CASE STUDY FROM EGYPT

SURVEY ON IRRIGATION MODERNIZATION

Beni Ebeid Area

Prepared by Mohamed Allam

October 2002

CONTENTS

GLOSSARY AND ABBREVIATIONS

1 INTRODUCTION

2 PART A: BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE MODERNIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEM

2-1 Location
2-2 Command Area
2-3 Land Tenure Structure
2-4 Date of Modernization
2-5 Water Sources
2-6 Energy Source
2-7 System Type
2-8 Water Rights
2-9 Main Crops
2-10 Soil
2-11 Irrigation/drainage Infrastructure
2-12 Q design
2-13 Operation and maintenance
2-14 Irrigation methods

3 PART B: MODERNIZATION PROCESS

3-1 Causes that led to modernization
3-2 Steps of modernization process
3-3 Organizations/Institutions involved
3-4 Implementation of the modernization process
3-5 Actual Modernization that took place
3-6 Training
3-7 Financing of the process
3-8 Estimated cost of the process
3-9 Was system performance evaluation done prior to modernization?

4 PART C IMPACT OF MODERNIZATION

4-1 Governance
4-2 Water rights and water allocation
4-3 Water service provider
4-4 Water Distribution method
4-5 Water service fee structure
4-6 System performance
4-7 Have other systems in the country followed the same process?

5 PART D: CONSULTANT'S OWN CONCLUSION

5-1 What is your appreciation of the modernized process that took place?
5-2 Do you perceive any major gaps in the process that took place?
5-3 Can the process be replicated elsewhere?
5-4 What lessons can be learned from the modernization process that took place?

6 REFERENCES

7 TABLES AND FIGURES

MWRI Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation

IIP Irrigation Improvement Project

WUAs Water Users Associations

O&M Operation and Maintenance

APRP Agricultural Policy Reform Program

WPRP Water Policy Reform Program

USAID United States Agency for International Development

IMS Irrigation Management System

EWUP Egypt's Water Use Program

RIIP Regional Irrigation Improvement Project

IAS Irrigation Advisory Service

MALR Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation

US upstream

DS downstream

NIIP National Irrigation Improvement Project

SURVEY ON IRRIGATION MODERNIZATION

1 INTRODUCTION

Like other water-scarce countries, Egypt is facing fast growing demands versus limited water resources. Therefore, Egypt is entitled to do more with less water. This fact was early recognized by the government and considered in country's plans and mitigation measures. One of the key measures is the rehabilitation and modernization of the irrigation system. During the period 1977-84, EWUP was instrumental in introducing a system for irrigation improvement and irrigation participatory. The activities of the EWUP included problem identification, evaluation of alternative solutions for technical and socio-economic feasibility, and demonstration solutions to improve the social and economic livelihood of Egyptian farmers through improved irrigation water use and management and related agroeconomic practices. In 1985 the government of Egypt began a national program to improve the existing irrigation system in the old lands. A project called Regional Irrigation Improvement Program (RIIP) was established within the MWRI according to the ministerial decree issued in 1984 based on EWUP recommendations. The basic goal was to improve the agricultural productivity and reduce water use in the old land through implementing the recommendations of the EWUP in pilot areas with significant problems such as Beni Ebeid in El-Menya Governorate.

The goals of the IIP as a modernized process included the following:

•  Strengthen the institutional capacity of the MWRI so that it has equipment, organization, staffing, managerial and administrative skills, and operational policies and procedures to continue NIIP.

•  Develop a rational interdisciplinary approach for planning, designing, and implementing the renovation of specific commands identified in the ministry plans.

•  Develop and put in place an irrigation advisory service to provide for the transfer of water management technical information and technical assistance.

•  Organize operational water users associations in all IIP areas to provide farmer input during the renovation process, scheduling of water on Mesqas, perform maintenance, and resolve local disputes

•  Establish policies and procedures for the recovery of a reasonable portion of the operation and maintenance costs of the irrigation system and the full cost of Mesqa and on-farm improvements.

This modernized process included two main components; physical changes and organization changes. The physical changes included; continuous flow in branch canals, physical rebuilding of existing Mesqas, and replacement of individual pumps by collective pumping. The organization changes included establishment of Water Users Associations (WUAs) and creation of an Irrigation Advisory Service. IIP started in 1989 and established a number of private WUAs on Mesqa level as well as the institutional structure for the IAS. The main goal of IIP is to increase the irrigation efficiency and agricultural productivity. Implementation of IIP covered an area of 147,000 hectares (350,000 feddans) in 11 pilot areas in Egypt for the period 1989-1996. In 1995, the World Bank IIP project was initiated to include improvements of additional 104,160 hectares (248000 feddans) in Lower Egypt. This paper highlights briefly on the modernization package that is implemented in Beni Ebeid area in Egypt during the period 1988 – 1996.

2. PART A: BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE MODERNIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEM

This section provides a brief description of modernization process. Table (1) summarizes the main information of the process.

Beni Ebeid area is located in the western part of Menya Governorate in Middle Egypt as shown in figure (1). Beni Ebeid comprises two main villages; Greis and Beni Ebeid in Abo Korkas District.

