Lebanon
This report was compiled by
Chadi Abdallah, National Center for Remote Sensing
National Council for Scientific Research, Beirut, Lebanon
last updated: 27 March 2002
Overview
Land resources
Water resources (AQUASTAT)
Plant nutrient resources
Hot spots
Bright spots
Challenges and viewpoints
References / Related internet links
Lebanon, 10452 km2, stretches in about 60 km broad along the Mediterranean Sea for around 200 km extent. It lies between latitudes 33°03'-34°45' and longitudes 35°05'-36°30'. It is bordered from west by the Mediterranean Sea, from north and east with Syria and borders Palestine from south.
The country is divided administratively into 6 governorates (mohafazat, singular-mohafazah): Beirut, Ech-Chimal (North), Ej jnoub (South), El Bekaa, Jabal Loubnane (Mount Lebanon) and Nabatieh.
[Map 1.1.1: Topographical map of Lebanon]
[Map 1.1.2: Administrative map]
1.1 > 1.
Population
Economy overview
Agricultural trend
Industries
The population is estimated at 1998 to be 4.2 millions (within Lebanon), with a density of 400 persons/km2, while around 6 millions are abroad.
Age structure
- 0-14 years: 28% (male 508,936; female:489,122)
- 15-64 years: 65% (male 1,115,457; female: 1,226,448)
- 65 years and over: 7% (male 108,706; female: 129,367)
Birth rate
- 20.26 births/1,000 population
Death rate
- 6.42 deaths/1,000 population
Sex ration
- at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
- under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female
- 15-64 years: 0.91 male(s)/female
- 65 years and over: 0.84 male(s)/female
- total population: 0.94 male(s)/female
% of rural population
- in 1961: 58.5%
- in 1970: 40.6%
- in 1980: 24.5%
- in 1984: 20.6%
- in 1990: 16.3%
[Chart 1.2.1: % of rural population]
> 1.2
The civil war (1975-91) seriously damaged Lebanon's economic infrastructure and cut national output by half, therefore ended Lebanon's position as a Middle Eastern entrepot and banking hub. Peace has enabled the central government to restore control in Beirut, begin collecting taxes, and regain access to key port and government facilities. Lebanon's economy has made impressive gains since the launch of "Horizon 2000", and many other regions in the country as well since it arises the government's $20 billion reconstruction program in 1993. Real GDP grew 8% in 1994 and 7% in 1995. Real GDP grew at an average annual rate of less than 3% per year for 1997 and 1998 and only 1% in 1999. During 1992-98, annual inflation fell from more than 100% to 5% and foreign exchange reserves jumped to more than $6 billion from $ 1.4 billion.
GDP: purchasing power parity - $ 16.2 billion
GDP-real growth rate: 1%
GDP-per capita: purchasing power parity - $4,500
GDP-composition by sector (in 1998):
- agriculture: 8%
- industry: 29%
- services: 63%
Population below poverty line (in 1999): estimated to around 28%
Labor force: 1.3 million
note: in addition, there are as many as 1 million foreign workers
Labor force - by occupation: (services 62%, industry 31%, agriculture 7%)
Unemployment rate: 18%
Budget:
- revenues: $4.9 billion
- expenditures: $8.36 billion
The budget of the ministry of agriculture represents 1% only of the national budget.
> 1.2
The agriculture sector has played a diminishing role since the Lebanese economy in the 1960's. Its share for the GDP has declined from 12% in 1960 to 8% at present with a corresponding decline in agricultural labor from 38.3 to 7%. At present, Lebanon is an exporter of fruits and vegetables, self sufficient in poultry and produces 15%, 45 and 10% of its wheat, legumes and sugar needs respectively. It also imports 78% of its dairy and meat products.
[Table 1.2.1: Trends in Lebanese agriculture]
% of population working in agriculture:
in 1970: 19.8
in 1975: 17
in 1980: 14
in 1984: 11.8
in 1990: 9.4
in 1992: 7.8
In 1994, we estimate that the active population working in agriculture is 70000 persons (61% males and 39% females).
