Malaysia

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  Country Overview
  Land resources
  Water resources (AQUASTAT)
  Plant nutrient resources
  Hot spots
  Bright spots
  Challenges and viewpoints
  References / Related internet links

1.1  Geography and administrative units

Geographical location

Peninsular Malaysia is located between latitudes 1o 20' N and 6o 40' N and longitudes of 99o 35' E and 104o 20' E. The peninsula is bounded by the Gulf of Thailand and the South China Sea on the east, and by the Straits of Malacca and the Andaman Sea on the west. The length of the peninsula is about 1210 km, and the maximum width is about 320 km

Administrative Units

Peninsular Malaysia has 13.16 million ha of land and is subdivided into 12 states. The states are Perlis, Kedah, Pulau Pinang, Perak, Selangor, Federal Territory, Negeri Sembilan, Melaka, Johor, Pahang, Trengganu, and Kelantan. Pahang is the largest and Perlis is the smallest state. The states are subdivided into administrative districts and altogether there are about 80 districts (excluding the Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur). The capital and largest city is Kuala Lumpur

[Map 1.1.1: Outline maps]

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1.2  Socio-economic features

1.2.1 Population
1.2.2 Economy
1.2.3 The Role of Agriculture in the Country’s Economy
1.2.4 Food security
1.2.5 Cropping intensity

1.2.1 Population

Peninsular Malaysia has a population of about 17 million and it is one of the prime examples of a multi-racial society. There are two main ethnic groups namely:

• Bumiputera - Aborigines, Malay and Malay-related
• Non-bumiputera - Chinese, Indians, other small communities

[Chart 1.2.1] show the distribution of ethnic communities (based on the 1991 population census) and population growth of the country. The average population density is around 509 person/km2 in 1980 and has increased to 636 person/km2 in 1991. The average population growth is around 1.9%.

[Chart 1.2.1: Malaysia Population]

1.2.2 Economy

Although Malaysia is heading towards becoming an industrial nation, agriculture still remains a major economic activity. About 41% of the land area is cultivated with various crops namely oil palm, rubber, rice, cocoa, coconut, fruits and other cash crops.

The production of petroleum and natural gas has increased greatly since the 1970's and the refining of crude oil is a major industry. Petroleum reserves ( Malaysia ) were estimated at 4.3 billion barrels. Peninsular Malaysia is also among the world's leading suppliers of tin. The principal manufacturing activities include the processing of rubber, tin, and petroleum; lumbering; metal forging; and the production of electrical and electronic equipment, processed food, textiles, motor vehicles, chemicals, building materials and handicrafts. Tourism has also become an important sector in the peninsula's economy. [Chart 1.2.2-1] illustrates the employment statistics in 1996 and it shows that manufacturing is the leading sector.

Before the Asian economic turbulence, the average per capita income is about USD5,000 ([Chart 1.2.2-2]) and the unemployment rate is considered small ( 2.5%). However, because of the current economic slowdown the rate is expected to increase slightly.

[Chart 1.2.2-3,4] illustrate the sectoral contribution to GDP and the export products of the country.

[Chart 1.2.2: Economic indicators of Malaysia]

1.2.3 The Role of Agriculture in the Country’s Economy

Agriculture plays an important part in the overall economic development of the country through its contribution to the Gross Domestic Product( GDP ), employment and foreign exchange earnings. In 1996, the share of agriculture has declined to 13.6%. Total agricultural production of major commodities (oil palm, rubber, rice) for the period from 1994 to 1996 shows an increasing trend ([Chart 1.2.3]).

In general, the agricultural sector is still geared towards the production of export commodities. The country is currently the world's leading producer of palm oil, accounting for 5% of export earnings, and until recently, was the leader in production of natural rubber. Other important commodities are sawlogs and sawn timber, cocoa, pepper, pineapple and tobacco. The principal subsistence crop is rice, with annual production of nearly 1.5 million tonnes.

[Chart 1.2.3: Agricultural production]

1.2.4 Food security

Present status of food crop production

The major food crops are rice, vegetables and fruits, while the minor food crops are sugarcane, tea and coffee. Rice production in 1990 fell by 3.3% as compared to 1983, whereas vegetable and fruit production increased by 218% and 288% respectively which clearly indicate a new trend in the agriculture sector (see table below).

Future food demand

The population growth of the country needs to be given due consideration in formulating the volume of future food demand. In terms of food consumption, there is an upward trend towards the consumption of higher protein and fiber content food items, and vice versa for starch and carbohydrates. The trend and per capita food consumption from 1990 to 2010 is given in the table below. There is an expected increase in protein food derived from eggs, fish, meat and milk.

Per capita food consumption 1990-2010 (kg/year/person)

Strategies in facing future food demand

The food production policy is aimed at the gradual and phased increase in the production levels (PL) of important food items. The major food crop production and self-sufficiency targets from 1990 to 2020 are given in the table below.

Whilst the cropped paddy area of the main granaries will remain the same, the area of the secondary granaries is projected to increase by 7 to 8%. The cultivation of vegetables such as sweet potatoes, onion, shallots and garlic as import substitutes will be encouraged and promoted. Fruit production is estimated to increase and it will be carried out commercially. Tea production in the highlands will be sustained, coffee will continue to be a smallholder’s crop and grown as an intercrop to increase farm income.

In terms of land utilization, the future food production will encroach into the marginal or unsuitable soils. Hence, agricultural research should be geared towards intensive cultivation, refined irrigation and drainage techniques, soil and water conservation measures, appropriate cropping programs, and cost effective methods of production.

1.2.5 Cropping intensity

A large portion of the plantation crops (rubber and oil palm) are monocropped. However a small percentage of it is integrated with other crops or livestock. The integration of rubber with other crops such as fruit trees, cocoa, cash crops and pastures, has gained momentum in 1990's but its extent is still very limited. When intercrops are practiced, the density of rubber is maintained at 400 to 480 tree/ha. Sheep rearing under rubber has gained popularity both due to its economic returns as well as its role in helping weed control. Weeding cost savings of 17-36% could be gained (Abd. Rahman 1996), and a return of 15% to investment can be expected.