The total gross area is 2100 hectares (5000 feddans)¹ and the net irrigated area is about 1871 hectares (4455 feddans). The boundary of the command area is defined by the Greis drain on the west and Mohit drain in the east side as shown in figure (2).

1One feddan = 4200 squared meters = 0.42 hectares

The size of farms in Beni Ebeid Area ranges from 0.042 to 5.04 hectares (0.1 to 12 feddans) with an average of about 1.05 hectares (2.5 Feddans). 56% of Farmers who are working in this area own their land while the remainders are renting the land. The farmer and family members provide most of the labour required for farming and irrigation.

2-4 Date of Modernization

A feasibility study for Beni Ebeid area has been completed in the early of 1991. After then, the MWRI, through USAID funded project on improvement of irrigation in Egypt (IIP), started implementation of the recommended alternatives in the previous studies and approved policies. By the end of 1994, the implementation of the modernization has been completed. It should be noted that, the construction of the automated downstream control gates of Beni Ebeid branch canal was carried out in 1988-89.

The main source of water supply to the area is the Nile River that provides more than 97% of the total water demand of the command area (The total crop water consumptive use was estimated at 25 million cubic meters per year). Nile waters are deliverd to the area through a major canal called Serry canal which oftakes from Ibrahimai canal that takes, in turn, from the Nile River upstream Assuit Barrage. Private groundwater tubewells (about 20 tubewells) cover the rest of the water requirements. Studies showed that groundwater is a reliable source, in terms of quantities and quality, and could be practiced in this area.

Diesel fuel constitutes the main energy source to operate the pumps that are installed at the head of Mesqa to divert water from branch canal to Mesqa. Water is then made available to farmer fields, through openings along the Mesqa, which flows by gravity to fields. Water flows from main canals to branch canals (primary, secondary and distributary canals), before and after the project, by gravity. Before the project, water was flowing from branch canal to the Mesqa by gravity, while farmers used to lift irrigation water to their fields using their own (or rented) small mobile pumps. After the project, water is lifted to the new Mesqa, but the irrigation water is distributed to the farms by gravity.

The modernization system of irrigation in Beni Ebeid areas involved improving the hydraulic conditions of water distribution at tertiary level. The system provided two types of tertiary canal (private canal operated by farmers that is called Mesqa) instead of the old one that was earthen canal and was found not efficient to deliver water to farm gate. The first type was to replace the old Mesqa with a new Mesqa that is lined and elevated. Water is pumped from the distributary canal to the Mesqa head while water discharges by gravity to farms. The other type included replacing the old Mesqa with a pipeline with low pressure and water is delivered to farms through Alf2-Alfa valves along the pipeline. Modernization included also rehabilitation of the distributary canal and constructing automatic downstream control gates instead of the old gates.

Water rights system is not existing in Egypt. Farmers, however, are allowed to take water from canals or Mesqas to irrigate their land. Scheduling of irrigation is made among farmers associations, known as Water Users Associations, WUAs, with the assistance of an innovated governmental entity called Irrigation Advisory Service, IAS. Water allocated to farmers is mainly based on the cropping pattern. However, in case of water deficit in Mesqa discharge, this deficit is proportionally distributed among farmers according to the decision taken by the WUAs. The irrigation schedule shows the turn of each farmer to irrigate and the number of hours to open the gate or the valve on the Mesqa. This schedule is implemented by the leader of the Mesqa and the leaders of the gate or the valve along the Mesqa. Although the irrigation interval of the system before modernization was fixed to 15 days, farmers particularly those at Mesqa tail, used to complain from lack of irrigation water or were deprived from irrigation during the on-period of the canal. The modernized system grantees the time of irrigation and the flow for each farmer as expressed in operating hours of gate or the valve. The determined number of hours for irrigation has encouraged farmers to implement land leveling to reduce irrigation hours to minimum and to increase land productivity as well ). Frequency of irrigation after modernization became also more flexible. It depends on the crop type. Sensitive crops may need shorter irrigation interval. This was achieved through introducing the continuous flow. Irrigation interval and duration is determined by the WUA. Farmers became very keen with their water application, as they are paying for the cost of operation and maintenance. They do their best to minimize the operating hours and consequently optimize the use of water. The MWRI used to release an average of about 13000 cubic meters of water per hectare per year ( 5500 m³/feddan/year) for Beni Ebeid at the head of the command area. The problem was that this quota was unevenly distributed among farmers before the modernization process.

The main grown crops in summer include Cotton and Maize, which cover about 82% of the cultivated area, while the main crops in winter include Wheat and Berseem (Clover) that occupy about 89%. Permanent crops, such as sugar cane and fruit trees, occupy about 2.3% of the cultivated land. Figure (3) shows the percentages of the different crops in Beni Ebeid Command Area. The cropping pattern is used to determine the water requirements and deliveries to the command area based on the standards crop consumptive water uses set by the MWRI as shown in table (2). Water allocated to farmers is then determined by the WUAs based on cropping pattern and also based on the conditions of water allocated to each Mesqa. Water deficit is proportionally redistributed among farmers. The irrigation schedule as set by WUAs defines the time of irrigation for each farmer or group of farmers at the gate or valve. It defines also the allowed water delivery to fields in terms of operating hours for each farmer.

