Posted March 1998
By Wendy Truelove
Communications Consultant
Extension, Education and Communication Service (SDRE)
FAO Research, Extension and Training Division
Distance education, which began solely using print material, now utilises a vast array of media including the latest information and communication technology, the Internet. With such a range of different technologies available, the questions arise-- what are the differences between media and how to select between media for distance education?
This report discusses factors for selecting distance education media under the following headings: learner, circumstantial, subject matter and teacher-student interaction pathways. Questions for reflection, which aim to aid in the selection of media, are then proposed.
This model has been developed for the purpose of assisting in the selection of media for distance education specifically in agriculture. It has been reviewed by a panel of distance education practitioners and experts who provided valuable information and insights for the revision of the original version.
The proposed model strives to account for a wide range of factors for different distance education settings, however, it is conceded that it is impossible to account for absolutely all factors which should be considered when selecting distance education media. It is hoped that this model will serve as a guide for distance education practitioners to assist in the selection of media for their specific situations.
There is an increasing number of media available for distance education due to technological advances, decreasing costs and increasing ease of use of technologies and the creation of new uses for existing media.
With greater choices available for distance learning media, the decision of which media to use is more complex. Further, there may be a temptation to adopt the newest or most sophisticated level of technology available or affordable.
The guidelines set forth here attempt to aid the decision of which media to employ based on a number of characteristics inherent in the media, the learners, the situation, subject matter and desired teacher-student interaction pathways.
The model aims to articulate considerations for using different media to assist the distance educator to make a decision aware of the capabilities and limitations of their choice.
A review of current literature was conducted to assess the types of media utilised for distance education in general as well as specifically in agriculture. Literature on agricultural extension was also drawn from, due to similarities of this field with distance education.
A number of practitioners were consulted in the development of the draft of the model. After preliminary review by staff of FAO, a number of practitioners were invited to review the model. On the basis of the comments received, the model was reviewed to the version that appears in this Report.
Definition: In general, definitions are in agreement on these basic principles (compiled from the University of Wisconsin-Extension home page, 1997 - http://www.uwex.edu/disted/definition.html):
There is much variation within the distance learning environments with respect to such things as:
Distance education programs may be formal (associated with an institution and accredited) or non-formal. An entire course (degree program, diploma course) may be offered through distance education or single courses within a larger program of study.
History: Distance education is not a new phenomenon; it has been a mode of teaching and learning for at least the past one hundred years (Moore & Kearsley, 1996). The first distance learning was known as "correspondence education" and used printed course material delivered by post (Saba 1997).
Future: The demand for distance education courses in general, and for distance education courses in agriculture specifically, is likely to increase in the future. Studying by distance education can be a cost effective alternative to full-time study. Distance education eliminates the costs of travel to, and residence in the vicinity of, the study institution and can take place while continuing full-time employment (Redclift and Smith 1996). For those working in agriculture who are required to continually upgrade their qualifications but are unable to leave their jobs to engage in full-time study, distance learning offers an alternative.
Agriculture today is becoming increasing sophisticated, using new and rapidly changing technologies. This is coupled with increased need to understand environmentally sustainable farming practices and regulations such as compulsory certification for some practices (e.g. pesticide sprays). These new demands mean there is a need for continual knowledge updating.
The Greek philosopher Aristotle divided human knowledge into three categories of discipline (Blum 1996):
Modern agriculture operates in a complex and dynamic environment subject to a number of influences such as social, economic, environmental factors. Looking at Aristotle's categories above, modern agriculture is not restricted to a single category but draws heavily from all the categories which reflects its interdisciplinary nature.
The diverse nature of the field of "agriculture" creates challenges to teaching this topic in both face-to-face and in distance education settings. Often agricultural studies have an important applied or "hands-on" component in addition to a theoretical component. For example there are differences in the way theory and practical components can be delivered most effectively.
What are the unique characteristics of students in agriculture? In general students of agriculture are from rural backgrounds. Choosing to work in the field of agriculture demonstrates a commitment to more than a vocational area or a profession because, unlike many other occupations, agriculture is a way of life (Blum 1996).