The extent of crop and livestock integration under oil palm is much less than under rubber. The practice is even less adopted in the estate sector than in the smallholder sector. Cattle is the main livestock, where under low stocking density, an increase in crop yield by 7 - 30% was reported (Chen et al. 1996). In the smallholder sector, the percentage of farmers involved in cash crop production is about 15% whereas those involved in livestock is only 1%. The most popular intercrops are banana and tapioca.

Coconut and cocoa are grown both as monocrops and intercrops. In the uplands, cocoa is normally grown as a monocrop whereas in the coastal lowlands it is mostly grown under coconut. In the smallholder sector (which represents 70% of total cocoa area) 57% of cocoa are planted under coconut. Experience so far shows that cocoa cultivation does not have adverse effects on the coconut. However, yield increased with thinning of coconut trees.

Prior to 1971, single rice cropping under rainfed condition was the dominant production system. Since then almost all of rice is cultivated under irrigated condition. There are presently eight major irrigation schemes totaling 212,000 ha, capable of supporting double rice cropping and produce approximately 60% of national rice production. In addition, there are 74 secondary schemes amounting to 28,000 ha and 172 very small irrigation schemes amounting to 55,000 ha with limited double cropping potential. The upland rice production is minimal. The improvement of infrastructure for production intensification of rice is also accompanied by an improvement in production technology including crop variety, planting method, fertilization and mechanization. Altogether this has increased the average yield from 1.8 t/ha in 1950 to 2.4t/ha in 1970 and 3.7 t/ha in 1990's. Some progressive farmers obtained yields of around 10 t/ha.

1.2 > 1.

1.3  Climate

Peninsular Malaysia can be classified as ‘wet equatorial’ or ‘humid tropics’ zone, governed by the north-east and south-west monsoons. The north-east monsoon starts from mid November till March, and the south-west monsoon between May and September. The average temperature is constantly high (26oC) except in the highlands where it can reach as low as 18oC. The diurnal temperature range is about 7oC. The rainfall is heavy ( more than 2500 mm ) and the humidity is high ( about 80% ) due to the high temperature and high rate of evaporation.

1.3 > 1.

2.1  Physiography

Peninsular Malaysia comprises 80% lowlands and 20% highlands. The physiography of Peninsular Malaysia ([Map 2.1.1]) can be described according to the following land categories:

• Steep mountain ranges in the central region, running in the North-West to South-East direction, reaching a height of 2,400m a.s.l.
• Coastal plains and gently undulating alluvia of unconsolidated quaternary sediments
• Rolling to undulating land on consolidated pre-quaternary formations, in between the above two regions
• Riverine flood plains along major river systems.
  

[Map 2.1.1: Physiography of Peninsular Malaysia]

2.1 > 2.

2.2  Soils

In Peninsular Malaysia, the basic unit for soil classification is soil series. Up to now more than 240 soil series have been identified. They are differentiated on the basis of their parent materials, major characteristics, landscape, and mode of formation. At the broadest level, they are divided into mineral or organic soils. Mineral soils are further subdivided as sedentary soils, reworked soils and alluvial soils. The organic soils are differentiated according to the nature of the organic material and its depth.

With regard to their distribution, the sedentary soils are found on undulating land to rolling and hilly terrain (34.2%) and on steep hills and mountains (37.4%). The reworked soils occur on intermediate and higher terraces and pediment (3.3%). The alluvial soils are found on low lying coastal and riverine floodplains (17.8%). The organic soils occur in lowlands, adjacent to the coast (6.0%). The remaining are disturbed urban and mining land (1.3%). Altogether there are twelve major soil subdivisions as shown in table below.

The above mentioned soil series have also been classified both according to the FAO and Soil Taxonomy systems. In FAO classification soils in Peninsular Malaysia can be classified into seven major soil groups ([Map 2.2.1]). More than half of the main soil series fall into the Acrisol group. Other common soil groups are Fluvisol, Ferralsol and Gleysol.

In Soil Taxonomy, about half of the major soil series are Ultisols. Other common soil orders are Entisols, Oxisols, Inceptisols and Histosols. The Ultisols mostly consist of Udults with the rest being Aquults. Entisols are mostly Aquents and Psamments whereas Oxisols are mostly Udox. Inceptisols are mostly Aquepts and Tropepts whereas Histosols consist of both Hemists and Saprists.

In 1950’s, soils in Peninsular Malaysia were surveyed at reconnaissance level and later soil maps were produced at 1:250,000 and 1:500,000 scales. In early 1960’s soils were mapped at semi-detailed levels at 1:25,000 and 1:50,000 scales. To date these semi-detailed soil maps have been completed for about 60% of the peninsula.

The soil survey information was then used to identify new areas for agricultural development. In this regard a more general Land Capability Classification (LCC) was developed in 1967 with accompanying maps at 1:250,000 scale. This classification identifies potential uses of land i.e. mining, agriculture, forestry, and land for catchment/game/recreation.

In terms of land capability, Peninsular Malaysia can be classified into five major land capability classes (LCC ). The land classes are shown in Table below:

Land capability classification system (LCC) (EPU, 1967).

[Map 2.2.1: Soil map of peninsular Malaysia]

2.2 > 2.

2.3  Agroecological systems

2.3.1 Agroecological systems
2.3.2 Agro-climatic map
2.3.3 Crop zone map

2.3.1 Agroecological systems

The distribution of agro-ecological zones (AEZ) reflects the regional differences in the natural environment. Ideally, each zone should have homogeneous biophysical and environmental condition, and similar constraints and potentials for land use.

In Peninsular Malaysia AEZ was first defined on the basis of combinations of climate, landform and soil characteristics ( Nieuwolt et al, 1982). In this system the agro-ecological zones were delimited according to two sets of independent criteria: i) variation in the macro-environments as required by the different crops, and ii )differences in the natural conditions as determined by soil and climate. In this system six major agro-ecological zones were identified: two zones in the highlands, one for the histosols, and three zones in the lowlands. The agro-ecological zones in the lowlands were differentiated on the basis of the length of dry seasons, as determined by differences in the agricultural rainfall index (ARI). Thus the three zones were further subdivided into 26 agro-ecological regions. An AEZ map at 1:2,700,000 scale was prepared ([Map 2.3.1]).