Like most of Nile Valley and Delta region, soil in Beni Ebeid area is mainly fluvial deposits derived from Nile silts without significant influence of desert Aeolian deposits. This type of soil is mainly classified as vertisol that is characterized by deep cracks during the off-period of irrigation. The problem of these cracks becomes severe when the off-period gets longer. Studies and investigations in this area showed that this type of soil restrict 80% of the plant root to the upper 40 cm layer of the soil. This affects the type of crops grown in the area where citrus and other deep-root plants are not grown. Soil salinity in the area was found to be mostly non-saline soils. Very limited area, that is not exceeding 3% of the command area, is classified as moderately saline soils. Water table in most of the area is 150 cm or more below the ground surface.

Beni Ebeid Canal is a third order canal² of 12.68 km length. It branches from Serry Canal at km 12.0 downstream Serry intake. The canal has three water structures that regulate the flow and to create the suitable head for off-takes (branch canals) along it. These regulators were replaced through constructing new regulators along the canal. The new regulators are provided with radial gates to provide automatic downstream water level control under continuous flow process. The gate type is AVIO 110/200 at the canal head, AVIS 920/170 at km 4.375, and AVIO 90/125 at km 9.53. Beni Ebeid canal has also 4 bridges crossing the canal.

There are also four branch canals, of fourth order, take from Beni Ebeid canal. Branch canal length varies from 1.7 to 3.5 km. Two branch canals, of fifth order, take from Elnahal canal as shown in figure (2). The total canal length of Beni Ebeid branches is about 14 km. Branch canals are also provided with 7 bridges.

Farmers usually get their water from Mesqas. Mesqa is a private canal that takes from the branch canal and it is maintained and operated by farmers on their own while the government is responsible for operation and maintenance of the public canal system which comprises main and branch canals, i.e. except Mesqa. In Beni Ebeid area, Mesqas irrigate 55% of the total command area while the remainder area, 45%, is irrigated from direct outlets along Beni Ebeid canal. The total number of Mesqas in the area was 111 Mesqa and off-takes. The modernization process included grouping most of scattered off-takes onto a new Mesqa. Therefore, the number of the improved mesqa is currently 65. Improved Mesqa facilities include a pump station at Mesqa head in addition to a reservoir to provide low head for pipeline Mesqa. The number of pipeline Mesqas is 27 while the open elevated Mesqas are 38.

The command area has adequate facilities of drainage system where water table problems or salinity problems are not recorded. The whole area is provided with subsurface drainage system installed at 1.0 m below the ground surface and has a space of 75 meters between laterals. This system of drainage collects field drainage and discharges it to an open drainage system such as Garis and Mohit drains.

2The first order canal is Ibrahimia that takes directly from Nile River then, Serry canal is considered a second order canal that branches from Ibrahimia. Consequently, Beni Ebeid is a third order canal wich branches from Serry canal.

The estimated peak water duty in July is 87.89 cubic meters per hectares per day (36.9 cubic meters per feddan per day). This means that the designed discharge is 1.9 cubic meters per second for the command area (MWRI, 1993). Studies are now being conducted by National Water Research Center to evaluate this process of modernization. It aims also at measuring the actual flow runs through the system at the head of the command area.

The activities of operation involve purchase of diesel and lubricants. A schedule of operation of the pump is decided by the WUAs council with the assistance of the IAS. Collection of fees is also the responsibility of the council. Collection of fees is determined on operating hours basis or seasonal basis. The latter is the most recommended alternative. Maintenance of Mesqa such as regular cleaning is the responsibility of the WUAs. Some cleaning activities or repairs can be conducted by users themselves. In some cases, labor is hired to conduct some maintenance works for the WUAs. The average annual cost of operation and maintenance in Beni Ebeid area is about L.E. 135 per feddan, i.e., about US$ 71.4 per hectare (Allam, 1995). A member of the WUAs called treasurer is responsible for collecting O&M fees from farmers on annual basis and depositing into the bank account. The operation and maintenance fees are determined by WUAs without any governmental interference. In Beni Ebeid Area, members of the WUA mentioned that they determined the O&M fees based on crop type and irrigation application. Three categories were developed for payment starting from US$ 3.5 and up to US$ 5.0 per hectare per application. Fees are used for covering the following cost items:

• Salary of the pump operator, which is determined at US$ 0.20 per hectare per year, i.e. about US$ 400 per year for the whole command area.
• Cost of the pump fuel and lubricant
• Cost of repair and spare parts, and periodical cleaning of the Mesqa
• The rest of the fees is deposited into the bank account of the WUA to be used in the future for replacement of pumps or for major rehabilitation works.

Like most of old lands in Egypt, Beni Ebeid areas is characterized by surface (flood) irrigation method. Basin or Furrow irrigation is practiced in this area based on the crop type. Micro irrigation system such as sprinkler or drip irrigation is not practiced in this area. Transfer to drip irrigation is a new policy applicable only for the trees' farms, and still not in implementation

3. PART B: MODERNIZATION PROCESS

3-1 Causes that led to modernization

The IIP is carried out with the main objectives of:

•  Facilitating a more equitable distribution of water between upstream and downstream users.