There is a large range of media available for distance education which raises the question: which media is best? The simple answer to this question is that no media is better than another (FAO 1989, Ray 1987). Further, there is agreement that a media mix may often be more effective and efficient than any single medium (Schramm 1977, Gottschalk TH 1996 (1)) and there is no single most effective media combination for all situations (Ray 1987).
Distance education is usually carried out in one of the following three ways:
A number of different factors have been identified by researchers and practitioners for consideration when selecting media. A number of factors for consideration have been grouped as follows:
Prior to discussing these factors, a word about media biases. A "media bias" is an unjustified preference for one media over another for reasons unrelated to the above factors. A media bias may arise from a high level of familiarity with a particular media, lack of interest in utilising another media etc. When a bias for a particular media exists, instead of asking "what is the appropriate media for a particular distance learning situation", the question asked is "what course can be developed using this media" (Elliot 1989). Fedale's (1990) warning that in development, in many instances the needs of the potential target audience are subjugated to a particular technology, is equally applicable in distance education. To avoid a bias for a particular medium, the focus of the educator should be teaching and learning and the media should be considered merely a tool which is used in a given situation.
Learner factors which could influence media selection include: the cost to students, for example a video cassette may be cheaper to purchase than a large printed text book. The cost of the equipment necessary to utilise the media must also be considered. Using the previous example, it may be cheaper to purchase a video tape than a large printed manual, but the cost to purchase /access a television set and video player to view the video cassette should be taken into account. The initial cost of purchasing the manual may be higher, but it is the only cost associated with using this medium.
The credibility of the media with the learner is an important consideration (FAO 1989). For example, some learners may consider information presented in books more credible than information on the radio which tends to be a more informal medium. The present and prior exposure to a medium will affect this perception (Ray 1987, Crowder 1990). Iams and Marion (1991) found television, radio, and newspapers are the preferred sources of educational information on energy conservation; and pamphlets, correspondence courses, and recorded telephone messages appear to be the preferred information sources for financial and health management education.
The medium should enhance, not compete with, the content for the learner's attention. Overestimation of the importance of the media and underestimation of the importance of media adaptation to local conditions and the relevancy of message content to local recipients is a common mistake in extension (Crowder 1990).
Some media assume certain skills in learners. For example, text materials assume literacy and computer tools assume computer competency.
The level of familiarity of learners with the subject matter will affect the treatment of the information (in-depth/ brief). A low level of familiarity with the subject will require more thorough treatment and students may need to refer back to the material a number of times to master it. A high level of familiarity will require a less detailed coverage, potentially favouring different media.
Major characteristics which Evans (1984) considers for extension campaigns (age, sex, level of education, financial resources, facilities, occupation) may be equally applicable to distance education programs.
Circumstantial factors include those affecting both learners and educators, hence apply to both the production and use of media. Included under this heading are: the availability of technical assistance (Ray 1987) and funds.
The social and economic systems in which media functions and how those systems influence media access, exposure and impact. These systems should be considered as well as simply how individuals respond to media and messages (Crowder 1991).
Certain infrastructure is required for some media, for example electricity, a radio station and Internet access. Access to some media will be affected by policies and regulations. In some places the use of certain media (e.g. radio and Internet) by groups other than the government is restricted or prohibited. When using communication technologies in rural areas, how access is controlled and who by; who decides what information systems can be made available and to whom must be established (Norrish 1997).
The nature of the subject matter will lend itself to different media (Gottschalk TH 1996 (1)). Further, different components of the subject may be distinguished, such as a theory and a practical component. Take a pesticide safety course as an example. Complex details, such as dosage rates and first aid instructions, are suited to a media which archives the information for easy reference, such as a booklet or manual. The practical component, of pest identification and spray application methods, lends itself to a visual media, such as diagrams, photos or video. A subject matter with and auditory component (e.g. language training for extension workers) lends itself to audiocassettes or radio.
The cost and ease of updating varies between media, so the frequency of change in subject matter may be a consideration. For example a Web page can be updated instantly with a minimal cost associated (generally time is the major investment and the cost is the same, regardless of the number of students). Conversely, reprinting course manuals involves layout, paper, printing and distribution costs and increases with the number of students.
This heading refers to two types of interaction (1) the interaction between the learner and the learning material and (2) the interaction between learner and teacher. This heading attempts to simplify the concepts of "learning strategy", "teaching method" etc.