In 1990, a more detailed agro-climatic classification, also based on the ARI was prepared by the Department of Agriculture (DOA), and a map at 1:500,000 scale was produced. Ten agro-climatic (ARI) zones were identified based on the number of consecutive dry and wet months. In both of the above-mentioned systems, suitable annual and perennial crops were recommended.

Lately, as the agricultural development in Peninsular Malaysia has become more intensive and complex, there was a need for a more detailed AEZ differentiation. The Malaysian Meteorological Service with the support of UNDP, World Meteorological Organization, and several local agencies embarked on such a study, and the results were published in 1993. In this study, two separate maps were produced.

[Map 2.3.1: AEZ map at 1:2,700,000 scale]

2.3.2 Agro-climatic map

The agro-climatic map of at 1:500,000 scale ([Map 2.3.2]) divides the peninsula into 65 agro-climatic zones. This is based on the total number of annual moist and wet months, and it is further subdivided according to the actual months where such conditions occur. Table below illustrates how areas with four moist/wet months are subdivided into eight agro-climatic zones.

* Wet/moist months: 20th percentile rain plus total available soil moisture>/=pan evaporation for the month.

[Map 2.3.2: The agro-climatic map of at 1:500,000 scale]

2.3.3 Crop zone map

In the new agro-climatic zones, the suitability of a given area for a specific crop is classified into six categories ranging from the best (suitable soil & highly suitable climate) to the poorest (marginal soil & marginal climate). A total of 16 crops were evaluated for their suitability at various locations on the basis of their water requirements. The crops are: oil palm, rubber, cocoa, pepper, coconut, banana, durian, star-fruit, guava, tea, papaya, pineapple, mango, sugarcane, rice and tobacco. An example of water requirement of four dominant crops is given in the following table, and [Map 2.3.3] shows an example of a crop zone map for rice.

[Map 2.3.3: Example of a crop zone map for rice]

2.3 > 2.

2.4  Wetlands, mangroves and inland valley bottoms

2.4 > 2.

2.5  Inundation Land Types

2.5 > 2.

2.6  Natural hazards

2.6 > 2.

2.7  Land cover

In Malaysia, there is no clear distinction made between land cover and land use. In many cases both terms are used synonymously whereas in reality they should be differentiated. For example, land cover of a particular area may be identified as oil palm but the actual land use is integrated oil palm and cattle production. In another case, land cover may be forest while in fact the area is gazetted as a catchment area. This overlapping terminology is due to the lack of detailed information.

Land cover is defined as vegetation and artificial construction covering the surface of the area. It is a dynamic entity influenced by many environmental and human factors. The main land cover categories are agriculture and forestry followed by settlements and water bodies. Due to population pressure and land use conflicts, the land cover types in the peninsula are changing rapidly (Table below). Major land-cover conversions have occurred as a consequence of deforestation to convert land for crop production, habitation, infrastructure, industry, and mineral extraction.

Major land cover changes in Peninsular Malaysia.

(Source: Mohamad and Siew, 1994)

A land cover map over parts of Peninsular Malaysia at 1 : 250,000 scale was produced by Mahmood et. al, (1982) using remote sensing data. Similarly, a land cover map at the scale of 1 : 500,000 has also been produced by Malaysian National Remote Sensing Center (MACRES) in 1995 covering the North-West region of the peninsula. In other parts of the Peninsula, several land cover studies employing this technique were also attempted ([Map 2.7.1]).

[Link 2.7.1: Malaysian Remote Sensing Centre]

[Map 2.7.1: Example of land cover mapping using remote sensing technique]

2.7 > 2.

2.8  Land use

The first land use map at the scale of 1 : 500, 000 was produced in 1970 by the Department of Agriculture (DOA), based on the photo-interpretation of the 1966 aerial photographs. Another survey also using aerial photography, mostly taken in 1974, produced landuse maps at 1 : 63,360 scale ( state ) and 1: 500,000 (federal ). According to the classification, land uses are distinguished into 9 groups where 7 are related to crops or vegetation while the remainder are associated with urbanization, mining and unused land.

Land use changes have taken place particularly through land development activities mostly through conversion of primary forest. A total of 5.22 million hectares of land had been opened for development by 1990, compared to 3.4 million hectares in 1966. However, since 1991 there has been a growing competition for prime land among various sectors i.e. agriculture, urban, industry, recreation and forestry. Mining has declined significantly in the national economy, while urban and industrial developments are fast taking up quality agricultural land fringing settlements. [Table 2.8.1] show the magnitude and trends of land use changes over the years. Most of the areas under major crops except oil palm gradually declined .

[Table 2.8.1: Example of land cover mapping using remote sensing technique]

2.8 > 2.

2.9  Land use change

2.9 > 2.

2.10  Land Productivity

2.10 > 2.

2.11  Environmental Impact of land uses

2.11 > 2.

3.1  Hydrography

[Link 3.1.1: AQUASTAT Country profile of Malaysia]

Water Resources

The Main Range formed the major watershed line of the peninsula. [Map 3.1.1] shows the main watersheds, and minor watersheds as well as river pattern. Pahang river( 420 km ) is the longest river. With the country's heavy rainfall, it is estimated that about 556 billion m3 of water is received per annum, yet only 12 billion m3 or 2.1% is being used. The agriculture sector is by far the biggest consumer utilizing 75% of the surface water supply, mainly for irrigation ( Wan Sulaiman, et al., 1994 ). Since agricultural activities need a sufficient and efficient water supply, the Malaysian government has built many dams for that purpose.

A number of large reservoirs have been constructed and up to 1995, 66 reservoirs are in operation. A further 266 potential sites for small reservoir development has been identified. About 45% of these were meant for irrigation, 6% for domestic supply, 2% for industrial uses, 8% for fisheries and 10% for agrotourism. Development of small reservoirs is advantageous due to its low investment cost, minor environmental damage, and the absence of esettlement problems.

