Grenada

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1. Country overview

1.1 Geography and administrative units

1.2 Socio-economic features

1.3 Climate

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1.1 Geography and administrative units

Geographical location
Grenada, located at the southern end of the Lesser Antillean island chain (approximately 90 miles north of Trinidad), can be found between latitude 11 58’and 12 13’ N and longitude 61 20’ and 61 35’ W. It is the largest of the three main islands which make up the nation Grenada and theGrenadines. the other two being Carriacou and Petit Martinique islands. Small islands, islets and rocks also lie offshore from the main islands. Grenada covers land area 21 miles long and 12 miles wide (312 sq.km.); Carriacou is located 15 miles to the north of Grenada and is 13 sq. miles (34 sq. km.) and Petit Martinique can be found 2.4 miles east of Carriacou with land mass (2.3 sq. km.).

Administrative units
The island is divided into six (6) Parishes – St. Andrew, St. David, St. George, St. John, St.Mark, and St. Patrick and one (1) dependency – Carriacou and Petit Martinique. The capital city of Grenada is St. Georges.

[Map 1.1.1: Geographical location]

[Map 1.1.2: Administrative units]

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1.2 Socio-economic features

Population
In 1997, the population of Grenada was estimated at 96,000, with 44% of those persons residing in the rural and agricultural regions. Annual population growth rate and average population density at this time were 1.8% and 107 persons per sq. km., respectively. (See Table 1.2.1).

[Table 1.2.1 :Name of table]

Economy
The Grenada economy attained a favourable growth rate of 5.8% in 1998, compared with a growth rate of 4.2% and 2.9% for the year 1997 and 1996 respectively. This growth is as a result of higher levels of manufacturing activity, buoyancy in the construction sector, falling inflation and a stable financial sector. Other sectors influencing the growth attained in 1998 were:- electricity and water, mining and quarrying, agriculture and tourism. These sectors recorded growth rates of 8.0%, 11.0%, 2.5% and 2.1% respectively. These growth rates are evidence that the economy is on a path of sustainable growth. (See Table and chart 1.2.2).

Economic indicators

Unemployment: Preliminary data from the Unemployment Survey, conducted in August to September of 1998, indicates that the unemployment rate has fallen from 17.0% in 1996 to 15.2% in 1998.

Inflation: The rate of inflation was estimated at 1.3%, compared to 0.9% in 1999. The overall index was influenced by the “Food Items” which increased by 1.8% and accounted for 40% of the weight of all items in the consumer basket. Other items reflecting increases were Personal Care and Health Expenses (3.1%); Clothing and Accessories (2.2%); Recreational, Reading and Educational Expenses (5.5%) and Household Furniture, Furnishing and Equipment (1.4%). There were declines in the prices of basic consumer items as reflected in the major groups: Households and Fuel supplies (4.3%); Fuel and Light (6.0%) and transportation (0.3%).

Balance of payments: From 1970 to 1990 the agricultural sector’s percentage contribution to the country’s GDP, fell from 6.4 % of the total GDP (at factor cost) in 1970 to 3.2% in 1990. Since 1990 the agricultural sector’s declining contribution to total GDP continued, reaching 1.8% valued at $TT 659.1 million in 1997. This trend was due in large part to a 60% and 50% decline in the percentage contribution of both export agriculture and the sugar industry, respectively. In 1998, however, the agricultural sector’s percentage contribution to total GDP (at factor cost) increased by 10% over 1997 and was valued at $TT 787.3 million (See Table 1.2.3).

[Table and chart 1.2.2 :Name of table and chart]

[Table 1.2.3 :Name of table]

The role of agriculture in the country's economy
During 1998, output in the sector grew by 2.4% subsequent to a decline of 1% in 1997. The sector’s contribution to GDP decreased to 9.1% from 9.5% the previous year. The agricultural sector continues to play a significant, though a declining role in the economy. The agricultural sector is seen as a vehicle for transformation of the rural areas of the country. However, the sector continues to be affected by decreased productivity, inadequacy of agricultural inputs and continued infestation by pests and diseases. The pink mealy bug, which wreaked havoc on the agricultural sector between 1994 and 1996, was successfully brought under control in 1997.

Major food crops, cash crops and trends in production
During 1998, output in the sector grew by 2.4% subsequent to a decline of 1% in 1997. The sector’s contribution to GDP decreased to 9.1% from 9.5% the previous year. The agricultural sector continues to play a significant, though a declining role in the economy. The agricultural sector is seen as a vehicle for transformation of the rural areas of the country. However, the sector continues to be affected by decreased productivity, inadequacy of agricultural inputs and continued infestation by pests and diseases. The pink mealy bug, which wreaked havoc on the agricultural sector between 1994 and 1996, was successfully brought under control in 1997.

Nutmegs: The nutmeg industry obtained favorable prices for its export, however there was a decline in its output. Farmers sold 4.8 million pounds of nutmegs to the Association compared to 5.3 million pounds for the same period in 1997, at a value EC$8.7 million. Export earnings for Nutmegs was EC$23.4 million compared to EC$18.7 the previous year (See Table and chart 1.2.4).