(1) The interaction between the learner and the learning material
Reading or observing is not enough; learners have to do something with the learning material because it is through interaction between learner and learning materials that promotes thinking and individual interpretation (Steinberg). Exposure to media alone does not create change but discussion is an essential element in the process (FAO 1989) as it encourages the student to actively engage with the course material.
The extent to which the student engages with the learning material depends largely on the nature of the learning materials (Steinberg) but there are a number of different ways media can be employed to increase interaction with the material. For example, a radio broadcast may be used to present a particular educational message. Simply listening to the program (passive) may result in shallow knowledge of the topic. Incorporating questions into the radio broadcast can increase the depth of exploration of the topic by the learner (active) and result in a deeper level of understanding. The chief source of variance in learning results as much from differences within media as between media utilisation (Schramm 1977).
Examples of within media utilisation to increase interaction with learning materials are given in Table 1 (below). The examples in Table 1 are usually pre-programmed (i.e. done in advance without the input of the students).
| Media | Ways to increase interaction with subject matter with different media |
|---|---|
| Include: - self-assessment activities - interactive exercises where learners are instructed to perform an activity and report it - questions about the content submitted to the teacher - feedback mechanisms between the student and teacher - possible examination questions | |
| Tapes |
- pose questions for individual consideration or for group discussions at the end of sections - build in exercises - ask student to repeat words, phrases, sounds etc. aloud |
| Radio | pre-recorded program as above |
| Radio live broadcast | as above, but also request learners to send in comments (writing, recorded in audio-cassettes) which are announced/ discussed in following broadcast (like Farm Radio Forum in Canada) incorporate a phone-in session for questions, discussion |
| Video cassette |
- include short segments with clear stopping points for discussion, thoughts, writing etc. - build in questions and activities for viewers |
| Television |
include: - short segments with clear stopping points for discussion, thoughts, writing etc. - build in questions and activities for viewers - use listening groups of just students or with tutors for discussion of interpretations, thoughts etc. |
| Video-conferencing | arrange segments with clear stopping points for discussion, thoughts, writing etc. which could involve student listening groups |
| Computer | include exercises with feedback mechanisms (message of encouragement) |
| Internet |
- same as for print and audio and visual if these features are used - ask students to conduct research on Internet from sources other than course Web pages |
Different approaches to the material (e.g. theoretical, practical, problem solving or memorisation approach) can favour particular media. Similarly, the evaluation method selected (multiple choice, essay, oral test, self evaluated) could also influence the choice of media.
(2) The interaction between learner and teacher
A trend in distance education is, where possible, to increase the level of interactivity of the learning experience to reduce student's sense of isolation, increase exploration of subject matter and promote sharing of different perspectives and views.
There are many possible pathways of interaction between the "teacher" and the "learners". Examples of some interaction pathways are illustrated in Diagram 1.
In Diagram 1, figure (A) represents the most simple interaction, a one-way communication from the teacher to learners. Figure (B) represents a feedback loop between teacher and learners. Figure (C) shows multi-directional communication through teacher-learner and learner-learner pathways.
Where feedback is given (e.g. in B and C above), it can be differentiated by its nature (preprogrammed or personalised) and its speed (immediate as with preprogrammed responses in computer programs, or delayed as in the case of feedback which is posted).
A single medium can potentially be used a number of ways to facilitate a number of different teacher- learner interaction pathways. Some are proposed in Table 2.
| - Pre-prepared answer sheets sent by post (A)* - Individual feedback provided by post (B) | |
| Audio Cassette | Feedback exchanged by post (B) |
| Radio, pre-recorded | Radio broadcast (A) |
| Radio, live | - Radio phone-in: student to broadcaster (B) - Radio phone-in with party line (C) - Students send input to teacher after broadcast which is compiled and presented in next session (like Farm - Radio Forum in Canada) (C) |
| Video Cassette | Feedback exchanged by post (B) |
| Television | Feedback exchanged by post (B) |
| Video-conferencing | - Teacher and students exchange dialogue (in a number of one/two-way audio/visual combinations) (B) - Students interact with each other in discussion groups at receiving studio (C) - Students interact with students at other receiving studios (C) - Students send input to teacher after conference which is compiled and presented in next session (C) |
| Computer | Computer which gives feedback on inputted answers (correct / incorrect) (A) |
| Internet | - Email between teacher and learner (B) - Listserve/multi-address Emailing list (C) On-line chat (simultaneous) - two person/ multi-person (C) |
| * letter (A, B, C) corresponds to interaction pathway in Diagram 1 | |
The desired interaction pathway and the way the medium is employed to accommodate the interaction may be a consideration for selecting a media.
