• Post-larvae shrimp used for stocking should be purchased from reputable sellers, be accompanied by animal health certificates prior to being introduced on-farm, and subjected to a temporary quarantine prior to stocking.

• High quality feed should be used, and environmental stresses avoided, to keep shrimp healthy.

• The health of pond environments should be carefully maintained and young shrimp should be closely monitored. Any illness should be immediately reported to the proper authorities.

• Regular fallowing of aquaculture ponds should be considered as part of a routine on-farm program of aquatic animal health, as this practice has been shown to break pathogen life cycles.

"The course is a very practical tool for exporters and importers. It provides a checklist of the steps they need to take to comply with phytosanitary standards before entering foreign markets," said FAO Forestry Officer Gillian Allard. "It should also help strengthen communication between forestry officials, national plant protection organizations and the private sector."

The global production value for wood and furniture is worth $900 billion per year, with an export value of $200 billion, according to FAO. It is of global importance that internationally traded wood- and non-wood forest products are free from pests.  

The e-learning course, "Trade in forest commodities and the role of phytosanitary measures," provides information on the geographic distribution of important forest pests and outlines pest-related risks for every type of product, by country.

Pest threats exacerbated by international trade

Pests covered include ash dieback (Chalara fraxinea) which is currently causing massive tree deaths in the United Kingdom and much of Europe; the blue-gum chalcid (Leptocybe invasa), which for the past decade has been spreading throughout Africa, Asia and the Pacific, Europe, Latin America and the Caribbean and the Near East; and the pinewood nematode (Bursaphelenchus xylophilus) which was introduced from North America into Asia and Europe.

Control costs for the pinewood nematode in Portugal alone were €24 million between 2001 and 2009. Japan annually spends around €10 million to control this pest, which is suspected to spread via wood packaging materials and untreated roundwood and sawnwood.

Easy to use

The course is presented in clear, simple language and is easy to navigate. It contains five modules covering everything from the possible threats to forest health associated with international trade to what information is needed to safely import/export forest products.

The course is based on the successful Guide to implementation of phytosanitary standards in forestry which was published by FAO's Forestry Department in 2011 with input from the IPPC Secretariat and a range of global experts on forestry and phytosanitary issues. Prior to release it was piloted in Zimbabwe.

The course was launched during the 8^th Session of the Commission on Phytosanitary Measures (CPM), IPPC's governing body, which taking place at FAO headquarters in Rome (8-12 April).   

• Strengthening information-gathering on how methyl bromide is currently being used for quarantine  purposes in order to identify opportunities for shifting to alternative measures
• Improving regional and international coordination regarding MeBr management
• Fostering information exchanges and cooperative research aimed at reducing emissions of the gas and developing alternative phytosanitary treatments
• Promoting best fumigation practices in order to minimize MeBr emissions and encourage wider use of methyl bromide recovery and recycling technologies.

Fast facts: Methyl Bromide

A colorless gas at room temperature, methyl bromide both occurs naturally and is manufactured. Marine organisms are estimated to produce 1-2 billion kilograms of it each year; MeBr is also released in small quantities by some terrestrial plants. For agricultural and industrial use, the gas is manufactured by reacting methanol with hydrogen bromide.

MeBr has potent insecticidal, fungicidal and herbicidal properties, and since the 1950s has been widely used around the globe on farm, during crop production, to control a number of pests in a broad range of crops and wood products and is particularly important for phytosanitary purposes as a quarantine treatment.

When used as fumigant, methyl bromide is applied in concentrations that are acutely toxic to these pests - as well as to people. Handled properly, human health risks can be managed. It is the gas's role in depleting the ozone layer that has attracted the most concern.

In 1991 methyl bromide was identified by the Montreal Protocol as contributing to the depletion of the ozone layer.

However, the Protocol does allow for MeBr's use as a quarantine treatment.. The exemption requires that treatment be either performed or authorized by a national plant, animal, or environmental protection or health authority and target officially recognized quarantine pests which represent a significant potential threat to the export destination.

These quarantine fumigations can occur on farms, or central processing facilities, in lumber mills, silos or warehouses for products such as farm or construction equipment and machinery, lumber, fresh flowers and bulb, grains and cereals, hay, straw and cotton, perishable fruits, and wood products.