Recently, requests for well irrigation increased due to the rapid development of the agricultural sector and the Government's policy towards crop diversification in the non-granary areas. For the period 1991 to 1995, a total of 38 wells were drilled and 26 were useable (DID, 1995). Due to the increasing demands of various sectors, water resources are becoming ever more scarce. Per capita availability of water declined by 40% to 60 % between 1955 and 1990.

[Map 3.1.1: watersheds and river pattern]

3.1 > 3.

3.2  Irrigation and drainage

Drainage system in peat soils

A large investment in infrastructures has been made to reclaim peat soils for the cultivation of dryland crops. The Western Johore Integrated Agricultural Development Project (IADP) is an example of such a development program which commenced in 1974 and still is ongoing until the year 2000. It covers an area of 360,000 hectares. In the 1980's the cost to develop infrastructure for peat reclamation can be up to USD1,000 per ha (Salmah and Adnan, 1993). Such infrastructure development is carried out for the following objectives:

• to enable discharge of flood water and prevent waterlogging
• to avoid overdraining of peatland
• to minimize peat subsidence

Irrigation for rice

The fully irrigated double cropping rice land has increased dramatically from 20,000 ha in 1960’s to 240,000 ha presently. Another 55,000 ha are found in small irrigation schemes with various degrees of double cropping capabilities.In the main irrigation schemes, a cropping intensity of 180% was achievable. Irrigation water usage was about 30 to 50% of total water consumption and the rest are supplied by rain water. Change in cultivation technique from transplanting to direct seeding attains reduction in water use of around 27%. Water recycling is also practiced and accounts for about 5% of the total water source.

3.2 > 3.

4.1  Plant nutrient use and nutrient balance

Trends in Fertilizer Consumption

The average mineral fertilizer consumption for agriculture is around 250 kg/ha/yr. Due to its large acreage, perennial tree crops account for the bulk of the fertilizer consumption. Generally they are fertilized with low-cost straight fertilizers. The higher cost fertilizers are generally used for crops like vegetables, flowers and home gardening. [Chart 4.1.1] shows the proportion of fertilizer usage for various crops.

Oil palm

In general, mature oil palm requires 180,40,240 and 60 kg/ha/yr of N, P, K and Mg respectively. Fertilizer application could increase yield by about 10% on coastal soils and by nearly 50% in inland soils where the maximum yields observed on these soils are around 18-35 t/ha and 25-35 t/ha respectively. With fertilization and other improvement measures, the production of oil palm per unit area increases progressively ([Chart 4.1.2]).

Rubber

Fertilizer application can increase the cumulative yield of rubber by about 30% in a span of 17 years. Application of N and P increase girth by some 140% and 8% respectively. For matured rubber trees, fertilizers are applied two or three times a year, amounting to between 200 to 450 kg/ha/yr. With fertilization, improvements in planting materials and agronomic practices, the yield of rubber improves ([Chart 4.1.3]). However, in 1990's it decreases as some areas were left untapped due to labour shortage.

Cocoa

The production of cocoa also gained tremendously from the improvement in crop variety and fertilizer application. [Chart 4.1.4] shows the trend of cocoa production in Malaysia

Rice

In 1950's and 1960's organic fertilizer was the main fertilizer type used in rice cultivation. Since 1970's inorganic fertilizer usage increased from 19 kg/ha to 140 kg/ha presently. This has increased the average rice yield from 1.8 t/ha in 1950 to 3.7 t/ha today. However such increase in yield is also due to improvements in other practices such as introduction of new crop varieties and irrigation systems. Currently, a yield of up to 10 t/ha per season is obtainable in well managed farms. [Chart 4.1.5] shows the variation in the rate of fertilizer application and the subsequent variation in rice yield.

[Chart 4.1.1 to 5: Fertilizer Consumption indicators]

Chart 4.1.1 Proportion of fertilizers (%) applied to various crops
Chart 4.1.2 Crude palm oil production (tonne/ha) and the fertilizer consumption in Peninsular Malaysia
Chart 4.1.3 Rubber yield
Chart 4.1.4 Trend of cocoa production in Malaysia
Chart 4.1.5 Rice yield vs fertilizer application

4.1 > 4.

4.2  Fertilizer production and costs

During 1985-1994, the demand (and corresponding net supply) for fertilizers increased by 39% from 2.33 to 3.24 million tonnes ([Chart 4.2.1]). Imports increased by 57% from 1.64 to 2.58 million tonnes, and local production increased by 66% from 0.71 to 1.18 million tonnes. Of the local production in 1994, almost one-half is exported. The Malaysian requirement for fertilizers far exceeds local production. In 1994, Malaysia imported 2.58 million tonnes of fertilizers valued at RM 781 million. The bulk of these imports were straight fertilizers, comprising 32% nitrogenous, 20% phosphatic and 41% potassic. Compound and other fertilizers represented 7% of total imports.

Most of the fertilizers, except urea which is locally produced, are imported. [Chart 4.2.1] shows the type and amount of the imported fertilizers in 1995.

[Chart 4.2.1: Fertilizer supply by sources]

4.2 > 4.

5.0  Overview: constraints to sustainable agriculture

Definition

In this context, hot spots mean specific areas within the agriculture resource sectors that pose the greatest challenges towards the practice of sustainable agriculture. The most commonly identified hot spots include problem soils, human induced land degradation, land use issues, water use issues and environmental pollution.

5.0 > 5.

5.1  Land-related constraints

Problem Soils

Altogether about 50% of land in Peninsular Malaysia is considered unsuitable for agriculture. These are referred to as problem soils which can be further subdivided into several categories. Steepland soils are dominant, followed by stony and shallow soils, deep peat, acid and potentially acid sulphate soils, saline soils, tin tailings and sandy coastal soils or Bris (figure below). Although the occurrence of the problem soils other than the steeplands is much smaller, they are situated near the population centers, and therefore are accessible to development.

[Chart 5.1.1: Percentage distribution of problem soils in Peninsular Malaysia]

 

Steeplands: About 6.5% of steeplands have been developed for agriculture. Such activities are beset by the problems of high erodibility, land degradation, pollution, etc. They are especially serious during the land clearing stages, and more pronounced when annual crops are grown.