Naturally, each medium has inherent characteristics which define its strengths, limitations and capabilities for the delivery of distance education. For example television can transmit images whereas radio cannot. The inherent characteristics will influence the ability of the media to accommodate learner factors, circumstantial factors, the subject matter and desired interaction pathways.
A grouping of media suggested by Gerard (1997), distinguishes media into the following four categories:
This grouping is useful to highlight differences in utilisation within media because some media can fall into a number of categories. For example, radio could appear in both group 2 and 3, depending on the way it is utilised (pre-recorded programming versus live radio). Similarly, the Internet is both computer based and in the case of on-line chat sessions, real-time.
In this report, however, media are grouped and discussed by type. The following media are discussed:
Media can be described with respect to: forms of symbolic representation (text, diagrams, pictures, photographs, voice etc.), common pathways of communication between teacher and students (Diagram 1), how they are produced and updated, cost to produce, cost to student, mode of distribution/ delivery, equipment and skills required to use, and dependence on place and time for delivery. Using these characteristics, it is hoped that differences between media (such as those presented by Gerard (1997)) are noted.
The media above are considered separately, however there are many overlaps. For example, with the Internet we see the "convergence" of a number of media that were previously considered quite separate as they involved specialised or dedicated equipment. The Internet has the capability to deliver text, audio and video (many of the strengths, weaknesses and comments for these other media apply to the Internet if these capabilities are utilised).
When selecting media, the priority given to each of the factors discussed above (learner, circumstantial, subject matter and desired interaction) differs in the literature. According to Schramm (1977), the rational choice of media should consider the task, learning effectiveness of different media for the task, and cost comparisons of the media. Elliot (1989) gives priority to the selection of the teaching message and the learning strategy over the nature of the media but recognises that this is not always possible. Gottschalk (1996 (1)) states that although "technology plays a key role in the delivery of distance education, educators must remain focused on instructional outcomes, not the technology of delivery. The key to effective distance education is focusing on the needs of the learners, the requirements of the content, and the constraints faced by the teacher, before selecting a delivery system". There is general agreement that the inherent nature of the media is not a primary consideration for its selection.
The following model, represented diagrammatically in Diagram 2 (below) is proposed for selecting media for distance education.
Diagram 2 attempts to show that the inherent nature of the medium will affect how it can accommodate learner factors, circumstantial factors, the subject matter and desired interaction pathways. Each set of factors act as a "filter" which media must pass through in order to be considered for selection.
To help select which media to use a range of available media are considered for a given situation (e.g. a set of learner factors). The media which match this situation are then tested against another situation (e.g. a set of circumstantial factors). Depending on the preferences of the distance educator, just some of the "filters" may be used to help select media, or all may be used. Similarly, the order of "filters" may be changed to aid selection. New "filters", or sets of factors may be added by the distance educator to describe the unique characteristics of their situation and to aid their decision.
Using this model, in a situation where no media meets all the criteria, the points at which media do not match the situation can be identified and given extra consideration.
To determine if the media meet the set of conditions for each of the factors, a series of questions are suggested as guidelines for reflection. These questions are presented as a starting point for the distance educator to develop their own set of questions/criteria specific to their situation.
| audio cassette | radio | video cassette | TV | video conf. | computer | Internet | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| pre- recorded | live | ||||||||
| Eliminate the media which you can not afford to produce | |||||||||
| Eliminate the media which you do not have access to the equipment and technical capability necessary for their production | |||||||||
| Eliminate those media which you cannot deliver (post, broadcast etc.) | |||||||||
| Eliminate media which are not permissible (due to laws, policies, regulations) | |||||||||
All media available for distance education may best in certain cases, and all may be worst in certain cases, either singly or in combination with other media. There are a number of factors which should be given consideration when selecting a media for distance education in agriculture, including the learners, the circumstances of learners and educators, the subject matter and the desired teacher-student interaction pathways. These factors are highly interrelated.