•  Ensuring long term sustainability through active participation of water users.

•  Augmenting agricultural production and incomes through improvements of the basic infrastructure, providing continuous water flow, and improved field irrigation systems.

The improvement package includes interventions at two levels of the irrigation system: the branch canal and the tertiary canals ( Mesqa ) from where farmers abstract water to their fields . The largest part of IIP, however, is improvements of the tertiary system. The package of the IIP can be listed as follows:

This involved improvement of the main delivery system in Beni Ebeid area included seven branch canals as mentioned before. Improvement plan included the following:

• Rehabilitation of the water structures along these canals such as intakes, cross regulators and tail escapes to prevent water losses from canal end to drains.
• Replacement of the old structures with new ones of radial gates to provide automatic control for the downstream water levels to cope with the farmers demand and abstraction.
• Remodeling the canal cross section to improve the canal characteristics and conveyance efficiencies. This means bringing the cross section up to standards of the original design. The remodeled cross section was made to allow for water storage during the non-irrigation times; particularly during night time as shown in figure (4).
• Turn-outs and offtakes are also planned to be installed along the branch canals such as facilities at the head of each Mesqa; pumps, pump stands and pump sumps. Energy dissipation basins are also constructed at the head of each Mesqa.

Utilization of other water resource (non-conventional waters) includes groundwater and agricultural drainage, to augment the branch canal flow. The plan included two options. The first is to construct four deep tube wells, each of 400 m³/hour. The second is to construct twenty-five shallow wells, each of 100 m³/hour. Drainage water reuse was not considered in this process, given the ability of groundwater with better quality. In fact none of these options have been implemented till now. The use of these water resources aims at compensating the canal flow so that water rights will be met at its pre-determined quantities. This option will be essential in future particularly if the canal flow is reduced due to increases in national water demands.

The self-regulating gates (float –operated radial) are provided to branch canals to respond to water level fluctuations in the downstream. These gates open to bypass more flow when farmers abstraction increases in the downstream and close when water withdrawal is stopped. The gates close completely when water levels rise to approximately 10 cm above the crest level of the tail escape. Two types of downstream control gates were suggested; AVIO and AVIS as shown in figure (5). The first was recommended for relatively higher upstream water levels while AVIS is for smaller upstream levels.

Improvement of Mesqa constitutes the major part of the modernization process. It includes replacement of the existing Mesqa, which is earthen low level ditch with non-organized water withdrawal through multiple pumping/lifting points along its length. Two types was recommended for modernization, open elevated Mesqa and buried low-pressure pipe. Elevated Mesqa is an open ditch, but lined and elevated. Normal water level in the elevated Mesqa was set to permit gravity flow to fields at 15 cm above the field level. Alternatives for elevated Mesqa include a rectangular concrete cast-in place section and pre-cast concrete “J” section as shown in Figure (6). Low-pressure PVC pipeline Mesqa is another option for replacing the old Mesqa. It is set at approximately one meter below grade and provided with risers at spacing of about 100 meters. Flow from each riser is controlled by an alfalfa valve. Such types of these Mesqas, elevated or pipe line, are intended to reduce the seepage of water to minimum. The end of the Mesqa is closed to prevent water losses to drains. Figure (7) shows a schematic for pipeline Mesqa. The pipe Mesqa is recommended when land acquisition for constructing open Mesqa is difficult and expensive. In addition, Pipe Mesqa is recommended when Mesqa runs through villages and subject to pollution and blocking by villagers garbage. The cost of construction of the open elevated and pipe Mesqa is US $ 457 per hectare (L.E. 867 per feddan) and US$ 853 per hectare (L.E. 1612 per feddan) respectively (Allam, 1995). However in other areas particularly in Lower Egypt, the difference in prices between the open and pipe Mesqa is less than that in Beni Ebeid area. Farmers (i.e WUAs) has the decision to select the type of Mesqa based on their conditions.

Continuous flow in branch canals was viewed as an important part of the process of modernization. Farmers can have greater flexibility in timing of irrigation applications to meet crop water requirements as compared to the rigid rotation schedules of the traditional system. Irrigation schedule will then be among farmers themselves without government intervention. The water supply to the command area before the modernization process was about 4.0 cubic meters per second during the on-period. After implementing the modernization process, water supply reduced to 1.9 cubic meters per second but on continuous basis. The irrigation schedule among farmers was not set before modernization where farmers used to wait on the canal or Mesqa until they find the water to irrigate their fields. The modernized process enabled farmers to know their time of irrigation and number of irrigation hours instead of waiting along the canal or Mesqa. This process prevented the over irrigation usually made by the head farmers that affected the water availability for tail farmers. Regarding the change of irrigation methods, the MWRI is currently conducting some studies to introduce drip irrigation system for trees and orchards.