Peat:
There are about 985,000 ha of peat soils of which 32% have been grown with coconut, oil palm, pineapple, rubber, coffee and vegetables. Peat soils development faces numerous problems including high percentage of stumps, nutrient deficiency, and machinery mobility. For non-aquatic plants, additional constraints include poor land drainage, soil subsidence, poor plant anchorage, and susceptibility to flooding. With excessive drainage, the developed peat can undergo irreversible drying, and they are also prone to burning.

Acid sulphate soils:
In the past, large areas of the soils have been over-drained for the cultivation of dryland crops (coconut and cocoa). In such areas, the soil pH dropped to 2.6-3.4 in the 30-45 cm depth, and this has caused yield reduction. The development of drainage infrastructure is made more difficult as the pyrite distribution is sporadic, resulting in drainage of potentially acid sulphate soils.

Sandy soils:
The problems of the Bris and tin tailing soils are associated with its sand texture, which leads to low water retention, high leaching, low CEC, and low organic matter content. During the daytime, the soil temperature could rise to more than 40oC, thus retarding crop growth.

Human-induced Land Degradation

In the past decades, rapid and intensive land development activities such as agriculture, industries, housing and urbanization, mining and logging have contributed to the land degradation. The following types of human-induced land degradation are recognized,

Degradation due to erosion:
The effect of erosion due to agricultural activities is most severe in steeplands, and could result in degraded soils. At lower slopes, erosion of agricultural land is manageable provided suitable crops are cultivated.

Degradation due to fertility depletion:
Removal of topsoils through erosion also contributed to the depletion of soil fertility. For instance, without cover crop, the total yearly nutrient loss under cocoa was about 161 kg N/ha compared to about 3 kg N/ha with good cover crop ( Ghulam, et al., 1992 ). In unsupervised logging the losses of K and Ca were doubled than those in supervised logging (Zulkifli, 1991). In the mined land, the original soil has been greatly disturbed resulting in soils with low nutrients. In the paddy soils, clay removal from the plough layer caused Mg and Cu deficiency (Samy et al., 1992).

Dystrification:
It occurs as a result of lowering the water table during drainage of potential acid sulphate areas. Such degradation also occur on potentially acid sulphate areas bordering land reclamation schemes (Ting et al, 1993).

Land subsidence:
Peat soil subsidence of between 1.5 to 15 cm/yr was reported in West Johore (Mutalib et al., 1991). In deep peat (6.1 m depth), a subsidence of 1.6 m was observed after only 8 years of reclamation. The subsidence of peat soils normally resulted in ponding and waterlogging.

Salinization:
A large acreage of marine clay soils (mostly sulphidic in nature) have been reclaimed for various agricultural uses. The reclaimed soils are prone to degradation due to seawater intrusion. The affected soils with salinity of 6.4 ds/m (soil extract) could be ameliorated through good soil preparation and efficient water management measures (Sani, 1991). There are also indications that underground seawater intrusion have occurred in the coastal sandy ridges areas.

5.1 > 5.

5.2  Water-related constraints

Conflicts related to use of water resources

In the North-West of the peninsula, there are seasonal water deficits, resulting in conflicts in the use of water stored in dams. A large amount of water is required for irrigation of rice during the dry months, and at the same time it is also required for non-agricultural uses (domestic & industry). In addition, water storage (in the PEDU dam ) has to be maintained for recreational purposes. Shortage of water for irrigation of rice during dry months is also frequent in the North-Eastern region.

The conflicting use of land for agriculture versus water catchment is being increasingly felt throughout the peninsula. Although water catchment areas are gazetted, encroachment by agriculture and logging activities both legally and illegally has been occurring frequently. There are cases where water catchments are being polluted by agricultural and industrial wastes.

Groundwater resource is most extensive in the North-East of the peninsula. About 70% of households in the area used groundwater for their domestic consumption. In the coastal areas, groundwater is also being used for irrigation of tobacco. There is an indication of over tapping of groundwater during the dry months, which causes the intrusion of saline water. The situation however is remedied by excessive fresh water recharge that occurred during the rainy season.

Water pollution

With growing industrialization and urbanization, water pollution problems began to spread rapidly in various parts of the peninsula. So far 14 rivers have been polluted and 60% of them are located near the industrial, urban or intensive agricultural areas. In 1995 a total of 3,141 industries were identified as significant sources of water pollution. The industries, among others are the food and beverage industries, the chemical industries, and the textile industries ( DOE, 1995).

5.2 > 5.

5.3  Plant Nutrition-related constraints

Impact of Fertilizer Use on the Environment

The impacts of fertilizer application on the environment are more pronounced in areas with short term crops where intensive farming is practiced. The extent of on-farm pollution can be arranged in the following decreasing order: floriculture, tobacco, vegetable and rice, followed by perennial crops like rubber, oil palm and cocoa.

In the tobacco agrosystem on coastal sandy soils (quartzipsamments), studies have shown that 15% of household well water samples were polluted by NO3-N (> 10mg/L). In rice agrosystem 27% of drinking wells contain water with excessive NH4-N (> 0.5mg/L) and 9% have P above the acceptable limit (>0.2mg/L) (Ahmad et.al, 1996 ).

In intensive vegetable farming, excessive amount of chicken dung and inorganic fertilizer have been repeatedly applied to the soils. Wong et al (1993) indicated that such applications resulted in high to moderate residual accumulation of P, K and Ca. Zulkefli et al., (1998) observed that the NO3 content in surface runoff increased dramatically after fertilizer application. In such circumstances, the excess plant nutrients may leach from the farm and ultimately pollute the water and the environment.

5.3 > 5.

5.4  Other constraints

5.4 > 5.

6.0  Overview: society's response to ameliorate the situation

6.0 > 6.