The model and the set of questions proposed in this report are not exhaustive, but are intended to serve as one way to approach the complex task of selecting media for distance education.
To develop this work further, the following may be undertaken:
Behrens JH and Evans JF (1984) Using mass media for extension training, Chapter 10 in Swanson BE (1984) Agricultural Extension: A reference manual, 2nd edn, FAO Rome
Blum A (1996) Teaching and learning in agriculture: a guide for agricultural educators, FAO, Rome
Cavanaugh C (1997) Technology and media, Distance Education Guidelines for K-12, http://www.coedu.usf.edu/~ccavanau/projects/page7.html
Crowder LV (1991) Is there a communications media bias in development projects?, Journal of applied communications, 75(2): 20
Elliot S (1989) Distance education systems, FAO Economic and social development paper 67, FAO Rome
Evans JF (1984) Planning Extension campaigns, Chapter 8 in Swanson BE (1984) Agricultural Extension: A reference manual, 2nd edn, FAO Rome
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FAO (1981) Guidelines for the planning, conduct and evaluation of the multi-media IEC field campaigns, FAO Rome
Fedale SV (1990) Examples of communications media bias in agricultural development programs, paper presented at the Agricultural Communications in Education (ACE) Conference, ST Paul Minnesota
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Gerard G (1997) Selecting Instructional Media for Distance Education, http://www.icdi.wvu.edu/rta/symp97/gerard.htm, Department of Special Education & Rehabilitation, Utah State University Logan, Utah
Gottschalk TH ed. (1996 (1)) Distance education at a glance, Guide 1: Distance Education: An Overview, University of Idaho, Engineering Outreach, http://www.uidaho.edu/evo/dist1.html
Gottschalk TH ed. (1996 (5)) Distance education at a glance, Guide 5: Instructional television, University of Idaho, Engineering Outreach, http://www.uidaho.edu/evo/dist5.html
Gottschalk TH ed. (1996 (6)) Distance education at a glance, Guide 6: Instructional audio, University of Idaho, Engineering Outreach, http://www.uidaho.edu/evo/dist6.html
Gottschalk TH ed. (1996 (7)) Distance education at a glance, Guide 7: Computers in Distance Education, University of Idaho, Engineering Outreach, http://www.uidaho.edu/evo/dist7.html
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Gottschalk TH ed. (1996 (11)) Distance education at a glance, 11: Interactive Videoconferencing in Distance Education, University of Idaho, Engineering Outreach, http://www.uidaho.edu/evo/dist11.html
Heeren E (1995) Technology Selection for Small-Group Collaborative Distance Learning, http://www-cscl95.indiana.edu/cscl95/heeren.html, Faculty of Educational Science and Technology, University of Twente
Iams DR and Marion MH (1991) Reactions to Alternative Delivery Methods: Cost effective environmental education options, Journal of Extension (29): 2
Keegan D (1990) Foundations of Distance Education (2nd Ed.) London: Routledge.
Moore M G & Kearsley G (1996) Distance Education: As systems view. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Norrish P (1997) New Technology and Rural Communities, paper submitted to the on-line conference on Participatory communcation: one approach to sustainable development?, http://www.PanAsia.org.sg/conferen.htm
Ray HE (1978) The basic village educational programming system, Washington DC: Academy for Educational Development
Redclift M and Smith P (1996) Distance education for environmental management at Wye College, "Training for agricultural and rural development 1995-1996", FAO Rome
Saba F (1997) Introduction to distance education, in the Distance Education Report, http://www.distance-educator.com/intro.htm
Schramm (1977) Big Media- Little Media
Steinberg S (date unknown) Media and tutor-learner interaction in distance education, http://www.unisa.ac.za/dept/press/comca/202/demedia.html
Taber MR, Takle ES and Fils D (1997) Use of the Internet for student self-managed learning, preprints, Sixth Symposium on Education, Long Beach, CA 2-7 February 1997, American Meteorological Society
Talke ES and Taber MR (1996) Use of the Web as a tool for interactive learning, submitted for presentation at WebNet-96, World Conference of the Web Society, San Francisco, October 16-19, 1996
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