Farmers along the improved Mesqa are organized in WUAs to build, operate, and maintain their Mesqa on their own initiative. A board of 6 members is to be elected by the water users. The board consists of head, treasurer, and other four members. The board will be responsible for collecting operation and maintenance cost from farmers. Usually, a bank account is made for WUAs to control the financial issues of the O&M of improved Mesqa.

IAS is a newly established governmental entity to provide technical assistance to farmers such as operation and maintenance of the modernized irrigation system. IAS also helped farmers establish water users associations, scheduling of irrigation among farmers and on-farm activities such as land leveling.

Under the modernization process, three organizations became involved in irrigation management and decision-making:

•  MWRI-Irrigation Directorate, at the governorate level, became responsible for water management at the main canal system such as Serry canal; the main feeder of Beni Ebeid branch canal. Water flow in Beni Ebeid branch canal is then regulated automatically through automatic downstream water level control gates that are operated under the on-demand system.

•  Water Users Associations (WUAs) is a new organization established through the modernization process. WUA is a non-governmental organization which incorporates representatives of farmers that benefit from the Mesqa. For each Mesqa, WUA council is formed, through election, to include 3 to 10 members; head of WUAs, treasurer, operator, and other members. WUA is responsible for Mesqa improvement (such as selection of Mesqa type, locating the new Mesqa, locating Mesqa turnouts), operating and maintaining the single point lift pump, scheduling turns among water users, resolving disputes, and Mesqa maintenance.

•  Irrigation Advisory Service (IAS) is a newly initiated governmental agency. The primary mission of the IAS is to facilitate and assist formation of WUAs. It also assist in providing technical assistance to water users for Mesqa improvements, operation, maintenance, and irrigation scheduling among farmers.

The process of implementation of the IIP in Beni Ebeid included five main components as follows:

•  feasibility studies and Design for the delivery and Mesqa systems

•  Bidding and contracting process

•  Construction

•  IAS and WUAs activities

•  Land and water management activities.

Table (3) presents the schedule of implementation.

3-5 Actual Modernization that took place

3-5-1 Main Delivery System

he canal cross section for the all branch canals in Beni Ebeid command area have been remodeled to cope with continuous flow

•  Three radial gates for automatic downstream water control have been constructed. The AVIS gate at canal intake, AVIO gate at km 4.75, and AVIO gate at km 9.53 on the canal.

•  AVIO gate has been installed at each branch canal intake.

•  Canal tail escapes for all branch canals haven been rehabilitated to prevent water losses from canal end

3-5-2 Mesqa System

The number of improved Mesqas in Beni Ebeid is 65 Mesqsa that covers the total command area of Beni Ebeid. Twenty-seven out of 65 Mesqas are pipeline and the remainder are raised Mesqas. All Mesqas are currently fully operated since they are equipped with the designed facilities such as pumps.

There are, 65 WUAs were formed to cover the whole command area. They are currently involved in operation and maintenance of the improved Mesqas.

IAS office in Beni Ebeid has been established since 1991. It comprises agricultural technicians . They are responsible for WUAs formation, farmers training and providing technical assistance to them.

3-5-6 Training

Training was provided to both the government staff and water users associations on the operation and maintenance of the new system.

3-5-7 Introducing continuous flow policy

Continuous flow is introduced to all branch canals of the area.

3-6 Training

A new program, as revolutionary as the IIP, requires specific training and capacity building programs to ensure success and sustainability. Different training courses were given to both water users and IAS staff during the implementation of the process. These courses included:

A. Training courses for WUAs:

•  Introduction to pump and Mesqa operation

•  WUAs financial management and record keeping

•  Mesqa maintenance planning

•  Water management demonstrations

•  Special tours

•  Canal WUAs conference

B. II. Training course for IAS staff:

•  Basic IAS introductory course

•  Managing, monitoring and evaluating WUAs and Mesqas improvement

•  IAS orientation training for new IAS staff

•  Mesqa planning and design with water users involvement

•  Operation and maintenance of improved Mesqa

•  On-farm water management, monitoring, and evaluation

The IIP package in Beni Ebeid command area was financed by a USAID grant. A project called IMS was established under this grant in 1987. IIP pilot program was one of the IMS components which included improvement of the irrigation system of Beni Ebeid.

The average cost of the IIP package as implemented under IMS/UASID program is approximately LE 1200 per feddan (US$ 635/ha) for Mesqa improvement. The cost of other components such as rehabiliation of main system and constructing radial gates represents about 40% of the Mesqa cost (MWRI, 1998).

A feasibility report for Beni Ebeid command area was prepared as part of the RIIP (Regional Irrigation Improvement Program) activities to establish procedures for rehabilitation of these areas. Four reports dealing specifically with Beni Ebeid areas have been prepared:

•  Feasibility Report of the Beni Ebeid, December 1988.

•  Socio-economic Baseline Survey of the Beni Ebeid Unit Command Area, Serry Canal Command, October 1988.

•  Comparative Study of Mesqa Size, Maintenance, and Improving the Beni Ebeid area, December 1988.