[Chart 1.2.2: % of population working in agriculture]
> 1.2
banking, food processing, jewelry, cement, textiles, mineral and chemical products, wood and furniture products, oil refining, metal fabricating.
The industrial sector comprises 23518 industrial firms:
69% employee under 5 persons
16% employee between 5 to 9 persons
15% employee more than 10 persons.
These firms are distributed as:
56.5% in Mount Lebanon
14% in Beirut
11.3% in North Lebanon
9.19% in South Lebanon
8.36% in Bekaa
Generally a Mediterranean climate prevails in Lebanon: dry-mild summer and wet winter. However, because the Lebanon Mountain range faces the path of westerly winds, there is a distinct variation in climate between its major two flanks. Average annual precipitation ranges from 200 mm near Hermel to more than 1500 mm at the high peaks of Qurnet El-Sawda. The figure increases with elevation from 700-800 mm at the coast to more than 1200 mm at the high mountains, while it decreases from south to north in the Bekaa valley. At the higher elevations, a significant portion of the precipitation occurs as snow. Estimates of evapotranspiration from the precipitated water ranges from 50% to 57% for the coastal and mountainous areas, respectively. The average monthly temperature is about 18°C, where it is around 15°C in the winter and 23°C in the summer season.
[Map 1.3.1: Rainfall map] / [in word doc format (55KB)]
1.3 > 1.
2.1 Physiography
2.2 Soils
2.4 Wetlands, mangroves and inland valley bottoms
2.6 Natural hazards
2.7 Land cover
2.8 Land use
2.9 Land use change
2.10 Land Productivity
2.11 Environmental Impact of land uses
2. > top
Lebanon is made up of four major physiographic units, that running north to south parallel to the sea, as follows:
[Map 2.1.1: Physiographic units of Lebanon ]
2.1 > 2.
Studies of the Lebanese soil distribution shows that certain types of soils are preferentially or exclusively associated with some physiographic units. In this regard, it is noticed that in landscapes with Fersialitic soils, the soils are often lithic. In Mount Lebanon and anti-Lebanon, the red soils are eroded and often regosols developed. On the slopes and piedmonts, on the other hand, with a landscape of Isohumic soils, calcimagnesic and hydromorphic soils are developed.
[Map 2.2.2: General distribution of soils in Lebanon (Gèze, 1956)] / [in word doc format (357KB)]
2.2 > 2.
It is important to note that only few areas in Lebanon could be considered agriculturally suitable for cropping; 360-500000 ha or 50% of the country total area. The government of Lebanon has established an institution (Green Plan) to rehabilitate agricultural lands and make it more suitable for crops. Artificial soil is being used under protected environment. Ancient farmers have established terraces to keep soil in place and make land more suitable for the root system. Almost all temperate fruit trees and mountain plants are planted on some sorts of terraces. Examples on cherries, apples, pears, figs and most summer vegetables are key crops on terraced land. Technically, areas in central and west Bekaa and the Akkar plain are most suitable for almost all crops. However, crops are scattered all over the country and the produce is generally of good quality and yields are high. In general, there is a traditional tendency in Lebanese agriculture to extend practices to areas of very low suitability, e.g. apples were planted at elevations much lower than 900 m and in the Bekaa valley where they performed poor and were unrooted and replaced. Olive and pine trees were in similar situations. More economic crops are invading land which is not very suitable e.g. wheat is grown in areas where barley could be more suitable.
2.3 > 2.
Rather those of normal surface waters such as rivers and springs, land areas regularly saturated with water are not commonly matched in Lebanon. Only two sorts of wetlands may be observed, but at low level in terms of areal extent. These are:
1. Marshes on flood plain of some rivers:
These are certainly known on flood plains of rivers : they locate in soils and soft rock materials. Mainly they are on the Litani river in the Bekaa area where it becomes as swamps of highly polluted lands in some regions. As well as near the outlet of some coastal rivers, especially rivers of Abou Ali, Akra, el Bared, Estwan in the north and El-Qasmieh in the south. The catchments of these marches are not well defined, but it can be considered that the Litani river marches in the Bekaa area are larger (several square kilometers), while in the coastal rivers do not exceed 5 km2 in most instances. The fertility in crops and cultivation is clearly known in these marches, notably in the Bekaa area.