Fumigations performed during production, for non quarantine pests,  are not exempted from phase-out under the Montreal Protocol, and as a result the past decade has seen a steady decline in the use of MeBr .

A manual published by the UN Food and Agriculture Organization aims to help countries minimize the risks to public health, while protecting the vital role that bats play in agriculture and the environment.

The guide, "Investigating the Role of Bats in Emerging Zoonoses: Balancing Ecology, Conservation and Public Health Interest," is a hands-on reference to bat history, biology, monitoring, handling, and disease screening. The text is especially relevant as diseases transmitted by bats appear to be on the rise for various reasons.

Agricultural expansion and the use of natural resources are encroaching on bat-occupied territories, leading to increases in the interaction between bats, livestock and people. Understanding the changes that affect these populations is critical to addressing the risks, and limiting the exchange, of viruses between species.

The publication is designed for use by epidemiologists, wildlife officials, farmers, livestock veterinarians, zoologists, and any number of different professionals who might come into contact with bats. It was written by veterinarians, wildlife biologists, virologists, and disease experts, and includes field techniques for studying bats and infectious agents that do not cause disease in bats, but which can cause other animals or humans to become sick.

Natural allies in farm production

"Bats really are natural allies to the environment. They pollinate plants, spread seeds, and some species can devour about 25 percent of their body weight in insects. These benefits far outweigh their potential for transmitting disease. Yet, we cannot ignore the fact that development, demographics, and consumption of natural resources are bringing people, livestock and bats into closer and more frequent contact with one another. This increases the risk that bats can transmit potential pathogens and associated diseases to other animals and people," said Scott Newman, FAO wildlife veterinary epidemiologist, and co-author of the guide.

In the Philippines, the pollination provided by bats is crucial to maintaining ecosystems like the Subic Bay Forest Watershed Reserve. Government ministries responsible for Health, Agriculture and Wildlife have worked together to protect bat habitats while monitoring them to protect pigs and humans from disease spread.

Disease transmission

The bat manual is part of a broader effort by FAO and its partners to build awareness of the importance of wildlife to agriculture, ecosystems, and animal and human health.

In Malaysia and Bangladesh, fruit bats have been known to transmit Nipah virus, a previously unknown, contagious and deadly disease which was first recorded in pigs and humans in the 1990's. Disease studies showed that bats directly infected pigs in Malaysia, while in Bangladesh, humans picked up the virus primarily by ingesting date-palm sap that had been contaminated by bat excretions.

In Latin America, vampire bat-variant rabies causes a significant number of human deaths each year. In Southeast Asia and Africa, bats are being evaluated for the role they play in Ebola outbreaks.

Fruit bats from the order Pteropodidae are the animal reservoirs for Ebola, which can cause a deadly hemorrhagic disease in humans and other mammals.  Outbreaks of Ebola in human populations are relatively rare, but mortality rates can reach up to 90 percent.

"It's important to realize that, while bats may pose a risk to human health, in most cases, disease exposure from bats is usually a result of human activity. This means that we can study bats and learn healthier ways to share our farms, forests and communities with them," Newman added.

"The new guide supports countries in their efforts to improve management of bats' natural habitats while ensuring the health of humans, livestock and other wildlife species."

Balancing act

FAO's new manual looks at these concerns within a One Health approach. One Health is a framework that addresses zoonotic diseases by using a multi-disciplinary perspective to understand and monitor the connections between different species and their agro-ecological habitats, with the aim of protecting the health of all.

"FAO has started using the bat manual for capacity development in keeping with the One Health concept, specifically in the Field Epidemiology Training Programme for Veterinarians (FEPTV). We plan to distribute this manual to our member countries in Eurasia, Africa and the Americas," says Newman.

The new manual will also be used in regional disease-monitoring projects being implemented by FAO and partners in Thailand, the Philippines, and Vietnam. The projects will study how the interface between wildlife, livestock and humans can affect the spread of Henipah, Lyssa and Corona viruses - all pathogens capable of causing illness and death in domesticated animals and humans.

Investigating the Role of Bats in Emerging Zoonoses: Balancing Ecology, Conservation and Public Health Interest" was produced, in part, with financial support from the government of Australia, APHCA, and technical and in-kind support from various partners.