Mace:Export earnings from mace increased to EC$3.7 million from EC$3.2 in 1997 (See Table and chart 1.2.5).

Cocoa: The quantity of cocoa exported decreased by 20.3% to 2.4 million pounds from 2.9 million pounds in 1997. Conversely, export earnings increased to EC$5.6 million relative to EC$5.0 obtained in 1997 as a result of higher prices attained (See Table and chart 1.2.6).

Banana: In the past the banana industry had played a significant role in the economy, contributing to foreign exchange earnings, employment, savings and government revenues. Production and Exports of bananas have been falling continuously since 1988 when it stood at 9, 300 tonnes. Drought, crop diseases and input scarcities have also plagued the industry. Some large farmers have now abandoned banana cultivation. The government with the Grenada Banana Cooperative society, encouraged by yields of up to 18 tonnes per acre intends to resuscitate the industry (See Table and chart 1.2.7).

Non- Traditional Commodities:Production of food crops, fruits and vegetables have also been on the decline because of scarce financial resources and abandonment of farms by some larger producers. Production and exports of exotic fruits and food crops improved during 1997 as Grenada regained some regional markets lost because of pink mealy bug infestation.

Livestock production has been holding its own, with poultry production satisfying 10% of domestic demand and near self-sufficiency in pork being achieved. Quantities of fish landed have been falling, but Grenada remains a leading Caribbean exporter, with exports increasing by 14% in 1997 (See Table 1.2.8).

Livestock: Although considered a "high-priority" by successive governments, the livestock industry has never received priority attention. Consequently, this sub-sector remains relatively undeveloped and its potential, especially for import substitution, has not been realised (See Table 1.2.9).

Grenada imports most of its livestock products requirements, mainly from the USA. For example in 1997, 94% of the poultry meat consumed locally, was imported. It is however self-sufficient in egg production, but imports about 94% of the poultry meat consumed locally. The livestock population, with the exception of sheep and goats has declined significantly during the period 1961 to 1995 (See Photo 1.2.1).

Fisheries: Fish output increased by 33.9%, to 3.8 million pounds from 2.8 million pounds the previous year. The quantity of fish exported decreased slightly during the same period by 2.6% to record 1.1 million pounds in 1998, with export earnings of EC$9.3 million (See Table 1.2.10).

Agro-processing: Agro-processed products manufactured in Grenada comprise mainly syrup and rum production from sugarcane, flour and wheat bran manufacture and canning and bottling facilities, which produce tomato ketchup, sauces, beer, juices and jams/jellies. Growth in the value of beverage exports was strong, averaging 40% per annum between 1991-1995, inspite of a 20% decline in export earnings in 1993.

Tourism: Tourism expanded at an average annual rate of about 7.2% during 1992-7 and accounted for at least 10% of GDP in 1997. Arrivals of stopover visitors increased by 26% from 87, 554 to 110, 748 between 1992 and 1997, while cruiseship arrivals increased by 36% from 195, 894 to 266, 982 between 1992 and 1996, before falling by 7.6% to 246, 612 in 1997. Estimated visitor expenditure increased from $114.3 million (mn) in 1992 to 161.1 mn in 1996, before declining marginally to $160.4 million in 1997.

Manufacturing: The manufacturing sector accounts for 6-7% of GDP and comprises activities catering largely to the domestic market, such as the manufacture of soft drinks, beers, malt, stout, rum, flour, animal feed, garments, paper products and paints and varnishes. According to GDP data, output in the sector did not grow appreciably during 1992-97 as producers found it harder to compete with their regional counterparts.

Construction: Next to tourism, construction was the main source of growth in the economy during 1992-97. The construction sector recovered by 1993 after a downturn of 6.1% in 1992. After recording growth of 4.5% in 1993, activity subsided in 1994 and 1995. The current boom conditions emerged in 1996 when the construction sector grew by 5.4%, followed by 5.0% in 1997. Over the period 1992-97, activity in the construction sector was dominated by residential housing and public sector infrastructural projects.

[Table and chart 1.2.4 :Name of table and chart]

[Table and chart 1.2.5 :Name of table and chart]

[Table and chart 1.2.6 :Name of table and chart]

[Table and chart 1.2.7 :Name of table and chart]

[Table 1.2.8 :Name of table]

[Table 1.2.9 :Name of table]

[Photo 1.2.1 :Name of photograph]

[Table 1.2.10 :Name of table]

Food security and Food Production
Grenada’s per capita food supply grew rapidly over the decade, primarily because of a rising import level, declining exports, and negative and marginal population growth. Agriculture declined by 4.4% over the decade, from falling from 17.5% to 11.21% of GDP. While food manufacturing has grown, it is still quite small relative to agriculture. As a result, Grenada has become more import dependent for food, while its food exports are less and less capable of financing food imports.

Declining exports led to an increase in the food supply, but in this case, the increase consists primarily of bananas. While the banana is a staple in the Caribbean, and its uses are many, export earnings are needed to import the protein sources that the country needs.

