General summary for the countries of the Former Soviet Union

Geography, climate and population

The total area of the FSU is about 22.3 million km², which is almost 17% of the total area of the world (Tables 1). The Russian Federation alone covers 17.1 million km², which is almost 13% of the total area of the world. Kazakhstan, with an area of 2.7 million km², covers 2% of the total area of the world, while the remaining 13 countries combined also cover 2% of the total area of the world.

The total population of the FSU was about 293 million in 1996, which represents 5% of the world population (Tables 1). About 32% of the total population of the countries of the FSU is rural, compared with 54% for the whole world, varying from 24% in the Russian Federation to 54% in Central Asia. About 17% of the economically active population is engaged in agriculture, compared with 47% for the whole world, varying from 12% in the Russian Federation to 30% in Central Asia. This reflects the importance of agriculture in Central Asia, while industry is largely predominant in the northern regions of the FSU. The population density is 13 inhabitants/km², compared with 43 inhabitants/km² for the whole world, varying from 9 inhabitants/km² in the Russian Federation to 90 inhabitants/km² in the Caucasus. The population growth between 1995 and 1996 was less than 0.06%, compared with a world average of 1.4%. While in the 1980s the annual demographic growth rate was still positive, many countries of the FSU have shown a negative growth rate since independence in 1991. The main reason for this has been the difficult economic situation prevailing since independence, which has led to lower birth rates, and the migration of part of the population to other countries.

Russian Federation

The Russian Federation is the largest country in the world and its territory includes a wide variety of physical features. European Russia, which traditionally means the part of the Russian Federation to the west of the Ural mountains, and western Siberia are rather flat. The Ural mountains provide only a symbolic barrier between European Russia and Asian Russia, their mean altitude being only 500 m above sea level, with a peak at 1 894 m above sea level. In the south, between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, the area is more undulating until it reaches the foothills of the Greater Caucasus mountain range in the far south with a peak at 5 642 m above sea level. To the east of the western Siberian plains is the central Siberian plateau with high mountain ranges on the southern border with Mongolia. Eastern Siberia and the far east are dominated by several mountain ranges, which extend in a series of peninsulas and islands in the Pacific Ocean. The Kamchatka peninsula has 100 active volcanoes, the altitude of the highest being 4 800 m above sea level. The northern regions of both European and Asian Russia are inhospitable areas, much of the territory being covered by permafrost.

The climate of the Russian Federation is extremely varied. The central western regions have the same climatic conditions as central and eastern Europe, although in a more extreme form. There are wide temperature differences between summer and winter and there is considerable snow in winter. The average temperature in Moscow is 19°C in summer and -9°C in winter. In the south, along the Black Sea coast, the climate is more temperate. In the northern areas and in much of Siberia the climate is severe, with arctic winters and short, hot summers. Average temperatures in southern Siberia vary from 18°C in summer to -18°C in winter. In the far north of Siberia, the average winter temperature is -47°C. The far east combines the extreme temperatures of Siberia with some monsoon-type conditions. Average temperatures at the coast in the far southeast vary from 21°C in summer to -14°C in winter. Over a large part of the territory, temperature is a major constraint on cropping.

The average annual precipitation in the Russian Federation is about 590 mm, varying from less than 200 mm at the mouth of the Volga River in the southwest, to more than 1 000 mm in the mountains of the far east (Figure 4). Water is generally in excess in the northern regions, drainage being the main issue, while in the southern regions the lack of water during the cropping season makes irrigation necessary.

The population was almost 148 million in 1996, over 50% of the total population of the FSU. The population density was 9 inhabitants/km². In the Russian far east province, the population density was only 1 inhabitant/km².

Central Asia

The total area of the five Central Asian countries is almost 4 million km², which represents almost 18% of the area of the FSU. Kazakhstan alone covers 68% of this area of 4 million km² (Table 1). The relief in this region is extremely varied. In the east are the Tien Shan and Pamir mountain ranges. The highest mountain of the FSU, the Peak of Communism at 7 495 m above sea level, is located in the northern Pamirs in Tajikistan. Much of the mountain region is permanently covered with ice and snow and there are many glaciers. Mountain ranges in the south of the region include the earthquake prone Kopetdag range along the border with Afghanistan. In the northeast of the region lies the second largest crater lake in the world, the Issyk-Kul in the Kyrgyz Republic. On the border between the Kyrgyz Republic, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan is the Fergana valley, which is a major agricultural area in this region. In the southwest lies the Kara-Kum or Black Sand desert, which is one of the largest sand deserts in the world and which covers over 80% of Turkmenistan. Another large desert, the Kyzyl-Kum or Red Sand desert, extends over Kazakhstan and the north of Uzbekistan. The west of the region is dominated by the depressions of the Caspian Sea. The Aral Sea, in the central western part, is located on the border between Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. It is known to have become one of the world's most serious environmental disaster areas (see the section on the Aral Sea basin).

