Gateway to Land and Water Information: Syria national report, land resources, water resources, plant nutrition resources

This report is based on the document compiled by Waad Youssef Ibrahim
Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform (MAAR)
Soil Research Directorate-GIS Department

Overview [Geography | Socio-economy | Climate]

Land resources

Water resources (AQUASTAT)

Plant nutrient resources

Hot spots

Bright spots

Challenges and viewpoints

References / Related internet links

1.1 Geography and administrative units

The Syrian Arab Republic lies on the eastern coats of the Mediterranean Sea between Turkey and Lebanon. The total area of the Syrian Arab Republic is 18.5 million hectares one third of which is arable land or forest and the remaining part is desert and rocky areas. Syria is bordered by Turkey from the north and Iraq from the east, Jordan and Palestine from the south, Lebanon and Med.-Sea from the west.

Topographically, Syria can be divided into four main regions containing 13 provinces.

The provinces are as shown in the map: Damascus - Dara - Qunattra - Swieda - Horns - Hama -Tartous - Lattakia - Idleb - Aleppo - Alhassaka - Alraqa - Deir alzour.

1.2 Socio-economic features

The total population of S. A. R. in 1999 amount 16,100,000 distributed by sex and percentage of the country total population as following:

The total rural population of S.A.R in 1999 is 8136 and their percentage of the total population is 50,5% distributed by sex as following:

In other words the percentage of rural males to the total males of the country is 50,1% and the rural females is 50.9% the total workers in the country for distributed by sex as following:

While the workers in agriculture and forestry distributed by sex and their percentage in the country as following:

The agricultural production value for 1998 by fixed prices amounted 308307.5 million s.p. including 216857.8 million s.p. for plant production value 86342.7 million s.p. for animal production value and 5107 million s.p. for customs duties.

The total value of agricultural commodities for commercial exchange and their percentage of the total exchange of the country in 1998 and 1999 are as following:

1.3 Climate

Being a Mediterranean country, the Syrian climate is characterized by rainy winters and hot dry summer with two short transitional seasons in between Syria may be divided into Five Stabilization Zones according to the rainfall:

Zone 1:
Receives an average of rainfall of more than 350 mm. It consists of two subzones. The first receives more than 600 mm annually where yields of rainfed crops are certain for all the years. The production is sustainable two out of every three years.

Zone 2:
it receives 250-350 mm precipitation annually. Two third of the seasons are certain i . e. two out of three years, where the rainfall is more than 250 mm annually. Main crops are wheat, barley and summer crops. This zone makes up 13.3% of the country area i.e. 2.470.000 ha.

Zone 3:
it receives 250-mm precipitation annually. This amount of rainfall is certain for more than 50% of monitored years. i.e. 1-2 of 3 years, the production is certain. This zone has mainly grain crops, however legumes can be grown. His zone makes up 7.11 of the total area that is 1 .306.000 ha.

Zone 4:
(Marginal zone). It receives 200-250 mm precipitation annually. This amount of rainfall is certain for more than 50% of monitored years. However only barely can be grown and it can be used as permanent pastures. This zone makes up 9.91 of total, which means 1.883.000 ha.

Zone 5:
it is the steppe lands that make up 55. 1% of the total area of the country and receives less than 200 mm precipitation annually. These lands are not suitable for rainfed cultivation. Its area reaches 10.208-000 ha. Main grown crops is: Wheat, barely, cotton, lentil, vegetables, legumes as well as olive, citrus and apples. The total cultivated area has reached effectively 4.642.000 ha in 1996, where 1. 126.000 Ha, are irrigated lands and 3.516.000 ha are fainted.

December and January are the coldest months of the year while July and August are the hottest. In winter the temperature frequently fails under O°C (in all region except the coastal areas), while in summer it may rise frequently up to 45'C (AI Badin and AI Hassock). The daily differences between the maximum and the minimum temperatures are generally quite high in most of the country. This differences sometimes reaches 23'C in the interior region and around 13'C in the coastal region.

