IPTRID was responsible for 10 cases, FAO/AGLW for six, IWMI and the Spanish National Committee of ICID (Comité Español de Riegos y Drenajes) one each.

Complementary of the survey with FAO-AGLW activities on Modernization. The study reflected here is made by contributors from national counterparts without specific involvement from IPTRID or FAO on the project itself. It complements well other activities carried out by AGLW on Modernization and for which the division is much more pro-active. Modernization of irrigation management has for long been a central activity within the service. Since 1998 the Information Techniques for Irrigation Systems Network (ITIS) has been one important activity in Asia through the regional FAO Bureau of Bangkok with the development of specific training program on Modernization of irrigation systems in many countries of Asia (see www.watercontrol.org). Thus, this survey complements FAO's own experiences by bringing a wider range of point of views on modernization.

A total of 18 irrigation modernization cases studies, representing 17 countries were submitted. The figure provides a snapview of their location, across the globe. These countries, with their respective ISO3 codes in parenthesis, and by regions, are as follows: In Latin America: Argentina (ARG), Mexico (MEX), and Peru (PER); In Europe: Italy (ITA) with two cases, and Spain (ESP); In Africa: Egypt (EGY), Mali (MLI), Morocco (MAR), Senegal (SEN); and in Asia: India (IND), Indonesia (IDN), Israel (ISR), Jordan (JOR), Pakistan (PAK), Syria (SYR) and (non-ISO3) Taiwan (TWN).

Figure: Participating countries.

General information on the case studies --that is the irrigation systems that underwent the modernization process-- is provided herein. The information is primarily organized by geographical regions, as mentioned earlier, indicating systems' name and the specific country where the system is located, including the administrative unit: state, department or province; along with the year when initiation of the modernization process took place. The systems' gross and irrigated area as well as water source and technical characteristics such as the type of water uptake and conveyance network and its dimension are also provided. Water availability and delivery schedule plus type of governence, soils conditions and main crops complete the information.

Table: Case studies, general information.

The table shows a great variation of situations and conditions with the systems studied spread across four continents. Their modernization process started as early as 1916 for a first attempt to upgrade the Tao-yuan system in Taiwan and as recent as 2001 under the still on-going modernization effort in India's Samrat Ashok Sagar irrigation system. With respect to size, they range in gross area from the 430 ha of the Adasiyeh system in Jordan up to the 55 000 ha of the Sinistra Ofanto in Italy.

Again in the table and with respect to water availability, presented in terms of water duty, the values range from as low as 0.20 liters per second per ha in the Old Ayarmook irrigation system in Syria, to as high as 3.5 l/s/ha in the Boundoum system in Senegal. Likewise, related to irrigation infrastructure, also a wide range of conditions were found. The length of the main canal varies from the 110 km in the Jordan system to the less than 13 km of the Mali and Egypt systems. In a similar manner, the total length of the network spreads from the high 948 km of the Tessauot irrigation system in Morocco, to the low 24 km of the Beni-Ebeid system in Egypt. The previous data translates into figures on "Ha served per kilometer of canal" that spans from around 21 ha/km in Mali, Morocco and Senegal to 222 ha/km in Pakistan. On Governance the most common entity responsible is the Water User Association which appears in 8 of the 18 cases while the government agency or departemt, special authorities or offices or similar type of arrangements represent the remaining ten cases. This Table also indicates both the main crops and main soil texture founbd in the systems surveyed.

In the figure, the water source type by geographical region is shown. The systems' water source cuts across a wide spectrum of possibilities: rivers, reservoir, feeder canals, wells, lakes and springs, and even urban water re-use like in the case of Israel. Not unexpectedly, the type of water uptake also represents several alternatives and their combinations thereof like run of the river, reservoir-assisted, surface and groundwater pumping. The water is conveyed through either open channels or pipelines or combinations of the two.

Figure: Type of water source by region.

In the following table, coded irrigation system are placed to reflect both their type of water uptake and conveyance network. In cases when the boxes cross categories they are meant to reflect a mixed condition. For example Syria appears to have a mixed conveyance network: both open canals and pipelines. Likewise, Egypt's location suggests that the open chanel system draws its water through both a run-of-river arrangement and surface pumping.

Figure: Systems conveyance network and water uptake arrangement.

Finally, and interestingly enough, within the case studies all four types of water delivery schedules are represented: Central system, like in the Zaohe system in China, by Demand like in the Hefer Valley system in Israel, by Rotation with the Sidoreyo system in Indonesia as example, and by Arranged Schedule, represented by the Retail irrigation system in Mali. In the figure, the delivery schedule types ---by number and region--- present within the case studies are shown. Delivery schedule by rotation is the highest with 10 cases, followed by demand delivery with 5 cases, arranged delivery with 2 cases, both in Africa, and finally only one case of central system delivery from China, as already mentioned.

Figure: Delivery Schedule Types, by number and region.

From the preceding discussion concerning the information provided, it is clear that the systems reported in the case studies cover an ample spectrum of conditions; this in turn will allow to broaden the scope and breadth of the analysis. This variation was not pre-determined and rather seems to point out towards the very different types of irrigation systems that are undergoing change throughout the globe. In the measure that looking for variation among irrigation systems being modernized was by itself an objective of the survey these preliminary results are encouraging. In the following sub-sections, the analysis utilizing the apporach as outlined previously is presented.

Contact: water-management@fao.org