6.1  Land-related response indicators

6.1.1 Available Lands for Sustainable Agricultural Development
6.1.2 Sustainable Land Use System
6.1.3 Interesting Land Use/Allocation Policies
6.1.4 Land Care Programs
6.1.5 Infrastructures and Mechanization/Automation
6.1.6 Success Stories in Landuse

6.1.1 Available Lands for Sustainable Agricultural Development

Sustainable land use systems entail preservation of the natural resources – soil and water – and prevention of its degradation. About 6.19 million ha of land are considered suitable for agricultural activities while the remaining 6.97 million ha are regarded as having no potential for cultivation. In 1996, it was estimated that the uncultivated suitable soils were about 2.44 million ha, mostly under forest reserve. Thus, assuming that no more forest land will be converted to agriculture, marginal soils would have to be used. In 1980's, about 0.56 million ha of problem soils have been used for agriculture and this has increased to 0.86 million ha in 1990's.

6.1.2 Sustainable Land Use System

In steeplands the sustainability of agriculture is greatly influenced by the choice of proper land use types and management practices. Under the present systems, the policy of maintenance of forest cover in the steeplands (>18.5o) is commendable and should be adhered to. In the undulating terrain (<18.5o slope) where agriculture is dominated by perennial crops, the land is relatively stable. However, improvements can still be made whereby oil palm should be designated to suitable areas with lesser slopes. Rubber, cocoa and fruits trees possess inherent leaf and canopy structure that prevent severe erosion, and they should occupy the strongly sloping areas currently allocated to oil palm. In addition, the new approach in steeplands is to plant short- term crops (vegetables and floriculture) under rain shelter which offers an environmentally friendly practice provided that it is properly managed.

In peat, several agronomic practices have been developed for dryland crops, including mechanically compacting the soils before tree crops are planted. In areas where there is a short dry season, water table control in drains is essential to store water in soil. The yields of several promising crops on peat (in tons per ha) are oil palm (20-25 ffb), pineapple (40-60), tapioca (49), sweet potato (24), and maize (7.5). A range of vegetables are also found suitable.

In sandy soils, application of organic matter such as empty fruit bunch ( EFB ) and palm oil mill sludge (POMS ), are effective in overcoming the low soil water holding capacity and high infiltration rates, in addition to increasing soil nutrient holding capacity. Sufficient technology has been generated to support the production of high valued crops like tobacco, where a yield of up to 2000 kg/ha is achievable. Technology has also been generated for the successful cultivation of perennial fruit trees like guava and starfruit.

In acid sulphate soils, double cropping of wetland rice is sustainable provided that irrigation water is always made available. For most dryland crops, reasonable yield can be obtained if ground water level control is practiced. For example, oil palm and coconut could provide yields of 18 t/ha/year and 2850 nuts/ha/ year respectively.

6.1.3 Interesting Land Use/Allocation Policies

The Malaysian Government has formulated several categories of development plans to guide the economic growth of the country. At the macro level the First Outline Perspective Plan (OPP1:1971 - 1990) emphasized new land development. During this period the agriculture and forestry sector grew at 4.4% per annum, but the relative share to GDP dropped from 29.0% in 1970 to 18.7% in 1990, although in absolute monetary terms its contribution increased. The second outline perspective plan (OPP2:1990-2000) stresses in situ land development. This aims at revitalizing the use of the existing and abandoned farm land through land consolidation, rehabilitation, replanting, drainage and irrigation, and introduction of advanced technology to farmers.

Concurrent with OPP1 and OPP2, the National Agriculture Policy (NAP) was formulated in 1984 and later revised in 1992: The revised NAP incorporates the new development philosophy and direction as embodied in the OPP 2 and the vision 2020. It is to guide agriculture development in the country until the year 2010. It outlines policy and strategy for sustainable development of the agriculture sector. The basic principles of NAP are :

• Privatization and growth led by the private sector,
• Market oriented growth,
• Commercialization,
• Modernization, and
• Poverty eradication.

It is envisaged that policies adopted will enable the agriculture sector to operate efficiently, competitively and able to survive in an industrialized economy.
Whilst the above policies were set for long term land development, the use of land for agriculture is guided by the following land related laws (i.e. acts, legislation) and guidelines,

• National Land Code (1965) : Contains Laws related to land and land tenure, registration, and revenue collection.
• Land Conservation Act (1960): This Act relates the conservation of hill land and the protection of soil from erosion and the inroad of silt.
• National Forestry Act (1984): Its purpose is to provide the administration, management and conservation of forests and forestry development.
• Environmental Quality Act (1974): This Act relates to the prevention, abatement and control of pollution and the enhancement of environment.
• Land related guidelines: These include guidelines for land capability classification (LCC) and soil suitability classification

6.1.4 Land Care Programs

Malaysia has introduced a number of measures to conserve its land resources. Soil conservation efforts are implemented systematically and integrated with physical planning in order to prevent indiscriminate land-clearing as well as provide adequate control of land development. All major land development projects are subjected to EIA. Law and guidelines governing land development and soil conservation are available to ensure that critical activities, such as the construction of high-rise buildings, development on hillslopes and clearing of land, are implemented with proper safeguards and controls. Measures have also been taken to conserve the country's forests through reforestation and banning the export of logs as well as strict control over illegal logging. Forest will continue to be managed and developed in a sustainable manner to reduce wastage.In addition, several areas have been designated as national parks and wildlife sanctuaries.

6.1.5 Infrastructures and Mechanization/Automation

Paddy cultivation

The development of water management infrastructure plays a major role in the production of rice since it enables double cropping. Currently, areas that can support double cropping have increased up to 240,000 hectares. This has been achieved through the construction of large storage dams, major pumping installations, and irrigation and drainage canals. Currently irrigation facilities have been extended to the tertiary canal so as to provide good water control and management at farm level in most major granary areas. Practically all major operations in rice farming in the granary areas are mechanized. The increase in mechanization is in tandem with the decline in farm labour. The mechanization system progressed from two wheel cultivators in the 1960’s to an almost fully mechanized system today. The use of four wheel tractors greater than 50 hp and combine harvesters of greater than 7 tons are common. However, crop establishment (e.g. seeding) and crop care operations (e.g. fertilizer and pesticide inputs) are only partially mechanized.