The objective of the study was mainly “Problem Identification and solutions”. Further, the study sought to quantify, where possible, priority irrigation and related problems in Beni Ebeid to examine feasibility of alternative solutions to these problems. Problems that have been identified through this study were mainly water distribution and on-farm water management problems. The study included also determination of water requirements, irrigation system efficiencies, night storage, land leveling, and Mesqa system definition. Reports included also soil maps and survey. The socio-economic field study examined problems of water control, crop yields, net farmer income, maintenance problems, and costs. The third study included design of different Mesqa alternatives and operation procedures.

4. PART C IMPACT OF MODERNIZATION

4-1 Governance

Governance, which basically determines the allocation of power and authority, explains who is responsible for what function of irrigated agriculral and within what bounds. Application of continuous flow policy has contributed to change the governance in irrigated agriculture in Beni Ebeid. Before system modernization, water allocation to farmers was controlled by the central departments of the MWRI through rotational flow that is usually affected by the water budget of the main canal system. Under modernization, power and responsibilities of operation of the irrigation system is shared between different agencies; irrigation directorate, IAS, and WUAs. For the branch canal level and lower canal system, the government is no longer interfering in water distribution. Water is controlled through an on-demand system under the automated downstream control gates.

The modernized system in Beni Ebeid guarantees water availability on time for each framer wherever his location are; canal or Mesqa, head or tail. The problem of inadequate water at canal and/or Mesqa tails has been solved due to implementation of continuous flow. Improved Mesqa and involvement of water users in operation and maintenance has contributed to equitable and timely water allocation among farmers. Openings along Mesqa, are designed according to the quota of each farmer or group of farmers. Better water distribution among farmers is the main advantage of the modernized process where water is made available to them at a specified time. This was achieved through improving the water distribution effeceincy among the canal network and also among the Mesqas. Water allocation to farmers is made around to about 13000 cubic meters of water per hectare per year. Water delivery is not significantly different than before modernization. Modernization process helped mainly improve the water allocation and ensure an even water distribution among farmers.

The government used to maintain and operate the main delivery system while Mesqa operation and maintenance were the responsibility of farmers. Due to unorganized water users, Mesqa has been deteriorated with low efficiency of water distribution. The same problem was reported for branch canals. Under modernized system, water will be available in the branch canal on continuous basis instead of the old rotational system. Water distribution burdens are relieved on the MWRI (the water service provider) due to introducing of continuous flow policy and involvement of water users. The government is also planning for transferring the management of branch canals to water users federation that represents all Mesqas WUAs. In this case, the role of government, as water service provider, will be reduced to be for management of the main conveyance system.

As mentioned before, water distribution method has changed from rotational flow to continuous flow in the branch canal. However, water allocation among farmers is kept under rotational basis through a well-established irrigation schedule set by IAS in consultation with WUAs.

The cost of the modernization process includes two portions:

•  Improvement of the distributary canal

•  Constructing new Mesqa and installing pumps

Farmers are responsible to pay the capital cost of Mesqa construction and the pump. Cost of the pump was planned to be recovered over three years while capital cost of Mesqa is recovered over 20 years with equal annual payments at no interest and with five-year grace period. The ministry of finance, through its team who collects land tax and tile drainage cost, will be responsible for collecting the capital cost of the Mesqa. On the other hand, the capital improvement cost of the distributary canals is fully covered by the MWRI.

Farmers paying fees to the WUAs for the operation and maintenance cost of improved Mesqa. The head of the WUA council, treasurer and pump operator, in consultation with other WUAs members, decide on the methods of fees collection from Mesqa beneficiaries. Two ways of fees calculation and collection; per feddan or per hour of pump operation. The first is most common, particularly in Beni Ebeid area. Fees concerning O&M are collected per feddan on seasonal basis mainly after harvesting of crops. On the average, the collected irrigation fee is approximately US$ 70 per hectare per year. This fee was found to be 50% less than what farmers used to pay before the modernization process (Allam, 1995). The reduction in the O&M cost is due to several reasons including:

•  The physical improvement of the irrigation system.

•  Changing the water delivery to one single point lift at the head of the Mesqa instead of multiple lifting points.

4-6-1 Agricultural and water productivity

The modernization process resulted in two main agricultural benefits that both led to enhancement of farmer's income. The first benefit is land saving due to construction of improved Mesqa as compared to areas occupied by old Mesqas. There is about 2% of the total command area has been saved and made available for agriculture. The second benefit is the increase in crop yield due to the better condition of water availability. The process grantees the fresh water allocated to farmers through continuous flow and new irrigation schedule. Increase in crop yield ranges from 5% to 30% according to crop type. Figure (8) shows the difference in crop yield for some crops before and after IIP.

4-6-2 Equity and efficiency of water distribution

The evaluation reports showed that the equity of water distribution has been achieved in Beni Ebeid command area. The conveyance efficiency in the Mesqa has improved to reach about 98% instead of about 70% before IIP. The conveyance efficiency reflects the ratio of the farm turnout water deliveries to the amount of water entering the Mesqa. Measurements of this efficiency were made by the IIP team through installing water level automatic recorders along the Mesqa and using the flow meters to quantify the flow running along the Mesqa and deliveries to farms. This has been done to sample of Mesqa (improved and control Mesqa).