2. Marshes surrounded lake areas:
Natural lakes and man made ponds are well known in Lebanon to have considerable amounts of water. For the natural ones, they are hydrogeologically controlled, and have considerable area extent (averaging 0.01-0.02 km2). While the man made ones are relatively with small area extents (< 0.05 km2 for each lake), with the expetion of Qaraoun lake (4-5 km2). Marshes surrounded these water-bearing reservoirs are usually in a wet state. In dry season, some of these reservoirs are dried to create wetlands. Cultivation on such areas are remarkable. While pollution aspects are rare if compared to those marshes on flood plains of rivers.
2.4 > 2.
Not prevailed in Lebanon.
2.5 > 2.
Lebanon experiences a number of natural hazards aspects, the affecting its natural and human being as well. Mainly floods, land instability, incidence of fire and a miscellany of climatic accidents are the most common. In Lebanon, rarely year goes by without a disastrous event. In Lebanon, natural hazards event is in an ascending trend (Shaban and Khawlie, 1998).
[Table 2.6.1: Natural Hazards in Lebanon]
2.6 > 2.
A land use map was established by the FAO (1990) at a scale of 1/50000 for the whole Lebanon. It comprises 12 sheets.
[Table 2.7.1: Area and percentage of different types of land use in Lebanon]
2.7 > 2.
Refer to Section 2.7: Land cover.
2.8 > 2.
Information not available.
2.9 > 2.
Due to the wide variations in climate, Lebanese agricultural production is very diversified.
[Table 2.10.1: Lebanon's major crop production]
In 1970, the official statistics indicate that 65% of the agricultural proprieties have each an area inferior to 2 ha and constitute together 10% of the arable lands; 12% exceed 10 ha and constitute together 60% of arable land. Their productivity is as follows: 31% highly productive, 12% indermediate productivity and 57% low productive.
[Table 2.10.2: Value of vegetal productivity in U.S. $]
The value of the vegetal production in 1993 reached to 1130 millions $. The exporting rate is 35 millions $, while the importing is 360 millions $: the total consommation is 1455 millions $. The vegetal production assures only 73% of the needs of the country. The cultivations, the most important according to the area, are creals, citrus, potato, grapes ad apples. According to the production ($): wheat, sugar beet, tobacco, potato, tomato, cuncumber, citrus, apple, grape, banana and olives.
2.10 > 2.
Information not available.
2.11 > 2.
Country information on water resources is available at AQUASTAT. In case there is more information available, describe as follows.
Rivers
Springs
Ground water
Non-conventional water sources
Major water basins
Water balance and shared waters
Dams and flood controls
Water demand
Waste water
Various estimates (Fawaz, 1969; Sharafuddine, 1971) put the total volume of water resulting from precipitation in an average year at about 9,200 million m3, of which 47% is lost to the atmosphere by evapotranspiration. The reminder finds its way in the country's 15 major rivers: 12 coastal and 3 inner rivers. The average yearly discharge of these rivers is about 4132 Mm3/year.
The coastal rivers have relatively small catchment areas (averaging 200 km2), as well as small running water length (< 50 km). All these rivers are ditached in a parallel orientation from east to west. The majority of replanishment of these rivers is the precipitation as rainfall from snowmelt and from springs.
Normally a dramatic decrease in the discharge of these rivers is recorded among the last thirty years. Even though some are becoming dried except in the heavy wet seasons.
The inner rivers are almost shared rivers with neighbouring countries, but all are discharging from the Lebanese territory. The Litani river as the biggest Lebanese river has a catchment area of about 2500 km2 and having an average discharge of 630 Mm3/year.
[Map 3.1.1: Major rivers in Lebanon]
> 3.1
Springs are widely distributed in Lebanon. This is a consequence of the highly fractured geologic rocks as well as the exist of interbedding rock formations with different permeability characteristics.
About 2000 major springs are discharging in Lebanon. These have an order of 2nd to 3rd level according to Mienzer classification (1923). Another big number of springs, but with less yield is known in different areas of Lebanon.
These springs are the major source of rivers waters as well as playing an integral role in the agricultural sector.