Perennial crops

6.1.6 Success Stories in Landuse

Much of the successes in landuse owe to prudent planning by the government. A series of Five Year Plans beginning in 1956 were implemented, and land development issues have always been an important agenda. In addition, special attention on agriculture development is given further emphasis through the implementation of the National Agriculture Policy (NAP). It focussed on new land development as well as land rehabilitation . Efforts were also geared towards modernizing and commercializing the unorganized smallholders, and revitalizing of agriculture involving the increased participation of the private sector.

Development of new land

During the successive development plans, several government agencies are created to implement new land development. FELDA (Federal Land Development Authority) is assigned the role of developing new agricultural land schemes for the settlement of the rural poor. In these schemes, new land are developed to enable the establishment of economic farm units, efficient agricultural practices, and to facilitate introduction of new and promising crops. Up till now FELDA has developed close to 900,000 ha of land nationwide involving about 114,000 small holding settlers. 75% of the schemes are for growing oil palm, 19% for rubber and the rest are for other crops. Apart from FELDA, there are also numerous Regional Development Authorities (RDA) which focussed on development of new land for poor settlers.

Concurrently, large tracts of new land were also developed by both government agencies and private plantation companies purely as commercial ventures i.e. not involving settlers. These companies/agencies develop plantation crop estates, and employ a large number of salaried workers.

In situ land development

In tandem with the above efforts, several agencies are also formed to focus on in situ land development. The main agencies include FELCRA (Federal Land Consolidation and Rehabilitation Authority), RISDA (Rubber Industry Smallholders Development Authority), and the various IADPs (Integrated Agriculture Development Projects). Such developments are carried out to resolve the problems of uneconomic farm sizes, unremunerative crops, and the low level of productivity. It also facilitates crop diversification. Productivity increased through the planting of high-valued crops and the undertaking of other income generating activities. Through these efforts, the existing idle land would also be turned into bigger entities like mini estates and cooperative farms. Since its inception in 1967, FELCRA has developed about 250,000 ha of under-utilized and idle lands, benefiting close to 60,000 participants.

RISDA’s role is to facilitate smallholders in replanting rubber and other crops. It provides all the technical and financial supports. From 1952 to 1989 RISDA and its predecessor agency have spent about RM1.5 billion (USD600mi) for rubber replanting, covering about 824,000 ha. From 1991 to 1993, a total of 96,000 ha of smallholdings have been replanted. Altogether the schemes have benefited about 500,000 smallholders.

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6.2  Water-related response indicators

6.2 > 6.

6.3  Plant Nutrition-related response indicators

6.3 > 6.

6.4  Other response indicators

6.4 > 6.

7.1 Resource Use
7.2 Crop Production on Fragile Lands
7.3 Proper Management of Arable Soils
7.4 Management of Local Land Development Projects
7.5 Water Resources Management
7.6 Environmental Conservation

7.1 Resource Use

There will be keen competition for resource use in the future between the main competing sectors i.e. agriculture, forestry, residential, industrial, wildlife, recreational and water catchments. In this regard, the main challenges for the future include,

• improving the collection, storage and accessibility of the data base for land and water resources
• providing the policy makers with sound land use options,
• addressing the problems associated with land ownership.

7.2 Crop Production on Fragile Lands

Land development has and will slowly encroach into fragile soils, especially into peat and steeplands. This will inevitably result in the occurrence of soil degradation, for example soil subsidence or shrinkage due to overdrainage and open burning are commonly observed in peat soils. In steeplands, heavy tropical rainfall, improper crop choices, and poor soil conservation measures resulted in the occurrence of high soil erosion. Against this background, there is indeed a vast opportunity in finding ways for practicing sustainable agriculture on both fragile soils. These include,

• a policy preference for tree crop cultivation on steeplands
• adoption and enforcement of improved conservation measures on hilly terrain
• overall improvements in farming practices of annual crops under rainshelter in steeplands
• proper reclamation and management of peatland for the cultivation of eco-friendly crops

7.3 Proper Management of Arable Soils

The main challenge for the future is to enable continuous crop production with high yield per unit area. Intensive agricultural exploitation of arable soils remains the only option as well as a challenge for the future. Unfortunately intensification of agriculture will also result in excessive and indiscriminate use of agrochemical inputs which contribute to soil degradation. Against this scenario the future agricultural practices adopted on arable soils must be productive, environmental friendly and sustainable. Improved agronomic practices are specifically required to maintain or enhance crop yield. This calls for,

• more efficient water and fertilizer use, soil fertility maintenance, and adoption of soil conservation measures
• introduction of new farming technologies such as precision farming and protective shelters for high valued crops, and
• adoption of good agricultural practices for sustainable use of soils.

7.4 Management of Local Land Development Projects

Successful land development has always depended on the recommendation made during detailed feasibility studies. In such studies, baseline data on land resources are acquired from existing information or in its absence, data acquisition is commissioned. The project management inevitably possesses the necessary information related to land and water in the study area.

The management of land and water resources in the project area has become increasingly complicated as it involves multiple objective decision making. For example, in the reclamation and rehabilitation of lowland coastal areas, there is a need to consider mitigation of floods, maintenance of drainage, coastal protection from saline water intrusion, managing problem soils (peat, acid sulphate and sands), construction of farm roads, and the need to increase crop production. In the past, the integration of information relating to land and water management at this level was done manually. The future challenge lies in the effective utilization of land and water resource information system to optimize the management of such resources.

7.5 Water Resource Management

With the country's heavy rainfall, it is envisaged that more water can be harvested. Currently, only about 2.1% of it is being used, and the agricultural sector is by far the biggest consumer. The low rate of water harvested is partly due to seasonal distribution of rainfall, where water excess cause flooding, and need to be drained off. The construction of more water storage dams, where possible, would reduce water losses.

The effectiveness of water use can also be enhanced by increasing the irrigation efficiency in the rice fields. In this case, automated water control was implemented since early 1970’s, and has been improved continuously. It is now capable of supporting daily operations such as seasonal crop planning, and irrigation scheduling. The future challenge for higher water use efficiency is felt even more, in view of the anticipated increase in cropping intensity, and also the increase in water demand from non agricultural sectors. It is envisaged that in line with advancement in farming technology, automation of some irrigation structures with real time data will be greatly needed.