Foods produced domestically included a group of 24 items among which are arroids, green and yellow vegetables, beans an peas, corn, citrus and annonas. Domestic food production, during the period 1987 to 1996, has fluctuated between 12000 and 15000 metric tonnes per annum. The greater proportion of that production is consumed locally.

Fish production, for the same 1987 to 1996, fluctuated between a low of 1,289 MT and a high of 2,214 MT. Local fresh fish consumption is also on the decline. Between 1992 and 1996, local fresh fish availability measured on a per capita basis, fell from 18 kilogrammes to 8.3 kilogrammes.

Historically, domestic livestock production has contributed significantly to the domestic food basket. However, this significance has declined over the years. Between 1961 and 1995, not only has the number of farms having livestock as part of their operations declined but also the populations of cattle, pigs and chickens have not grown in significant numbers. The five-year average of imported fresh meats and meat products for the period 1987 to 1990 was 10,234 MT.

Trade Liberalization
Trade Liberalization began with the reform of the Common External Tariff. The Grenada Report confined itself to noting the rapid rise in the importation of fruits and vegetables since 1993, even as the share of food in imports remained fairly constant, and the threat of liberalization to the markets of Grenada’s traditional exports – banana, cocoa, and nutmeg.

Much of the increased demand for fruits and vegetables originates from the expanding tourism sector. In 1995, Interviews with farmers in Grenada revealed that they had experienced difficulty competing with imported fruits and vegetables in the local tourist market. Grenada’s traditional exports have been in decline on account of problems of poor quality, disease, and rising costs. Non-traditional exports have not responded quickly to the changing economic environment. Trade liberalization is yet to make its full impact on the economy.

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1.3 Climate

Climate description
The normal climate of an oceanic region at the latitude of Grenada is a humid tropical marine, with little seasonal or diurnal variation in day length temperature and relative humidity and a fairly constant, strong “trade” wind out of the east. This regional climate is affected mainly by the sub-tropical cyclone belt and the inter-tropical convergence zone (ITCZ). The location of these two (2) meteorological systems varies in a cyclical pattern, and their movement gives rise to seasonal variation in the rainfall pattern. Rain distribution throughout the year is divided into a drier season from January - May and a wetter season from June to December. Mean total rainfall per annum for Grenada stands at 2,350mm. Spatial variations in rainfall distribution range from 1,500mm to more than 5,000 mm per annum. (See Photo 1.3.1).

Grenada has several mountain masses, one rising to 2749ft. (840 m) at Mount St. Catherine, which cause a marked upward deflection of the westerly morning moisture-laden air. The rising sea air is cooled by expansion, and the moisture is condensed so that “orogenic” cloud formations and often heavy precipitation result.

Climate data
The temperature of Grenada at sea level is generally high with little seasonal, diurnal or locational variation due to the damping or stabilizing effect of the ocean mass. Temperature records for the higher elevations in Grenada do not appear to be readily available, but Beard (1949) suggests an average of 21°-22°C between monthly means of 19-24°C with very high humidity, no frost and little sunshine. As a rule of thumb, the temperature falls with altitude above sea level at a rate of one degree Celsius drop per 100 meters in elevation.

The extremes of Grenada’s wet and dry season rainfall regime and its temporal and spatial pattern create wide variations in annual precipitation at different locations. Grenada’s rainfall is highest in the hilly or mountainous part of the country. For example Grand Etang, located at an altitude of 600 m, normally receives about 3880 mm of rain a year. Rainfall intensities are frequently greater than 50 mm/hr, and maximum intensities of 112-132 mm/hr have reported (Eschweiler, 1982a). By contrast, most of the valleys and coastal plains are relatively dry, with annual precipitation averaging about 990 mm at Point Saline.

[Photo 1.3.1 :Name of photograph]

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2. Land resources

2.1 Geomorphology and Physiography

2.2 Soils

2.3 Land Use

2.4 Land Capability

2.5 Natural Hazards

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2.1 Geomorphology and physiography

The interior of Grenada is dominated by mountain peaks, steep ridges, and deep narrow valleys. The volcanic geology of the interior, is the dominant factor that produced this landscape. A single north-south trending ridge is also the major watershed of the island. Grenada’s principal peak, Mt. St. Catherine is 833 m high and is located in the northern half of the island. Carriacou rises to a height of only 297 m at High North, while Petit Martinique attains an altitude of 226 m.

The coastal periphery of Grenada presents a landscape which is much more subdued than the interior. The western side of the island displays a more rugged aspect as the central ridge is nearer to the coast on that side; the slopes are gentler on the east, and there are some fairly extensive coastal plains. The topography of the southwestern and northeastern parts of the island consists of low hills.

With the exception of the harbour at St. Georges’ and Halifax, the west coast consists of a series of shallow bays separated by headlands, as do the north and northeast coasts. The southeast coast south of Telescope Point and the south coast westerly to Pt. Salines are deeply indented with many small bays backed by mangrove swamps.