• reduced use of chemical pesticides and select natural ones
• pheromone traps that lure the insects by mimicking potential mates
• the release of natural enemies (predators and parasitoids of the tomato borer)
• the use of insect-proof screens and double doors in greenhouses
• nursery management and insect-free planting materials
• removal of infested crops and wild host plants
• rotating crops with non-solanaceous varieties that do not appeal to the insect.

"Pheromones have long been used in various countries for monitoring and mass trapping. It's considered economical, it's easy to use, and it has been well accepted by farmers," Alrouechdi said.

"The use of pheromone traps, collectively by farmers, to eliminate insects using what we call the attract-and-kill method is one of our most promising options," he added.

FAO promotes IPM as the preferred approach to crop protection and pesticide risk reduction, as it offers farmers and policy makers viable alternatives to manage pests and agricultural ecosystems for a more sustainable future.

Groups of locusts have recently been found in northern Niger, arriving from infestations further north.

FAO says locust-control efforts in the region are being hindered by continued insecurity along both sides of the Algerian-Libyan border. Political insecurity and conflict in Mali could also hamper monitoring and control efforts if the locusts reach that country.

Locust infestations were first reported in southwest Libya near Ghat in January 2012 and in southeast Algeria. 

In late March, FAO warned that swarms could arrive in Niger and Mali by June. Continued rains and the resulting growth of vegetation led to the formation of swarms by mid-May.

“How many locusts there are and how far they move will depend on two major factors – the effectiveness of current control efforts in Algeria and Libya and upcoming rainfall in the Sahel of West Africa,” said Keith Cressman, FAO Senior Locust Forecasting Officer.

Both Algeria and Libya have been working hard to treat infested areas, covering a total of 40 000 hectares in Algeria and 21 000 hectares in Libya as of the end of May.

"In a normal year, Algeria and Libya would have been able to control most of the local swarms and prevent their movement towards the south, but insecurity along both sides of the Algerian-Libyan border is getting in the way of full access by local teams and by FAO experts who need to assess the situation. Libya’s capacity to carry out control efforts has also been affected in the past year,” Cressman explained.

Niger last faced Desert Locust swarms during the 2003-05 plague that affected farmers in two dozen countries.

The FAO Commission for Controlling the Desert Locust in the Western Region (CLCPRO) has provided $300 000 in funding to tackle locust infestations in Libya, and FAO has added an additional $400 000 to address the problem.

• Development of a regional response plan in consultation with countries at risk of eastward spread of SAT2 from Egypt and westward spread from Libya.
• Facilitating a series of meetings among veterinary officials from the Middle East, North Africa, and southern Europe to promote coordinated action and effective implementation of the response plan.
• Working through the FAO/OIE Crisis Management Centre for Animal Health (CMC-AH) and the EuFMD Commission to provide technical support to Egypt in managing its SAT2 epidemic.
• Training veterinarians from the region in taking virus samples and diagnostic methods to identify the SAT2 strain of FMD. A supply of ELISA diagnostic kits, which are easy to use, were also supplied to veterinarians working in high risk areas of Egypt and countries to its east, including Israel, Jordan and the Palestinian territories, including the West Bank.

FMD, which affects most cloven-hoofed mammals, has devastating effects on meat and milk production and can cause mortalities among pregnant and young animals. It does not pose direct human health risks, but milk or meat from infected animals should not be consumed, as any livestock products entering the food chain should come only from healthy animals.

According to latest estimates on the ground some 300 000 ha of locust-infested territory needs to be treated from November 2011 to May 2012 at a cost of $7.6 million.

“We must break the locust population dynamics in order to prevent further developments that could affect the island for years and seriously impact on the livelihoods of two thirds of the population, or 13 million people,” said FAO Locust Officer Annie Monard, who is coordinating anti-locust operations in Madagascar. 

Locust upsurge

Since August 2010 FAO, together with the United Nations Central Emergency Response Fund (CERF) and USAID has been helping the Malagasy Locust Control Centre (CNA) contain populations of Malagasy Migratory Locusts following an upsurge in March of last year.

After training and formation of national teams, anti-locust operations were concentrated in the months from October 2010 to April 2011, corresponding to the rainy season and the locust breeding period. Some 200 000 hectares (ha) infested by locusts were sprayed by helicopter while ground-based control measures were deployed over 27 000 ha and are continuing. 