A realistic estimation of water volume from these springs is 1150 Mm3/year. Non-conventional springs are those of the submarine type, which are widely distributed along the Lebanese littoral area.
> 3.1
About 70% of Lebanon is constituted from carbonate rocks, that are ranging in age from Middle Jurassic to Eocene. Most of them are extensively fractured and cavernous limestones. This is, in addition to the karstic character of the land topography, enhancing the infiltration level to feed ground water reservoirs. The presence of impermeable rocks intercalation serves in restricting groundwater in aquiferous formations.
In Lebanon, 8 major aquifers can be considered. A total volume of groundwater is estimated as 1360 Mm3.
Hand-dug in Lebanon are old and generally of low capacity (less than 20 l/sec). Their numer does not exceed a few hundred with the majority being located on small private farms. The major abstraction of ground water is secured by about 2500 wells which tap the major regional aquifers. Other wells, estimated to be about 1000, are scattered in the area of Beirut. The depth of these wells varies from 50 to 300 m depending on the aquifer with an average of about 150 m. The discharge averages 35 l/sec/well with a range of 20 to 80 l/sec. The overpumping from these wells is considered as the major reason of salt water intrusion. This problem has been effectively arised in the coastal area.
[Table 3.1.1: Ground water in Lebanon according to region, aquifer, pumping and area irrigated]
> 3.1
A principal aspect of non-conventional water sources in Lebanon is known. The submarine springs on the littoral zone has an important role in the Lebanese water budget. Along the coastal stretch, there are around 60 submarine springs, 15 of them are offshore springs while the rest are littoral ones.
Mostly are feed along karstic conduit that extend several kilometers on land, while others are due to the direct laying of aquifers on the shoreline.
Estimations of water volume of these non-conventional sources are still a matter of depate. 250, 600 and 1000 Mm3/year are numbers registrated by Jaber (1995), Shaban (2001) and Khawlie (2000). Averaging of these numbers (i.e. around 600 Mm3/year) reveals an important portion of water.
> 3.1
1. Surface water badins (watersheds): Two major orientations of watersheds in lebanon can be considered. They are related mainly to the rivers orientations (i.e. coastal and inner rivers). Major watersheds can be ditached in Lebanon. The coastal ones are almost E-W directed while the inner ones are relatively in a NE-SW direction. The most frequent catchment area is about 200-250 km2.
[Map 3.1.2: Classification of the Lebanese catchments with their hydrologic characteristics]
2. Subsurface water basins: Although of some attempts to build a dependable scheme of the Lebanese subsurface basins, yet no realistic measure has been known. The exclusively tectonic framework in Lebanon makes it difficult to presume the subsurface water collecters. Anticlines and synclines, the major ground base for ground water restriction, are majorily disturbed and damaged by fracturing systems. This leads to study these systems, hereby classify them into fracturing zones. The utility of remote sensing proved to be a powerful tool in this concern. Subsurface water collectors couls be defined via interpretable of satellite images. This study is still on-going project done by Lebanese National Center of Remote Sensing since 2000.
> 3.1
[Table 3.1.2: Annual water balance]
> 3.1
Except the Qaraoun dam along the Litani river which restrict about 300 Mm3/year, no major water dams have been reported. All constructed dams are small enough and old to cope with their objectives. Almost these dams are built on the coastal rivers, certainly on water courses along the coastal plain.
The rugged topography and narrow flood plains constrain building dams on the mountainous areas. Accordingly, flood protection practices are not at an acceptable level. Only local retainig walls have been executed on some rivers. They are done to prevent collapsing of rivers walls rather than to mitigate from floods.
> 3.1
Estimates of water needs have been discussed by many concerned workers. Merely it is different between urbanized and rural areas. Domestic exploitation as well as industrial uses are more increased than in rural ones, while the case is reversible for the agricultural purposes. In urban areas, a 205 l/day/capita is considered for Lebanon (Jaber, 1995). At which 70, 20, 10 are for agriculture, domestic use and industrial, respectively.
Jaber (1995) has plotted a conceptual figure of water demand in Lebanon. Projected figures are again plotted. METAP (1997) subjected a scenario for the year 2015 and the expected shortages annualy and in the dry season.