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2.2 Soils

According to Ternan, et al (1989) the soils of Grenada are dominated by clay loams (84.5%), followed by clays (11.6%) and sandy loams (2.9%). The 3 major types of clay loam are Woburn, Capitol and Belmont. In Grenada, the dominant soil-forming factors are climate and topography. Climate is the most important single factor, specifically differences in total annual rainfall and in the length of the dry season. In some areas, the rocks are geologically young, and soils formed from rocks have not had time to mature.

Grenada’s soils are mostly well-drained and reasonably fertile. Together with high temperature and rainfall in most areas, the country’s land base has considerable potential for productive crop growth. However, as a mountainous country there is also a high erosion potential, a factor which places substantial constraints on the way the vast majority of the country’s land base can be sustainably utilised (See Photo 2.2.1).

[Map 2.2.1: Soil Map of Grenada]

[Photo 2.2.1 :Name of photograph]

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2.3 Land Use

The agricultural system in Grenada is one of mixed cultivation particularly on small farms. At present, some 90% of the small farms are under 5 ha (12.3 ac) in size (Ternan, et al., 1989) (See Map 2.3.1).

[Map 2.3.1: Agricultural system in Grenada]

Land use areal trend
The change in cropping pattern through time (data derived from agricultural censuses of 1961 and 1975, and air photographs).

The figures presented in Table 2.3.1 are based on the Agricultural Censuses of 1961 and 1975 and on air photo interpretation conducted in 1982 by Eschweiler (1982b). The most substantial land use change occurred in the 1970s with an average annual decline of 500 ha in total area under agriculture between 1967 and 1975 (Ternan, et al., 1989).

Among the agricultural land uses in Grenada, 10 units or classifications based on cropping patterns have been identified Eschweiler (1982b). The following is a brief description of each of these land use units.

[Table 2.3.1 :Land use areal trend]

Agricultural land use units

Unit 1 – Food Crops and Vegetables: The vegetables and other food crops cultivated in Grenada include peas, corn, sweet potatoes, yams, beans, dasheen, tannia, eddoes, cassava, peppers, cucumbers, tomatoes, carrots and cabbage. They are grown throughout the island but especially around urban and suburban settlements in the southern half of the island. In 1982, A total of 591 ha (1,460 ac) falls within this unit, most of which (405 ha/1000 ac) are found in the south (See Photo 2.3.1).

Unit 2 – Food Crops and Vegetables Mixed with Fruit Trees: Fruit trees are commonly grown on the edges of the food crop/vegetable plots, serving as a windbreak. Some 425 ha (1050 ac) fall within this unit in the south, and an additional 250 ha (640 ac) occur in the north (684 ha/1690 ac total). An estimated 25% of the area in this unit is under fruit trees; thus there are roughly 170 hectare – equivalent (420 ac) of the latter.

Unit 3 – Mixed Cultivation: This unit is an association of units 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 10. At 15,304 ha (37,800 ac), it is the most widespread of all units, a reflection of the great extent to which intercropping is practiced (See Table 2.3.2).

Unit 4 – Sugarcane: Most of Grenada’s sugarcane is grown in the south, while only 12 ha (30 ac) is under cultivation in the north, in the vicinity of two rum distilleries.

Unit 5 – Banana: This unit includes relatively pure stands (at least 70%) of banana. Normally the crop is interplanted with cocoa, acting as a nursery shade crop for the latter. The banana, however, is generally not later removed, as would be expected. Some mixtures with nutmegs/spices and with fruit trees also occur. Total area in Unit 5 is 344 ha (850 ac) with most (267 ha/660 ac) in the wetter, northern part of island.

Unit 6 – Banana Mixed with Cocoa and/or Spices: This unit includes lands which contain 50% banana, 30% cocoa and 20% nutmeg/spices. Total acreage, occurs mostly in the south, amounts to 899 ha (2220 ac), consisting of 449 ha (1110 ac) of bananas, 271 ha (670 ac) of cocoa and 178 ha (440 ac) of nutmegs/spices. The total area under bananas in Grenada, most of which lies within the mixed cultivation unit (Unit 3) is 3,563 ha (8800 ac) as shown in Table 2.3.3.

Unit 7 – Cocoa: In a pattern consistent with that described above, cocoa is usually mixed with bananas and/or spices (mostly nutmeg). This unit includes lands which support at least 70% cocoa, a total of 328 ha (810ac) (227 ha/560 ac in the north and 101 ha/250 ac in the south).

Unit 8 - Cocoa Mixed with Bananas and/or Spices: Unit 8 consists of areas with about 50% cocoa, 30% banana, and 20% spices (mainly nutmeg), a total of 1,579 ha (3900 ac) located primarily in the northern part of the island. The total area under cocoa in all units amounts to 4,460 hectare-equivalents (10,990 ac).

Unit 9 – Coconuts: This tree crop is grown throughout the island, primarily along the coast. The total extent of Unit 9 is 943 ha (2330 ac) a figure that does not account for the scattered trees throughout the island.