The 2010-2011 campaign was based on a three-part action plan providing for: strengthening of national survey and control capacities; protection of human health and the environment; and evaluation of the campaign and of locust impact on food security. 

Biopesticide

In addition to conventional pesticides, a biopesticide based on a fungus that is lethal to locusts and grasshoppers was used for the first time on a large scale. 

While such efforts prevented the 2010 locust upsurge escalating into a plague, with disastrous consequences on crops and livelihoods, weather and ecological conditions in the first half of this year triggered a renewed buildup of locust populations over large parts of southwestern Madagascar.

Funds, $7.6 million, are urgently needed to launch a new campaign of locust-infested territory treatment to coincide with the next rain and breeding period (November 2011-May 2012). 

“We must respond quickly to this locust upsurge,” said Monard. “Preventive control is the best and most cost-effective way of dealing with locusts in a sustainable manner.”

In parallel with the emergency campaign, FAO is also about to start a two-year project funded by the French Development Agency AFD in order to help Madagascar prepare a longer-term locust contingency plan. 

• Continued building of capacities in key institutions, including better functioning veterinary services with the necessary powers to implement essential control measures and regulations
• Sustainable adjustments to the poultry sector to reduce the risks of disease and infection in settings where commercial poultry production and marketing practices carry high risks of HPAI
• Effective engagement of private-sector stakeholders (including industrial poultry producers) in risk reduction efforts
• Sustained political commitment
• The application of appropriate interim control measures, including vaccination, to contain infection.

The strategy also stresses that all points in the production and marketing chain should be examined to assess areas of risk, and that special attention must be paid to alleviating the impact of control measures on vulnerable human populations.

FAO's HPAI Global Programme

Over the past seven years, FAO's collaborative HPAI Global Programme has contributed significantly to limiting the impact of the disease, establishing stronger national systems, and strengthening regional coordination for disease preparedness, prevention and control.

The programme has been implemented through 170 projects, actively involving more than 130 countries that have benefitted in terms of inputs for direct disease control, laboratory and farm detection systems, capacity building, vaccines, vaccination strategies and prevention measures that have kept the disease out.

• Thorough surveillance to locate and map disease clusters
• Protecting unaffected farms through movement controls and biosecurity measures
• Adequate sampling in order to correctly identify the virus strain or strains involved
• Improving biosecurity measures to prevent further spread of the disease
• The strategic use of the appropriate vaccines to contain and isolate disease clusters

• Standardisation of reporting and sampling methodologies to current best science-based practices;

• Continued and broader surveillance of wild bird populations, along with improving understanding of migration routes, habitat use, and movements;

• Strengthening of capacity do that those conducting outbreak investigations can evaluate the source of virus introduction;

• Education efforts to reduce indiscriminate blame of wild birds for outbreaks in poultry.

Fringe benefits for wildlife conservation

One of the side benefits of the unprecedented monitoring effort undertaken by FAO and its partners has been a wealth of new information regarding habitat use and migration patterns and routes of some species of wild birds.

"The data were generated so that we could better evaluate possible linkages between wild bird migrations and the occurrence of H5N1, but should prove a tremendous value in terms of identifying and prioritising wetlands of critical importance for conservation and management", said Newman.

The challenge for governments, with FAO assistance, is to review measures to be taken in the veterinary realm, despite the fact that “there is currently no evidence to suggest that the novel human-to-human transmitted H1N1 influenza virus is circulating in pigs in Mexico or anywhere else in the world, reasserted FAO Chief Veterinary Officer of FAO, Mr. Joseph Domenech. He added that “given current facts and scientific understanding, consumption of pig meat does not bring any increased risk to the consumer."

It is for these reasons that FAO, the World Health Organization and the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) agreed to no longer refer to “swine flu” but instead to "Influenza A/H1N1".

“Stepping up swine influenza control measures in pigs, in the absence of the A/H1N1 virus, such as control of movements and culling, is not justified,” said Joseph Domenech. However, he recommended that pig disease surveillance be reinforced in order to detect, identify and monitor any new event which could be related to this new A/H1N1 virus circulation in humans.