During winter, snow falls over all regions with an altitude exceeding 1.500 m above the sea level. Regions with an altitude of 800-1.500 m above are subject to both rain and snow. Lower altitude regions are subject to rain and rarely snows except desert regions where sufficient rain seldom falls.

The relative humidity is high during winter and low in summer, Of course, desert and semi-desert areas are those with the least relative humidity, For example, in winter the relative humidity varies from 60% to 80% in the interior region and it varies from 60-70% in the coastal region. While during summer, the rate of humidity in the interior region varies from 20% to 50% and in the coastal region it varies from 70-80%.

During winter, the prevailing winds in the eastern part of the country are easterly, whereas in both the northern and north-western parts they are northerly. Other parts of the country are subject to westerly and south-westerly winds. During summer, winds in the north-eastern part of the country are northerly and the remaining pails subject to westerly and south-westerly winds.

2.1 Physiography

1. Mountainous regions:
Mainly located in the western part of the country. The coastal mountains along the Mediterranean and the Antilibian along the Lebanon. The southern Palmrides extends from the south-western part of the country to the central part where the northern chain is located in central Syria. J. el Birchi and J. abdel-Aziz in the north represent smaller mountains cast and by J.el-Zaweiyeh in the northwest.

2. Depressions inside or bordering the mountains:
Such as the Gota of Damascus south of the Antilibian and the Dawn basin which separate the Southern Palmrides chain from the northern one. The Gab valley is located to the cast of the coastal mountain.

3. Plateaux and plains:
Covering most part of the country, they are mainly represented by the Hainmed plateau in the southeast, Badiet el-chum in the east and the Jazzier plains in the northeast.

4. Alluvial and collegial plains:
Mainly related to the terraces of the Euphrates and the collegial sediments in upper Jezlrah originated from Taurus ranges in Turkey.

5. Volcanic mountains, plateaux and plains:
Because of their specific landscape they are separated from other regions and mostly located in the southwest covering the Hauran plains, The Golan Heights and J. el-Arab.

7. Local latchstring - saline basins:
Mainly located in the eastern part of the country along the Iraqi border and near Palmyra.

2.2 Soils

Considering the rock types and age, Syrian can be divided into the following groups:

1. Quaternary deposits:
These deposits cover the terraces and valleys of the rives of which the Euphrates is the most important and they are also found in the Gota of Damascus and in the some depressions the steppe area.

2. Neocene rocks:
Mainly located in the northeastern part of the country. From the pedological point of view gypsum is the most important rock in this group affect the soil forming processes in the area. Other rocks include marl and sandstone.

3. Paleocene rocks:
They are extensively spread in the central and southeastern parts of the country. Major rocks are limestone, marl and sandstone.

4. Cretaceous rocks:
These rocks are spread on the Palmrides and the coastal mountains, they consist of limestone, dolomite, marl, and to a lesser extent gypsum, sandstone and phosphate deposits.

5. Triassic and Jurassic rocks:
They are mainly found in the eastern part of the coastal mountains and in the southeastern part of the anticipant chain. Prevailing rocks are limestone, dolomite and marl.

6. Mesozoic metamorphic green rocks:
Are found in a limited extension in the coastal mountains north of Lattakia.

7. Volcanic rocks:
Of different ages are mainly located in the southwestern part of the country. In addition they cover some locations in the central, northern and northeastern parts of the country.

As far as human life is concerned soil is probably the most important natural resources. It is not enough, to describe the soil as country greatest sources of wealth; it is more than that; it is a country's life. Soil maps provide the basic information needed for agricultural development planning. The general soil map of Syria has been prepared by ACSAD. The U.S.D.A Soil Taxonomy, 1975 has been used as a classification system. Consulting this map one may summarize the soils of Syria as follows:

Aridisols:
Are the most extensive soils in Syria As general role they occur when the annual rainfall drops below 250 mm. They cover about 50% of the country. The Following suborders are formed in Syria.