The modernization process has also contributed to the improvement of water allocation between the head and tail of the Mesqa. Before the modernization, most of tail end farmers complain from inadequate water. The water use index (WUI)³ was used to test the uniformity of allocation between tail and head of the Mesqa. WUI is the ratio of water delivered to the water required. Water required was calculated based on the actual cropping pattern. Figure (9) shows a comparison of WUI between head and tail of the Mesqa during the period of high water demand (June to September). This figure reflects the low water application efficiency in September. However in other months, application efficiency seem better. Improvement of efficiency was also due to reducing the time of irrigation as noted in Beni Ebeid Area. It is reported that over-irrigation is recorded when WUI exceeds the value of 1.5 where water losses through deep percolation or surface runoff would be the reasons behind this increase (MWRI, 1998). This is clear during September where crop needs are minimum, since crops are being planted in this month, and farmers still flood their lands. However, it is reported also that before IIP the WUI ranged from² to 5. However, the value of the WUI is used in testing the uniformity of water allocation among water users, i.e., between head and tail-end users. It should also be kept in mind that this process is still pilot. Certainly, more improvements are needed to rationalize the water allocation. The process, anyhow, gave the foundation for further improvements and water conservation. Reduction of irrigation time ranged from 50 to 60% of that was before IIP as shown in figure (10). Reduction in irrigation time was due to implementing land leveling and setting a suitable water head at the farm inlet. Time of irrigation was also reduced because of the continuous flow, which made water available all the time in the Mesqa. Better scheduling of irrigation and higher flow rate at the field level have also contributed to reduced the irrigation time.

3WUI = Water delivered / water required. Water delivered means water abstracted by farmers and water required is the actual crop water requirements. Both water delivered and water required are measured at each outlet along the Mesqa, i.e., the water delivered to group of farmers (at field level).

The feasibility study showed that the benefit-cost ratio (B/C) is more than unity and the IRR⁴ was higher than the discount rate (MWRI, 1993). However, monitoring and evaluation should be conducted to test these indicators due to change in farmer's practices in agriculture and also due to changes in cost of operation and maintenance. A study on the economic impact of IIP showed that average cost of one irrigation application has reduced from $8.4 to $4.0 per hectare, i.e 51 % reduction for winter crops, while this reduction was 57% for summer crops (Elshinawi & Elgohary, 1996). The cost of irrigation includes different items such as renting a pump, labour and cost of waiting time until water is made available at the head of the field. After modernization, these costs have been reduced thanks to the single point lift and better irrigation schedule that minimizes the waiting time. Collected water fees cover the O&M cost and Water fees.

4 IRR is the internal Rate of Return. The IRR is defined as the discount rate at which the net present value of incremental benefits equal to zero. The project will be economically feasible if IRR is higher than the discount rate

The modernized system had positive impacts on the public health particularly for the tail-end users. This system has contributed to the availability of fresh water at canal end. Therefore, tail-enders are no longer pumping polluted drainage water and consequently, farmer exposure to pathogens is reduced.

Buried pipeline Mesqas do not provide the favorable living conditions for snail hosts. Availability of fresh water contributed also to less water requirements for leaching.

The modernized system had its impact on the drainage water quality. Reducing the field run-off, due to lowering irrigation time, will reduce the level of nutrients received by drains. Groundwater quality will be expected to improve as a result of minimizing the utilization of drainage water.

The main goal of the IIP is to move towards the devolution of irrigation water management and maintenance to water users. Then, establishing WUAs and IAS is the key element to achieve such goal. In Beni Ebeid area, WUAs have reached the final phase of full responsibility of operation and maintenance. Such new entities (WUAs and IAS) have facilitated the communication with MWRI and MALR officials that lead to improve agricultural production. Recent studies showed that IIP provides attractive financial and social incentives. These incentives indicate strong satisfaction of water users with forming and participating in their own private WUAs ( MWRI, 1998). These incentives are:

•  Improved trust, communication and cooperation among water

•  Uniform allocation and distribution of water due to to continuous flow reliability

•  Saving time, labor, operation and maintenance costs and land

•  Improved problem solving between WUAs and irrigation department

•  Better feeling of ownership and leadership among the members of WUAs

•  Water saving and hence water reliability

•  Better scheduling and timing of irrigation

•  Improved yields and quality of crops

4-7 Have other systems in the country followed the same process?

Under the IMS project, this modernized process has been replicated in 11 pilot areas in Egypt, including Beni Ebeid area, over the period 1989-1996, with a total net area of 147,000 hectares. In 1994, the MWRI has got a loan from the World Bank to implement this process in another area of about 104,160 hectares in Lower Egypt. The government strategy is to replicate this improvement irrigation package allover the country.

5. PART D: CONSULTANT'S OWN CONCLUSION

5-1 What is your appreciation of the modernized process that took place?

It can be concluded that the modernization process in Beni Ebeid area is sustainable. All WUAs have registered and opened a bank account. Farmers are paying the irrigation fees, and operation and maintenance activities are being successfully carried out. No severe problems or degradation of the infrastructure are reported up to date. Farmers are encouraged to pay the irrigation fees because they are paying less than before, and the modernization process contributed to increased crop production by about 30% particularly for maize and wheat. The modernized process, through implementing the full package of the IIP, can be considered as revolutionary changes in the irrigation system in Egypt. This process can achieve many benefits to the nation as well as individuals. The process could pave the road towards the transfer of the water management aspects to water users and thus towards privatization of water services.