Unit 10 – Nutmeg: Nutmeg trees are grown almost exclusively in the northern half of the island. The unit describes areas with an estimated minimum of 70% nutmeg – a total of 996 ha (2460 ac). In the south, the crop is heavily mixed with other crops and even with forest.

Annandale watershed occupies 202 ha and Concord Watershed 96 ha. Total area for Grand Etang region is 2,046 ha (6.6% of Grenada). The proposed Mt. St. Catherine Park occupies 573 ha, all government owned. The Mt. Hope-Clabony watershed adjacent to Mt. St. Catherine occupies 262 ha. This region encompasses 835 ha (2.7% of Grenada). The proposed Levera Park occupies 220 ha, 48 government owned and 172 privately owned, or 0.7% of Grenada. The proposed three parks, therefore occupy 2.541 ha (8.1% of Grenada). However only 2,147 ha (6.9%) are government owned. Perhaps only 7,000 ha or about 3% of Grenada are comprised of undisturbed climax forests.

[Table 2.3.2 :Land use areal trend]

[Table 2.3.3 :The total area under bananas in Grenada]

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2.4 Land Capability

The most recent land capability study for Grenada was conducted by the Ministry of Agriculture (Eschweiler, 1982a). The methodology used was based on a “land unit” approach in which a series of units were defined (primarily according to land form, slope and soil characteristics) and subsequently mapped. An earlier land capability study (Vernon et al., 1959) identified seven broad capability classes based on overall suitability, taking into consideration, among other factors, “the risk of soil erosion or other damage and the difficulties of management” (See Table 2.4.1).

Within each class, four (4) possible limiting factors were identified, creating a number of subdivisions within all classes except Class 1 which has no limitations. These limiting factors are: slope and erosion risk; seasonal or permanent excess water (poor natural drainage); edaphic factors (eg. Shallow or droughty soil); and climatic factors (usually low rainfall and a long dry season.

Only about 25% and 28% of all land in Grenada and Carriacou, respectively, is considered suitable for cultivation (tillage) – a total 9,490 ha (18,500 ac) in Grenada and 931 ha (2300 ac) in Carriacou. However, the vast majority of these “cultivable lands” (for example, 81% in Grenada) are actually in Class 3 and thus have strong limitations” to their use. Given that terrain in Class 3 has “mainly D slope[s]” of 10-20%, it can be assumed that erosion risk is the most common limitation.

[Table 2.4.1: Landslides and Landslips]

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2.5 Natural Hazards

Volcanic Activity
Grenada, Petit Martinique and Carriacou have no record of major volcanic activity in recent history even though they are islands of volcanic origin. The minor volcanic activity associated with Grenada is limited to hot springs which emit sulfurous water and vapor, in the Mt. St. Catherine area.

A submarine volcano, 160 m below sea level, is located about 7 km north of David Point, Grenada. This volcano, called “Kick ‘em Jenny” is one of the most active in the Lesser Antilles, having erupted at least 8 times this century, and some scientists believe it may emerge above sea level during its next eruption. The last eruption occurred in 1977.

Earthquakes
Grenada’s location near the Caribbean Plate margin makes it vulnerable to considerable seismic activity. Earthquakes of magnitude 3.2-3.9 on the Richter scale have been recorder with epicenters less than 50 miles to the south of Grenada.

Hurricanes and Other Storms
Although Grenada is one of the Windward Islands within the hurricane belt of the Caribbean, it is located just south of the major tropical storm tracks. Therefore the island is rarely affected by the large storms and hurricanes which are prevalent in the Eastern Caribbean during the June-October hurricane season.

Records show that between 1901 and 1964, 21 hurricanes and tropical storms affected the country but only one hurricane since the turn of the century has passed directly over Grenada.

The most recent hurricane to strike Grenada was Janet, which caused major destruction in 1955. The hurricane produced winds of up to 130 mph and killed over 100 persons. Hectares of banana, nutmeg, and cocoa and forests were destroyed, while millions of dollars worth of wind and flood damage to property and infrastructure facilities.

In order of decreasing impact, the major causes of damage from most hurricanes are: flooding from rainfall, coastal flooding and damage from storm waves, landslides and winds.

Floods
Floods may cause property damage, severe erosion and even the loss of life during natural events such as rainstorms and hurricanes. Floods can be the result of downslope rainwater run-off, especially over paved or deforested areas, and for sea-water driven inland by above normal tides and surges. Additionally, storm surges caused by reduced atmospheric pressure during hurricanes can be augmented by wind-driven waves, swells and spray.

Landslides and Rockslides
Landslides occur when the forces of gravity exceed the strength of the forces holding soil material together, resulting in a mass of soil being pulled downward. Generally, landslides are localised events and depend on the type of soil, the angle of repose and the steepness of the slope at the site. Water in soils contribute to increased landslide risk because the weight of the water is an added stress on the soil mass that is also being lubricated by the water molecules (See Photo 2.5.1).