Calcids:
Dominate the largest part of the soil with an aridic moisture regime. They cover about 20% of the total area. Their main occurrence is in the southeastern part of the country including the Syrian part of the Hamad plateau and the most part of the Syrian desert. They also dominate some unites within the Mesopotamia, the Bichri mountain and the Resafah desert.

Gypsids:
Is the second important suborder within the Arldisols. They cover about 20% of Syria. Their occurrence as dominant soils is rather to the composition of the parent rock.
- The Gypsids of Syria are usually characterized by high gypsum content. They dominate the central and southern parts of the Mesopotamia including the Euphrates and the Khabour terraces, the northern part of the Syrian Desert and a large part of the Bichri Mountains.

Cambids:
Dominates a few intermountain valleys and depressions in the southwest. Their main occurrence is as associated soils with the Calciorthids. As whole they are estimated to cover about 3% of the country.

Salids:
Dominate some desertic depressions with shallow saline ground water. They also occur as associated soils with the Entisols of the Euphrates and the Khabour valleys.

Entisols:
Are mainly represented by the Torrifluvents, Torriorthents and Xerorthents. The torrifluvents cover the Euphrates and khabour lower terrances they also occur in some desertic khabras.
- The Torriorthents are mostly represented by the lithic subgroups, they occupy about 7% of the country, dominating large parts of the Antiliban and the Palmyrian mountains. 50% of them are also found as major associations with the Calclorthids of the Hamad Plateau and the Syrian Desert.
- Lithic Xerorthents cover about 6% of Syria. They are chiefly confined to the western mountains. They are also found along the Euphrates River near the Turkish border and in Jabal Abd el-Aziz.

Inceptisols:
Are the second most extensive order in Syria. A pail from a few volcanic ash sol 'Is in the south west, they are entirely represented by the Xerepts.
- Xerepts are the most extensive suborder in Syria covering about 25% of the total area. They occur along the nor-them border with Turkey and cast of the coastal mountains in the west.
- Calcixerpts and Haploxerepts represent the Xerpts. Calcixerepts have the largest extension. The distribution of the great group is mainly related to the rainfall amount.

Mollisols:
Occur in area receiving the highest rainfall in Syria dominating about 2% of the country. . They are mostly represented by the Haploxerolls of which the lithic subgroup is the most common one.

Vertisols:
Cover about 1% of Syria they are mainly represented by the Haploxeererts. Haplotorrerts dominate merely the Balikh Valley. Chromoxerrts develop typically at a rainfall amount of 500 to 600 mm. They dominate three units in northern Syria. They also occur as major and minor association with the Xerepts.

2.3 Agroecological systems

Natural vegetation is a function of climate and to a lesser degree of the soils. Considering the climate conditions, five general zones of natural vegetation may be found in Syria.

2.4 Wetlands, mangroves and inland valley bottoms

2.5 Inundation Land Types

2.6 Natural hazards

2.7 Land cover

2.8 Land use

2.9 Land use change

Table 2.9.1 shows the general land use in Syria during the period 1992-1997. The largest part of the country is covered by steppe and rangeland which make up 45% of the total area. Forest is mainly confined to the western mountain. Rainfed agriculture is historically practiced in northern and western plateaus and plains. Irrigation is mainly practiced in large river valleys such as: the Euphrates, Khabour and Orontes.

[Table 2.9.2 (Word Doc. 21kb): Actual area of forests and registered areas as forests by land using]

[Table 2.9.4 (Word Doc. 27kb): Cultivated Land Use 1990-1999 by Governorate 1999]

[Table 2.9.5 (Word Doc. 22kb): Cultivable and Cultivated Land by sectors 1994-1998]

2.10 Land Productivity

2.11 Environmental Impact of land uses

3.1 Hydrography

3.2 Irrigation and drainage

4.1 Plant nutrient use and nutrient balance

4.2 Fertilizer production and costs

5.0 Overview

5.1 Land-related constraints to sustainable agriculture

Major land degradation processes in Syria are salinization in irrigated areas, water erosion in mountain regions and wind erosion in the steppe area. These are discussed below:

The main agricultural practices in Syria and its environmental consequences will be discussed in this chapter, special emphasize will be given to land degradation processes in relation to the major agricultural land use types.