[Table 3.1.3: Projected water demands by year 2015 in Lebanon]
> 3.1
An unfortunate and seemingly inevitable outcome of modernization and industrialization is pollution. The contamination of water resources is being a major concern of the lebanese environmentalists. While wastewater could potentially augment supplies for irrigation, indeed it could also add plant nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphate.
The majority of wastewater outlets is in rivers, intermittent streams and black holes. All are contaminating the ground water quality. A big portion is discharged into the sea.
Previous FAO (1983) estimates report that only 67000 ha of the cultivated 240 000 ha are now under perennial irrigation, 42000 ha of which are irrigated by surface water and 25000 ha by groundwater. In addition, 20000 ha are seasonnally irrigated. Unfortunately, the increase in irrigated area during the last three decades followed as slow trend.
Usually, irrigation is done by furrow while new pressurized techniques (sprinkler, trickle and drip) are being adopted in private farms and greenhouses, especially where groundwater is available. 95% of potatoes are sprinkler irrigated and cereals are usually given supplementary sprinkler irrigation during the fall and late spring seasons. In addition, most fruit trees (grapevines, citrus, banana) planted areas are using drip techniques.
[Table 3.2.1: Development of irrigated area]
In the irrigation projects operated by the public sector,the poorly maintained distribution canals and ditches suffer from high water losses and low irrigation efficiency (about 40%). This poor efficiency is also due to poor land levelling. However, the government has plans to implement large scale irrigation projects and to modernize the tradional irrigation networks, which will allow the irrigation of additional 74000 ha.
[Table 3.2.2: Distribution of irrigated land in Lebanon]
[Table 3.2.3: Planned irrigation projects in Lebanon]
3.1 > 3.
4.1 Plant nutrient use and nutrient balance
4.2 Fertilizer production and costs
4. > top
Major plant nutrients
Agro-chemicals
The arable area of 325 000 ha is mainly distributed along the coastal plains, the Bekaa high plateau and the terraced slopes of the western mountain chain. Recent figures of Lebanon's potential arable land as estimated by the Agricultural Research Institute exceeds by far the previously mentioned figures to reach a total arable area of 530000 ha representing 52% of Lebanon's total area (Khazaka, 1991).
[Table 4.1.1: Distribution of agricultural lands in Lebanon]
Nitrogen: One of the earliest studies highlighted its importance in Lebanese soils (Adams and Sayegh, 1955).
Phosphorous (P): early reports showed that most unfertilized soils in Lebanon and the region were deficient in P. And lower P fertilization efficiency would occur in soils where significant amounts of this form of iron occued (Ryan et al., 1985).
Potassium (K): the evidence gathered over many years, mainly from the Bekaa valley, indicates little or no growth response from using K in Lebanese soils (Ryan et al., 1980).
In Lebanese soils, there has been no evidence of Calcium (Ca) deficiency. Similarly, Magnesium (Mg) tends to be adequate in calcareous soils. The studies reviewed by Ryan et al. (1980) reveal little evidence of a response to Mg or Sulfur (S). However, symptoms of Mg deficiency have been identified in some citrus groves on sandy soils on the southern coast.
In contrast to secondary nutrients (Ca, Mg and sulfur), some micronutirents, notably Fe, Mn and Zn pose major problems for crops grown in calcareous soils. Studies indicate deficiencies of Fe and Zn but not Mn or Cu and also Zn deficiency as a possible factor at high plant population density.
Modern farming is dependent on the technology developed during the past centuries. Starting with the proper planting material and the right environment the farmer has to use:
a-fertilizers
b-fongicides
c-insecticides
d-herbicides
These farm chemicals are becoming major requirments for producing a marketable and economic crop. There is a general feeling that the lebanese farmer is using excessive fertilizers and pesticides which constitue a threat to humans and to the quality of the lebanese environment. These products have become expensive during the past decade and the extent of use became more restricted. As irrigation water is scare and run off could be repumped an increase in water salinity was detected recently. The presence of nitrate in water pumped from drill wells is becoming an alarming issue as it indicates excessive use of nitrogen fertilizers. In sugar beet production very low levels of sugar 10-12% instead of 18% are obtained as a result of high levels of nitrogen fertilizers.