Control Methods adopted and their effectiveness
In 1983, the Organization of American States (OAS), supported by the Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance (OFDA) of USAID, initiated a project for reduction of natural hazard vulnerability in OAS member states. The project focused on the incorporation of natural hazard assessment into the regional development planning process and provided technical assistance, training and improved applied research capabilities to targeted countries. This effort increasingly focuses on urban-related natural hazard and natural resource management issues.

The National Emergency Relief Organization is the agency responsible for the preparation of a National Disaster Plan and mobilisation of the country’s human and material resources in planning, training and managing various aspects of a disaster preparedness. A National Disaster Plan was prepared in 1985 but is now out of date. The Plan has never been fully exercised nor tested for effectiveness or response time.

[Photo 2.5.1 :Name of photograph]

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3. Water Resources (AQUASTAT)

3.1 Hydrography

3.2 Irrigation and drainage

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Additional country information on water resources are available at AQUASTAT.

3.1 Hydrography

Water resources
Water resources of Grenada originate mainly from a system of perennial streams and rivers, with some ground water available from the limestone areas along the northwest coast. The island has 71 distinct watersheds (Department of Agricultre's Land Use Division, 1997). The largest watershed together comprise 159 sq. km or about 1/2 of the area of Grenada (Waal, 1987). Surface Water Systems (streams, rivers, ponds) are the major source of fresh water for human consumption and agriculture in Grenada. The entire population (rural and urban) has access to the domestic water supply (See Photo 3.1.1).

Approximately 52% of the population receive private water services, 23% use public standpipes, and 22% use rainwater catchments, private springs, streams or ponds. There are, at present, 29 water supply facilities in Grenada; twenty three (23) surface water and 6 groundwater. These facilities provide a total supply capacity of about 7 million gallons per day (gpd) in the rainy season.

There are 8 major watersheds on Carriacou. Carriacou and Petit Martinique have no important permanent streams or springs. Household water supplies in these islands depend upon catching rainwater and storing it in cisterns, while water for agriculture and livestock comes mainly from withdrawal of groundwater and surface water stored in ponds.

Water use by sector and trends
Maximum demand occurs in the dry season, estimated in 1985 to be in the order of 6.5 m gpd. At present a conservative estimate for wastage of water is about 40% of total water supplied.

Tentative estimates of the current agricultural water demand are in the neighbourhood of 15% of total demand (Weaver, 1989). While cocoa, bananas, nutmeg and sugarcane do not require irrigation during the dry season, under GOG’s agricultural diversification effort, the production of new vegetable crops which do not require dry season irrigation is increasing, and there is potential for further expansion of vegetable production in flatlands in the east and south of Grenada.

Surveys have shown that there is good groundwater potential in the Beausejour, Tempe-St. John’s, Woodlands, Chemin, Bailles Bacolet and La Sagesse river valleys in Grenada. There are plans to increase groundwater production by the construction of several new bore-holes in these areas in the near future. Some groundwater is already produced from wells in the Tempe-St. John’s Valley, Chemin Valley and Woodlands Valley.

If wastage is not reduced below present levels, overall water demand for Grenada will be about 8.3 m gpd in 1997. Under the assumption that long-term wastage prevention programme will reduce wastage to 25% by the year 2000, overall water demand is projected to be only about 7 m gallons at that time; the slow growth in projected demand is due to the combination of reduced wastage and low projected population growth. If currently proposed production facilities are implemented, island-wide wet season supply will be about 8.7 m gpd in 1997. Dry season capacity in 1997 will reach about 8 m gpd, somewhat short of demand if wastage continues at a constant 40% of supply but more than adequate to meet projected island-wide demand if an effective waste reduction programme is realised. Of this, an estimated 1.7 m gpd (21%) will be produced from groundwater, and the rest from surface water sources (Waal, 1987).

In the dry climate of Carriacou and Petit Martinique, an adequate water supply is highly dependent on the timely arrival of the rainy season. Estimates of the water resource availability in Carriacou were made for a 100 Day Critical Period (100 DCP), corresponding to roughly the last 3 months of the dry season.

Mente’s study indicates that the total sum of water available in Carriacou during the 100 DCP (summing up rainwater, surface and groundwater) is about 9.5 m gallons. Of this total, about 6 m gallons (62%) is groundwater, 3 m gallons (32%) is water in cisterns, and a little more than ½ m gallons (6%) is stored surface water. Rainwater catchments are the most widely distributed type of water supply system, followed by dug wells. Most dug wells are sited along the coast; there are also 3 drilled wells (now in disrepair) and 3 perennial ponds.

Existing water demand in Carriacou is about 60,000 gpd; 30,000 is used for human consumption and the other half is needed for livestock watering. The present rate of water consumption is estimated at about 10 g per person per day. Available water storage capacity in the rainwater catchments can just meet the 100-day minimum requirement for dry season demand from the present human population, but the water available from ponds and dug wells can meet only 80% (80 days) of demand from the livestock.