Irrigated agriculture has been practiced in about 1. 167.000 ha in the year 1997. This area forms only 6% of the total surface of the country and about 2 1 % of the total cultivable lands. However it plays an important role as a major factor of the agricultural development in Syria. While all summer crops such as cotton are produced under irrigation, production of irrigated winter crops is much higher compared to rainfed agriculture. Salinization is the major land degradation process in irrigated agriculture. However, evaluation of the salinity status requires systematic surveys and sampling.

The Euphrates River is the biggest source of irrigation water in Syria. Following are two examples showing the salinity status in areas irrigated by the Euphrates water.

The Euphrates valley (lower terrace): The fertile alluvial soils (fluvents) are the prevailing soils in the valley.

The Euphrates valley is the largest irrigated area in Syria. Some of the earliest human agricultural activities were started in this valley. As early as 6000 B.C., the region was inhabited by grain farmers. Irrigation became extensive between 4000 and 3000 B.C. Evidences of historical salinization are almost absent within the Syrian part of the valley. Recent soil salinization processes have started in the valley as early as the late 1940s when large scale irrigated agriculture became possible by using diesel irrigation pumps. The process has remarkably accelerated at the beginning of the 1950s when cotton was introduced into the area as a summer cash crop. Misuse of irrigation water accompanied with the absence of any kind of drainage systems and improper management led to up rise in the ground water level and consequently salt accumulation within the root layers by evapo-transpiration.

In the middle of the 1960s a quite large areas became out of use due to extreme salinization. The first semi-detailed soil survey for 123000 ha of the lower Euphrates valley carried out In the late 1970s proved that the electrical conductivity of soil paste extract was over 8 ds/m for 50% and over 16 ds/m in about 30% of the area (10).

The Euphrates higher terraces: Near Rakka about I 0000 ha mainly located within the second Euphrates terrace were brought under irrigation in 1970. The land was prepared for a modern irrigation project. A survey for soil has been carried out in the year 1980, Severe salinization with more than 16 ds/m of the soil paste extract took place in about 24% of the project area, as a result of insufficient and improper drainage system. The salinization processes have been remarkably accelerated due to the introduction of rice cultivation for the first time in the area.

It has been estimated that 3000-5000 ha of the irrigated lands becomes out of the agricultural use every year in Syria due to extreme salinization.

Ground water irrigation: About 701634 ha have been irrigated by ground water in the year 1997. This area represents 60% of the total irrigated land in Syria It has been gradually increased from 30% during 1970 to 44% in 1980 and 49% in 1990. However acute increase of I 0% took place in two years.

Considering that, the total renewable ground water in Syria represents only less than 7% of the total available water resources one may notice the irrational and unbalanced policy of using water resources in the country.

According to the FAO guidelines on water quality for irrigation a severe restriction for irrigation is indicated when the electrical conductivity of the water exceeds 3ds/m.

Water samples from three wells north of Deir el-zor within the steppe area have been analyzed. The EC values were ranging between 7 and 10 ds/m.

Furthermore the guidelines also indicated limits for specific ion toxity. In the analyzed samples sodium and chloride are found to be the dominant cations and anions respectively. A severe restriction degree is given in the guidelines when the concentration exceeds 9 meq/1 for sodium and 10 meq/1 for chloride. These concentration and the composition of these salts are considered the analyzed samples and similar waters are not suitable for irrigation.

Mountainous region under humid and sub-humid climate are, probably the most accessible regions to water erosion due to its natural conditions such as steep and long slopes, Shallow soil cover, high rainfall average (800 - 1500 mm) and frequent rain storms. Semi-dense forests cover most of the area. Fires, intended or not. Are the worse human interventions in the area. About 8000 ha have been subject to fire during the period 1985-1993.