The climate in the region is continental, but varies considerably according to altitude. Average winter temperatures vary between -3°C and -20°C, but can fall below -45°C in the mountain regions in Tajikistan. Average summer temperatures vary between 19°C and 32°C, but often reach 50°C in the southeastern Kara-Kum in Turkmenistan.

The average annual precipitation in this region is 338 mm, varying from less than 70 mm in the plains and deserts to 2 400 mm in the mountains of central Tajikistan. One half of the total irrigated area of the FSU is located in Central Asia. The two major land quality problems related to irrigation in the region are the interrelated issues of salinity and waterlogging caused by high groundwater levels. This makes drainage important in this region.

The total population was almost 54.6 million in 1996, 18.6% of the total population of the countries of the FSU. The population density in this region was 14 inhabitants/km², with a minimum of 6 inhabitants/km² in Kazakhstan, which is less than half the population density of the FSU (Table 1).

Eastern Europe

The countries referred to as Eastern Europe (Belarus, Moldova and Ukraine) are located in the west of the FSU to the north of the Black Sea. Their total area is 845 000 km², which represents 3.8% of the total area of the FSU (Table 1). The north of this region is flat and low with numerous lakes, swamps and marshes. The southern part consists of steppe lowland, bordered by uplands to the west and southwest. The highest peak is 471 m above sea level in western Ukraine. This region is famed for its fertile black soils.

In the north of this region, the climate is continental, with average temperatures of 19°C in summer and -5°C in winter. In the south, the climate is temperate and very favourable for agriculture with long, warm summers and relatively mild winters. Average temperatures are around 21°C in summer and -5°C in winter.

The average annual precipitation is 547 mm, varying from 360 mm in the Crimean peninsula, where irrigation is necessary to satisfy the summer crop water requirements, to 1 600 mm in the Carpathian mountains of northwest Ukraine (Figure 4). Droughts are frequent in the southern areas. In the north of this region, drainage is more important than irrigation. In fact, irrigation is mainly found in areas where the groundwater level has fallen too much due to excessive drainage, so making also irrigation necessary.

The population was 66.4 million in 1996, 22.6% of the total population of the countries of the FSU. The population density was 78 inhabitants/km², six times the average population density for the FSU (Table 1).

Caucasus

The Caucasus includes Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia, and is located in the southwest of the FSU, between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. Its total area of 186 100 km², or 0.8% of the total area of the FSU, is only slightly larger than that of the Baltic States (Table 1). The region is located at the southern foothills of the Greater Caucasus mountain range, which is considered as the boundary between Europe and Asia. The highest peak in the region stands at about 5 000 m above sea level. Large areas around the Black Sea, the Caspian Sea and the river deltas are lowlands.

The climate varies from warm, humid, subtropical in the northeast near the Black Sea coast, with average temperature in summer of 22°C and in winter of 5°C, to typical dry continental, with average summer temperatures up to 27°C.

The average annual precipitation is 735 mm, varying from 200 mm in the Ararat valley in central Armenia to 1 700 mm in western Georgia (Figure 4). In the southern and eastern parts of this region irrigation is necessary, but drainage is also required in large areas to reduce irrigation induced salinization. In the high rainfall region of western Georgia drainage is important.

The population was 16.7 million in 1996, 5.7% of the total population of the countries of the FSU. With 90 inhabitants/km², the population density in this region is the highest of the FSU (Table 1).

Baltic States

The total area of the three Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania), located in the northwest of the FSU, is 174 900 km², which represents 0.8% of the total area of the FSU (Table 1). The region is mainly flat along the coast and somewhat undulating farther inland. The highest elevation is 312 m above sea level. There is a dense network of waterways in this region and there are numerous lakes and marshes.

The climate is influenced by the region's position between the Eurasian land mass and the Baltic Sea. Average temperatures are around 17°C in summer and -5°C in winter.

The average annual precipitation is 716 mm, varying from 500 mm in parts of Lithuania to 850 mm in the uplands of Latvia (Figure 4). In this mainly low-lying, flat region, drainage is more important for agriculture than is irrigation. Large areas can only be cultivated intensively if drained. Irrigation is generally limited to supplementary irrigation.

The population was 7.7 million in 1996, 2.7% of the total population of the countries of the FSU. The population density was 44 inhabitants/km², more than three times that of the FSU (Table 1).

Organization of the agricultural sector