Carriacou’s potential water demand has been estimated at about 1.85 m gpd for the next 5-10 years; 95% of this potential demand will be needed for irrigation in the rural areas. The assumptions used in predicting potential water demand were that:

The present population size of about 4,600 will remain constant for the next 5-10 years.
In the ural areas, significant improvement and expansion of agricultural programs requiring irrigation will take place.
In urban areas, a small-scale piped distribution system (i.e. a main and several public taps) will have been restored, hotel accommodation will increase to at least 200 beds, one small industry will be established, and the size of the average “floating” population will be about 1,000 persons.
The rate of water usage will increase to an average of 30 gallons per person per day.

[Map 3.1.1: Surface Water Quality]

[Chart 3.1.1: Estimated Existing Average Daily Demand and Supply]

[Photo 3.1.1 :Name of photograph]

3.1 > 3.

3.2 Irrigation and drainage

Irrigated agriculture is largely undeveloped in Grenada. The irrigation potential has not been quantified and though there is water available from a number of surface and groundwater sources, these sources have not been tapped nor is the extent of this resource known. Currently 218.5 ha, or 1.5% of the total land area under cultivation, is under irrigated compared to 4.8 ha in 1973. The micro irrigation technique is utilised in more than 90% of all irrigated land areas, with the remaining area under sprinkler irrigation. Cost for sprinkler and micro irrigation systems are US$6,175 and US$8,645/ha respectively.

Of the agricultural areas irrigated, less than one percent is sourced from river diversion, 6.5% from reservoirs, while the remainder is sourced from the direct pumping of rivers. One limiting factor to the development of irrigation in Grenada is that significant amounts of arable land are located in areas where there is no available water source, domestic or otherwise. Costs of sprinkler and micro irrigation systems are US$6175 and US$8645 /ha respectively.

Institutional environment
The National Water and Sewerage Authority (NAWASA) is responsible for the development of potable water supplies, as well as the sanitary disposal of sewage. The Ministry of Agriculture's Forestry Division is responsible for the protection of water catchment areas, while its Agronomy Division is responsible for the development of irrigation on the island.

Trends in water resources and irrigation development, constraints to development, institutional changes, and perspectives.

There is just one example of the a growing recognition in the importance of irrigation of Grenada's agricultural sector. Within the banana industry, investment in irrigation is being encouraged, with the recognition of a potential average yield increase to 25t/ha under irrigation, compared with 17t/ha in non-irrigated plantations. Similarly, attempts to encourage a more diversified agricultural product have resulted in a number of large estates being subdivided and made available to small farmers. As these farmers increasingly move into vegetable and cut flower production, this will necessarily create a greater need for supplement irrigation to ensure year round productions.

3.2 > 3.

4. Plant nutrient resources

4.1 Plant nutrient use and trends

4.2 Fertilizer production and costs

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4.1 Plant nutrient use and trends

In Grenada all Fertilizers consumed are imported. Although on a declining trend during the last 6 years the total import of fertilizers in Grenada lies within the range of 1800-3600 MT (product) per annum. In 1989, for example, the total imports reached more than 3600 MT, compared with 1800 MT in 1995. Until 1992 a number of different fertilizers were imported, mainly different types of NPKs. Since 1992, however, almost all the imports have been limited to two types of NPK, namely 16-8-24 (+2MgO) imported by Grenada Banana Co-operative Society, (recommended for banana) and 12-27-16 imported by Grenada Cocoa Association, (recommended for cocoa).

The demand for fertilizers is spread all over the year with two peaks (May-August) and (November-January). The potential fertilizer consumption has been estimated at approximately 4200MT/year: 2200 MT for cocoa, 725 MT for banana, 145 MT for sugarcane, and 1150MT for vegetables. However, local availability of fertilizers is very inconsistent. The result is farmers generally using whatever fertiliser is available. The procurement of fertilizers is dependent on demand, but is also dependent on the importers' access to sufficient financial resources.

At present, the quantities imported seem to be insufficient to cover the present demand, especially for banana fertilizers. There are indications that the types of NPKs currently used as well as the rates recommended have not been tested for their suitability to local soil and environmental conditions thus not supporting optimum yields and best economic returns. Only recommendations for cocoa have actually been tested in Grenada, while others are based on findings from neighbouring countries.

4.1 > 4.

4.2 Fertilizer production and imports

In January 1995, the Government requested FAO for assistance in the improvement of plant nutrition management and of the fertilizer sector. The assistance was approved and the agreement signed on March 1995 under FAO’s Technical Cooperation Programme, project TCP/GRN/4552, “Improvement of Fertilizer Procurement, Distribution and On-Farm Price for the Increase of Small Farmers’ Income”, with a budget of US$294,000.

The Land Use Division of the Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) was the Government Agency responsible for project implementation. The project activities started on May, 4 1995, and ended on 30 October 1996. The project staff recruited from the CTA comprised of one agronomist, a specialist in Fertilizer Procurement (12m/m), one international consultant, Expert in Fertilizer Cost and Pricing (6 weeks) and one international consultant, Expert in Fertilizer Logistics and Port Equipment (6 weeks).

4.2 > 4.