The process seems to be fully successful and meets the required goals. However one gap could be mentioned here that is related to the timing of the improvement of the main delivery system. This improvement should be implemented in-line with the other to ensure providing the continuous flow conditions in the branch canal. In some areas, apart from Beni Ebeid, this problem was clear. Use of non-traditional water resources should also be implemented, as a component of modernization process, in parallel with physical improvement.

This process provided a full package to be replicated elsewhere particularly in Egypt. The government is currently undertaking a program for implementing this process nation-wide.

Lessons could be listed as follows according to the evaluation studies conducted on the IIP command areas in Egypt (MWRI, 1998):

•  Rate of implementation should be faster than that was conducted in the process. This could be achieved through establishing WUAs and conducting training prior to implementation.

•  Cost of improvements is still high and needs to be reduced. This could be achieved through developing private sector expertise to conduct design and construction.

•  Continuous training is needed so as to maintain a certain level of educated staff, particularly for IAS, to support the process operation.

•  Establishing canal federation to participate in the branch canal operation.

•  Establish specific monitoring programs for water quantities, quality, and crop production before the implementation of the process. This baseline data could be very useful in assessing project impacts after implementation.

•  Improvement of main system should start prior to improvement of tertiary level to ensure implementing the continuous flow.

It is quite long period (7 years), the modernized process in Beni Ebied is working. Consequently, lots of information is available concerning different activities. This could help carry out an evaluation and deduce some lessons to be used in setting a vision for overcoming problems of this process.

MWRI, 1992,” Feasibility Study For Bahr Yousef Rehabilitation and Improvement of Delivery Water System on Bahr Yousef Canal”, Main Report Prepared by Japan International Cooperation Agency.

MWRI, IIP, 1991,” Supplementary Feasibility Study on Beni Ebeid Command Area – Final report”, a report prepared by Morrison-Knudson Engineering, INC and Louis Berger International, INC. through a funded USAID/IMS project.

MWRI, 2001,”IMT Physical Assessment for Rehabilitation – Beni Ebeid Branch Canal”, Report No. 47 – Appendix E-3, prepared by IRG/Winrock International and Nile Consultants through UASID funded project on Agricultural Policy Reform Program in Egypt.

MWRI, 1998, ”Egypt's Irrigation Improvement Program” Report No. 7, prepared by IRG/Winrock International and Nile Consultants through UASID funded project on Agricultural Policy Reform Program in Egypt.

Allam, M. N, 1995,” Analysis of Surface Irrigation Improvement in Egypt”, Journal of Egyptian Society of Engineers, Vol. (34), No. 1, Cairo, Egypt.

Mollinga, P., Douglas J. Merrey, and Lutfi S. Radwan, “ Water Control In Egypt's Canala Irrigation – a discussion of institutional issues at different levels”, a paper presented to “Liquid Gold” program, Wageningen Agricultral University, 1998.

MWRI, 1997,”Activities and Achievements of the Irrigation Improvement Sector”, Egypt, Cairo.

Table 1, Description of the modernized irrigation system in Beni Ebeid, Egypt

Table (2) Crop Water Consumptive Use for different crops in Middle Egypt (m3/feddan/month)

Source: Irrigation Management Institute, National Water Research Center, 1990

Source: Supplementary feasibility study – Beni Ebeid Command Area – Final Report - March, 1991

Figure (1), Location map for IIP in Egypt

Figure 2, Irrigation and Drainage System in Beni Ebeid Area

Figure 3-a, Winter Crops in Beni Ebied

Source: Supplementary feasibility study – Beni Ebeid Command Area – Final Report - March, 1991

Figure 3-b, Summer Crops in Beni Ebied

Source: Supplementary feasibility study – Beni Ebeid Command Area – Final Report - March, 1991

Figure (4 ) Automatic downstream water level control

Figure (5-a) Avio gate

Figure (5-b) Avis Gate

Fig. (5-c) Illustrative figure for Automated Gate; AVIS gate

Fig. (6 a), Old Mesqa before IIP

Fig. (6 b), Elevated Mesqa after IIP

Fig. (6 c), End of Elevated Mesqa

Fig. (6 d), Construction of the Modernized Mesqa (J-section elevated Mesqa)

Fig. (7) Low Pressure Pipe Line Mesqa

Figure (8) Crop yield in Beni Ebeid area

Source: Report No. 7 on Egypt's Irrigation Improvement Program, Water Policy Reform Program, MWRI, 1998

Figure 9, WUI for head and tail reaches of improved Mesqas

Source: Report No. 7 on Egypt's Irrigation Improvement Program, Water Policy Reform Program, MWRI, 1998

Figure 10, Time of irrigation before and after IIP (hours/feddan)

Source: Report No. 7 on Egypt's Irrigation Improvement Program, Water Policy Reform Program, MWRI, 1998