The use of herbicides is not very extensive in farming. Mostly winter cereals, potatoes and sugar beets are chemically needed. This may not constitute a big risk on the national scale for the time being.
Fongicides and insecticides are becoming more questionable with time. These are generously applied under intensive cropping systems as drip-irrigated vegetables and greenhouse crops.
4.1 > 4.
Information not available.
4.2 > 4.
5.0 Overview: constraints to sustainable agriculture
5.3 Plant nutrition-related constraints
5. > top
Hot spots in Lebanon are mainly natural, and to a certain range man-made consequences. Although of the relatively small area of Lebanon, areas susceptible to risk are tremendous to cover vast regions. The dynamic behavior of the risk processes are subject to either sudden time effect or through a long time period. Land, water and other related constraints of hot spots in Lebanon can be classified into:
[Table 5.0.1: Natural predicated hot spots, the related risk type, causes and the size of effect]
5.0 > 5.
Information not available.
5.1 > 5.
Information not available.
5.2 > 5.
Information not available.
5.3 > 5.
Information not available.
5.4 > 5.
6.0 Overview: society's response to ameliorate the situation
6.1 Land-related response indicators
6.2 Water-related response indicators
6.3 Plant nutrition-related response indicators
6. > top
The exist of the bright spots is inversly proportional with the occurrence of hot spots within a certain region. Discussion of the vast geographic distribution of the risk sites in lebanon obviously minimizes the availability of areas with suitable situation for the human being.
Unfortunately, bright spots in Lebanon are merely uncommon, though of their bright nature. These spots are existing, principally, as human implements, while natural spots are rare.
6.0 > 6.
a-
Terraced lands, especially on slopping areas.
b-
Rehabilitated rocky lands, that are subjected to excavation of rugged rocks, then covered by fertilized soils for agriculture.
c-
Natural protected sites, especially for the rare plant species, such as Cedra in Bcharri and Barouk regions.
6.1 > 6.
a-
Unaccesible water springs, streams and lakes which are almost far from human effect, such as those in the remote mountainous regions.a- Unaccesible water springs, streams and lakes which are almost far from human effect, such as those in the remote mountainous regions.a- Unaccesible water springs, streams and lakes which are almost far from human effect, such as those in the remote mountainous regions.
b-
Man-made water ponds for water reservation. These are usually in agricultural mountainous slopes.
c-
Irrigation systems for proper water supply from their sources to the cultivated lands through drainage systems. This is well developed in the Bekaa region.
d-
Caverneous water which occurred in different mountainous areas and became touristic sites such as Jieta and Kferhim caves.
6.2 > 6.
Information not available.
6.3 > 6.
Information not available.
6.4 > 6.
Information not available.
7. > top
Adams, F., Sayegh, A., 1995. Plant response to nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium in soils of Lebanon as indicated by greenhouse pot experiments. A.U.B. Fac. Agric. Publ. No 1.
Atlas climatique du Liban, 1988. Ministère des travaux publics, 52 p., Liban.
FAO, 1983. Etude de reconstruction et de développement de l'agriculture. Projet LEB79/013. FAO, Rome, Italie.
FAO, 1990. Conservation des sols et des eaux dans les zones semi-arides. Bulletin pédologique 57, 182 p.
Gèze B., 1956. Carte de reconnaissance des sols du Liban au 1/200000. Ministrère de l'agriculture, Liban. Notice explicative, 56 p.
Guerre A., Nahhas N., Odeurs J.P., Villaret M., Visser J.H., 1981. Etude de reconstruction et de développement de l'agriculture, Liban, Annexe 10. UNDP, FAO, Beyrouth.
Jaber, 1995. Water problems of Lebanon. National Congress on Water. Strategic Studies Center, Beirut ( in arabic).
Khawlie M., 2000. L'environment du Liban: une source perdue (en arabe). Menvikh edi., 372 p.
Khazaka, K., 1991. Utilisation actuelle et extension possible des terres arables au Liban. Note technique, Institut de Recherches Agronomiques, Tel Amara, Liban.