5. Hot spots

5.1 Land-related Constraints

5.2 Water-related Constraints

5.3 Plant-related Constraints

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5.1 Land-related constraints

Landfills: Properly constructed landfills are required to replace the open dump sites. This should be followed by closure of all previously approved and informal open dump sites. It is recognized that properly designed landfills sites are necessary to serve the islands. However, because of the shortage of suitable land away from existing residential developments, procurement of a suitable site may be problematic. In rural areas it is uneconomical to maintain and operate separate landfills because of the small volume of garbage generated. Other appropriate technologies should be pursued at these locations (See Photo 5.1.1).

Coastal Erosion: Coastal erosion was also considered to be an issue of serious concern. Though it was noted that some of that is as a result of natural processes, it is also believed that sand mining is the most identifiable cause of coastal erosion. In the absence of a suitable alternative source of fine aggregate and with the growing demand for sand in an expanding economy, the problem is not expected to be resolved in the near future (See Photo 5.1.2).

Most of the Western coastal reefs are covered with solid waste, debris, old vehicles etc. There have also been sightings of reefs being smothered with silt. The main causes of these problems are related to inland development activities, particularly in the building and agricultural sectors, where erosion and other activities pollute the streams and other waterways which lead to the sea (See Photo 5.1.3).

Other land-related constraints:
1. The loss of arable lands to non-agricultural land use
2. The lack of national land policy
3. Weak and insufficient land management legislation
4. The declining returns from traditional export crops
5. Land tenure
6. The absence of and efficient land registration system
7. Lack of land zoning
8. Sand mining

[Photo 5.1.1 :Name of photograph]

[Photo 5.1.2 :Name of photograph]

[Photo 5.1.3 :Name of photograph]

5.1 > 5.

5.2 Water-related constraints

Waste Disposal at Sea: Commercial shipping and cruise ships plying the country’s sea lanes must either dispose of their solid waste in port or at sea. Failure to provide such facilities at ports, increase the probability of disposal of such waste at sea, with the resulting deleterious effects on the marine environment. Port reception and disposal facilities are to be put in place.

Wastewater Management: The Government of Grenada intends to implement a policy to ensure that all wastewater is disposed of in a sanitary manner. The operational problems associated with this policy is that less than 7% of all water customers are metered. Even after the connections to the sewerage system was made mandatory, very few of those customers were metered.

Encroachment within water catchment areas: The increasing demand for land for agriculture has resulted in many small farmers entering forested areas and clearing lands for small farming. Such encroachments result in deforestation, soil erosion, and pollution of streams, rivers and coastal waters (See Photo 5.2.1).

Overfishing: The issue of major concern to the authorities responsible for the management of coastal resources is overfishing, particularly of reef fisheries and other exotic species such as Conch and Lobster.

Other water-related constraints:
1. Indecisiveness on the cost of water for irrigation purposes
2. Insufficient water storage facilities to harness loss during rainy season

[Photo 5.2.1 :Name of photograph]

5.2 > 5.

5.3 Plant-related constraints

1. Pest and diseases threat
2. Increased herbicide use
3. Inadequate soil analytical services
4. Unavailability of appropriate fertilizer and misuse of those available
5. Poor documentation of native plants and on-farm operations

5.3 > 5.

6. Bright spots

6. > top

6.1 Land-related response indicators

Biodiversity: Maintain representative samples of all forest ecosystems. Protect all species which are important because of their endemicity, rarity or value. Establish and maintain a base of knowledge on Grenada’s biodiversity. Build awareness and appreciation of biodiversity and its importance. Create incentives and other mechanisms to encourage the conservation of privately-owned forests. Minimize and control all burning and wild fires in forest areas.

Mangroves: Develop a positive perception of mangroves. Promote sustainable uses of mangroves. Develop and establish a structured collaborative management system with clearly defined roles and responsibilities. Develop legislations to control the use of mangroves and to allow for contractual agreements between owners, users and government.

Recreation and eco-tourism: Provide opportunities for forest based recreation. Enhance and diversify the nation’s tourism product. Bring social and economic benefits to communities located near forest areas. Minimize negative impacts of recreational and touristic uses on the forest. Involve communities in the development and management of eco-tourism sites. Review institutional arrangements for the management of protected forest areas to ensure that it is integrated, effective and efficient (See Photo 6.1.1).

Wildlife Management: Conserve wildlife for the benefit of public education, hunting, recreation and biodiversity. Limit the negative impacts of wildlife on agriculture. Conduct research on population dynamics of important wildlife species. Develop effective systems to control hunting and the sale of wild meat.

Other land-related response indicators:

The Grenada Forest Policy
The Draft Crown Lands Policy
The Dry Zone Forest Management Project
The Carriacou

[Photo 6.1.1 :Name of photograph]

7. Challenges and viewpoints

7. > top

8. References and related internet links

8.1 References

8.2 Related internet links

8. > top

8.1 References

8.1 > 8.

8.2 Related internet links

Country in General

Land, Water, and Plant Nutrition

8.2 > 8.