Another human activity leading to water erosion is farming. About 2440 ha. Of the natural forest have been converted to agricultural lands during the period 1985-1992.

It is obvious that in this region, removal of the vegetative cover by any means ill lead to tragic consequences as far as soil is concerned.

Recent investigations within the Lattaquia province have shown that the maximum annual soil loss under forest conditions ranges from 10 to 60 kg/ha in the different locations, and from 200 to 2550 kg/ha, under burned forest, reaching 960 to 3280 kg/ha., in agricultural lands.

In Syria about 50% of the soils are Aridisols. These soils are characterized by an aridic soil moisture regime. By definition Aridisols are not suitable to grow small grain crops (e.g. wheat and barley) in most years without irrigation. Under the prevailing climatic conditions in Syria, aridisols occur when the annual average of the rainfall drops below 250 mm. Water requirement for barley as the major rainfed crops in the steppe has been computed under the conditions of the Syrian steppe. A minimum of 250 mm is needed to grow barley. In the middle of 1980's rainfed agriculture has been seriously sexpanded in the country to include large areas within the steppe where Aridisols prevail. Agricultural statistics indicate that rainfed agriculture in the Syrian steppe has been increased from 36 000 ha in 1982 to 218 000 ha in 1985 reaching 552 000 ha in 1990.

At Deir El-zor City, which is located within the steppe, the annual average of the rainfall is about 160 mm. The climatological data for 20 years show that in 2/3 of the year the actual annual rainfall was below the average, in some years it was even below 1/3 of the average.

As a result of the expansion in rainfed agriculture in the Syrian steppe severe environmental consequences have been observed. These consequences are mainly related to the nature of the soils.

Weak structural stability and light texture mainly characterize the soils of the steppe. Based on the percentage of the soil aggregates larger than I mm in the surface layer, it has been estimated (18) that more than 50% of the soils of Syria are extremely accessible to erosion. A map of soil accessibility to wind erosion has been prepared for the major part of the steppe area. It shows that most of the area is also extremely accessible to wind erosion. Nevertheless, these soils have been for centuries in equilibrium with local environment.

The natural vegetation cover has probably the major role in protecting the soil over the years. When rainfed agriculture was expanded in the steppe, the shrubby cover has firstly been eliminated leaving the soil particles to the action of the wind.

The maximum wind speed at Deir el-Zor ranges from in 16 to 27 m/sec, during the year. Assuming that a minimum wind speed required to transport soil particles is 5 m/sec. one may expect a considerable soil movement by wind throughout the year when the dry soil particles are subject to wind action.

Dust, dust storms, sand accumulation on roads, railroads, formation of sand sheets, sand hummocks and sand dunes are the main environmental consequences resulting from the introduction and expansion of rainfed agriculture in the Syrian steppe, Dust frequency and intensity have been remarkably increased during the last fewears in the eastern part of the country.

An equation based on the visibility during dust storms (15) has been used to calculate the amount of soil loss by a single dust storm in summer 1987. The result was about 570 million-ton of soil.

The table summarizes the results of the evaluation of the human-induced soil degradation in Syria. It shows that soils affected by different degrees, cover about 18% of the country. Wind erosion is the most serious degradation type. If the steppe area where wind erosion acting is considered, about 25% of the total area is affected by wind erosion.

Salinization has lesser extension however when the irrigated area is considered we could conclude that about 45% of this area is affected by different degrees of soil salinization. Water erosion degrades about 6% of the country.

5.2 Water-related constraints to sustainable agriculture

5.3 Plant Nutrition-related constraints to sustainable agriculture

5.4 Other constraints to sustainable agriculture

6.0 Overview: society's response to ameliorate the situation

6.1 Land-related response indicators

6.2 Water-related response indicators

6.3 Plant Nutrition-related response indicators

6.4 Other response indicators

8.1 References

8.2 Related internet links

Country in general

Land and Water resources

Syria

1. Country overview