As for the perennial crops, their cultivation must be suited with both soils and agroclimatic conditions. Appropriate recommendations for crop zoning under rainfed condition have been forwarded in the recently completed AEZ study. Adherence to such recommendation is essential as irrigation of perennial crops is costly.

In terms of policy, water resource use is presently under individual states jurisdiction; thus there is an urgent need to integrate the harvest and usage of water resources at the national level. This is being undertaken by the recently formed National Water Resource Committee. Hopefully it will provide guidelines on the sharing, planning and allocation of water resources for the various competing user sectors.

7.6 Environmental Conservation

Since 1990's environmental issues are gaining importance. As it is now, the environmental impact assessment (EIA) has been made mandatory to anyone who intends to develop lands commercially, including large scale agriculture development. The mitigating measures to overcome the anticipated problems must also be proposed. The main challenges for the future include,

• to find alternatives to burning for land clearing operation
• to find ways in minimizing pollution due to inappropriate use of agrochemicals.

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8.1  References

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Ahmad, A.R., Zulkefli, M., Ahmed, M., Aminuddin, B.Y., Sharma, M.L. and Mohd Zain, M ( 1996 ). Environmental impact of agricultural inorganic pollution on groundwater resources of the Kelantan plain, Malaysia. In Agricultural Impacts on Groundwater Quality, 1996 ( Aminuddin, B.Y., et. al Ed )

Aminuddin B.Y., Sharma, M.L. and Willett, I.R. ( 1996 ). Agricultural Impacts on Groundwater Quality. ACIAR Proc. No. 61. pp:97

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Anon ( 1995 ). The feasibility study on small reservoir development in Peninsular Malaysia. DID and JICA. pp:161

Azmi B (1994). Land consolidation and rehabilitation: FELCRA experience. Proc. Workshop on Soi. Sci. in Malaysia Towards the Year 2020. MSSS.p54-65.

Berita Publishing Sdn. Bhd ( 1995 ). Information Malaysia 1995 yearbook. Dayasitis Sdn.Bhd Pub., Kuala Lumpur

Cheah, U.B., Sharma, M.L., Aminuddin, B.Y., Mohammud, C.H and Mohd Zain, M ( 1996 ). Pesticide residues in water resources of the agricultural plains of Kelantan. In Agricultural Impacts on Groundwater Quality, 1996 (Aminuddin, B.Y., et.al Ed )

Chen, C.P., I, Tajuddin and D.T Chong (1996), Strategies for entrepreneurship of livestock intergation in plantation systems, proc. Mal Soc. Animal pruduction, Kuching, Sarawak, p101-117.

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DID ( 1995 ). Department of Irrigation and Drainage 1995 annual report. Kuala Lumpur

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Ghulam, M.H., Wan Abdullah, Y and Ciesiolka,C ( 1992 ). Nutrients transport in sediment from sloping agricultural land. In proceedings soil science conference of Malaysia, 1992.pp: 97-106

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Khanif, Y.M., Zulkefli,M., Fauziah,I. and Hasmah,H ( 1994 ). Soil and environmental degradation. In proceedings of the workshop on soil science in Malaysia towards the year 2020 1994, ( Aminuddin,B.Y, Zulkefli,M and Zaki Ghazalli, M., Eds.).pp: 99-119.

Law, W.M., and Selvadurai, K., (1968) The 1968 Reconnaissance Soil Map of Malaya, Department of Agriculture, Kuala Lumpur.

Mohamad, S. and Siew, K.Y. ( 1994 ). Land resources and landuse planning in Peninsular Malaysia. In proceedings of the workshop on soil science in Malaysia towards the year 2020 1994, ( Aminuddin,B.Y, Zulkefli,M and Ghazalli, M.Z., Eds.).pp: 1-13

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Samy, J., Zahari, A.B. and Lee, C.S ( 1992 ). Nutrient requirement of rice after two decades duble cropping in Malaysia. In proceeedings international symposium on paddy soils, Nanjing, China, 1992. pp: 283-289

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8.2  Related internet links

Country in general

Malaysia - Ministry of Agriculture
http://agrolink.moa.my/

Department of Agriculture Malaysia
http://agrolink.moa.my/doa/

Drainage and Irrigation Department Malaysia
http://agrolink.moa.my/did/

Malaysia in General
http://www.jaring.my/

Department of Statistics Malaysia
http://www.statistics.gov.my/

Malayisan Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI)
http://www.mardi.my/

Malaysian Meteorological Services
http://www.kjc.gov.my/

MALAYSIAN REMOTE SENSING CENTRE
http://www.macres.gov.my/

Malaysia - National Implementation of Agenda 21
http://www.un.org/esa/earthsummit/malay-cp.htm

Information on Malaysia
http://www.un.org/esa/agenda21/natlinfo/countr/malaysia/index.htm
- SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT - UNITED NATIONS System-Wide Web Site on National Implementation of the Rio Commitments

OTHER MAPS OF MALAYSIA
http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/malaysia.html

Malaysia data sets
http://www.rrcap.unep.org/lc/cd/html/countryrep/malaysia/results.html

Malaysia - Land Cover Map 1:50 000 "Interpreted from Satellite Imagery” – Source
http://www.cartographic.com/xq/ASP/AreaID.6/RegionID.165/ClassID.3500/TypeID.3540/ProductID.9895/asia/malaysia/qx/other_maps.asp#view

Malaysia: Land Use and Cover Changes Case Study – (Report).
http://www.start.or.th/LUCC/malaysia_case.htm

Digital Chart of the World – Malaysia
http://www.malaysiagis.com/tech_center/data_input/article6.cfm

Stibig, H-J.et al. 2002. Forest cover map of insular Southeast Asia at 1:5 500 000
http://www.gvm.jrc.it/tem/PDF_publis/2002/Stibig_EUR_TREES_2002.pdf
derived from spot-vegetation satellite images. 26 p. (Report)

Hamzah, Khali Aziz; Abidin, Azman Zainal. 1998? Green house gases inventory in Malaysia
http://www.iges.or.jp/en/cp/output_all/workshop/GHG/pdf/2_LULUCF3.pdf
– land use change and forestry sector. 170-180. (Paper)

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