Mienzer O.E., 1923. Outline of groundwater hydrology with definitions: U.S. Geol. Survey, Water supply paper 494, 71 p.
Ministry of Agriculture, 1995. Rapports annuels et bilans mensuels.
National Center for Remote sensing, 2000. Hydrogeological assessment of water resources in coastal Lebanon. Project NCRS, Lebanon, in-progress.
Plassard J., 1971. Carte pluviometrique du Liban à l'échelle de 1/200000. République Libanaise.
Ryan, J., Musharafieh, G., Barsumian, A., 1980. Soil fertility characterization of the Agricultural Education and Research Center of the American University of Beirut Faculty of Agriculture Bloc no. 64.
Ryan, J., Hasan, H., Maasiri, M., Tabbara, M., 1985. Availability and transformation of applied phosphorous with time in calcareous Lebanese soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 49, 1215-1220.
Shaban A., Khawlie M., 1998. Geoenvironmental assessment of riparian zones under external climatic events: a case study of representative rivers in Lebanon. In: Proc. Symp. On Mediterranean Rivers and their management, Zaragosa, 21 Sept-2 Oct 1998.
Shaban, A., 2001. Etude de l'hydrologie du Liban occidental: Utilisation de la téldétection. Ph.D. Thesis ( under preparation).
Yachoui E., 1995. Economie du Liban, 122 p.
8.1 > 8.
Lebanon country profile and Land resources in general
Ministry of Agriculture
http://www.agriculture.gov.lb/
annotation: "Home page of the Ministry of Agriculture of Lebanon" [editor's note, 13march2003]
Lebanon Geography 2000
http://www.photius.com/wfb2000/countries/lebanon/lebanon_geography.html
annotation: "Basic country figures." [editor's note, 27march2002]
LEBANON: The land of ceaders
http://web.cyberia.net.lb/lebscuba/English/lebanon.html
annotation: "Basic in formation on land and climate of Lebanon. More links to information for travelling." [editor's note, 27march2002]
Atlas of Lebanon - hrw.com
http://go.hrw.com/atlas/norm_htm/lebanon.htm
annotation: "Clear outline map and some basic figures of Lebanon." [editor's note, 27march2002]
Country profile - AASA
http://www.aasa.00go.com/lebanon.html
annotation: "Brief description on Lebanon's land, water, environmental resources." [editor's note, 27march2002]
Country profile - SESRTCIC
http://www.sesrtcic.org/members/leb/lebhome.shtml
annotation: "Demography, economy, statistical resources for Lebanon." [editor's note, 27march2002]
UNDP Environmental Outlook: West Asia
http://www.unep.org/geo2000/english/0105.htm
annotation: "The State of the Environment report for West Asia region, including socio-economic conditions and land and food conditions." [editor's note, 27march2002]
Hot spots
SPNL
http://www.spnl.org/Env__in_Lebanon/Protection_of_Land_Resources/protection_of_land_resources.html
annotation: "Concise, useful summary on land/soil related problem issues and some protection measures." [editor's note, 27march2002]
Journal of Developing Societies: Challenging Environmental Issues: Middle Eastern Perspectives
by Joseph G. Jabbra and Nancy W. Jabbra Loyola, Marymount University
http://www.yorku.ca/faculty/academic/ishwaran/jdsabstr.htm
annotation: "Journal of Developing Societies, A Forum for Developmental Issues in Developing and Developed Societies, Volume XIII - fasc.1 June 1997" [extract from the Homepage, 27march2002]
Environmental Degradation of Lebanon
http://www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/Parliament/2587/env.html
annotation: "Brief description on a number of key environmental degradation issues in Lebanon, e.g. water pollution, agrochemicals, solid waste, air pollution, soil erosion, etc." [editor's note, 27march2002]
Bright spots
DOCUMENTATION AND CONSERVATION OF PLANT GENETIC RESOURCES IN LEBANON
by Hassan MACHLAB
http://apps3.fao.org/wiews/Morocco/Paper5.htm
about acknowledgments disclaimer copyright last updated: 13 March 2003