SD: Knowledge : Agricultural Education and Training: Issues and Opportunities

Posted May 1997

Agricultural Education and Training:
Issues and Opportunities - Part II

1. The role and challenges of agricultural education and training

The role of Government

Government participation in the direct management of educational institutions varies considerably from country to country. However, the overwhelming majority of higher and intermediate level institutions where agriculture is taught in the developing countries are dependent on government. In general, objectives, organizational structure and resources are determined by national policies, which also define the relationships between education, research and extension. Under these conditions, agricultural education is essentially seen as an instrument of the agricultural and/or educational policy of the government and oriented towards national objectives as they are perceived and defined.

In many countries, especially those which have recently become independent and those that had centrally planned economies, agricultural education and training was designed mainly to prepare officers for the administrative and technical services for rural and agricultural development, state farms and training centres. This situation of close dependency on government led to a rigidity in programmes and teaching methods, staff recruitment and mobility.

Dependency on governments also affects operational budgets. Teaching resources, technical equipment and out-of-school activities are often cut back as national economic problems arise. Agricultural education institutions may not be allowed to obtain additional resources through advisory or commercial activities, although this situation has changed in recent years in some countries.

In general, the technical and vocational level institutions are the ones most closely tied to government policy and control. In contrast, agricultural faculties which are part of comprehensive universities usually enjoy the greatest level of freedom regarding government policy. The disadvantage this often brings is their difficulty in establishing and maintaining links with research and extension.

Universities, especially comprehensive ones, base their objectives mainly on two goals which may be contradictory. They try to meet both government directives (or national needs) and the institution's own desire for national and international recognition, especially in the fields of research and educational excellence. This problem was mentioned particularly in English-speaking Africa where universities try to balance both objectives, but where the latter can rarely be realised due to the constant "brain drain" of scientists. In Latin America, by contrast, international recognition often seems to have precedence over meeting government directives and national needs.

In Central and Eastern European countries, agricultural education institutions during the communist period depended heavily on government direction. The programmes were characterised by relatively rigid organization and methods, outdated programme contents and limited opportunity for student initiatives. Faculties of agriculture were frequently separated from universities and became small units often with very narrow specializations.

Institutions of higher education in some of the more advanced developing countries (e.g. some countries in Asia and Latin America) demonstrate relative independence from government authorities concerning their teaching and research policies. Even so, many of them still depend on public services for administration and budgetary resources. Although many countries give universities constitutional guarantees of autonomy, this is often not upheld in practice. The need to redefine the main functions of agricultural education and training, and to design new frameworks for the relationship with government authorities as a whole, was a major concern at all the round tables.

In Central and Eastern Europe, where countries are in a state of transition leading to market economies, agricultural education institutions face budgetary reductions and redefinition of their educational objectives now that the public sector offers much more limited employment opportunities to graduates. The institutions of countries in these regions also need to have their place and role in national agricultural development clarified. Many governments in these countries are now preparing alternative agricultural policies, and the time is opportune to address the role of agricultural education systems.

The impact of agricultural education and training on agricultural and rural development

The participants of the round table and expert consultation meetings felt that curriculum content is not sufficiently geared towards locally important problems and does not reflect the particular needs of the rural population. For example, the round table for Asia and the Pacific observed that current agricultural education and training programmes have not sufficiently taken into account the special problems and needs of small farmers and fisherfolk. The relevancy of agricultural curriculum was an issue in all of the meetings. The Caribbean round table noted that there is a need to make agricultural training more relevant to the changing demands of the region's economy generally and the agricultural sector specifically. In particular, participants suggested training should take account of the new emphasis on agricultural diversification instead of single commodity production.

Honduras
A key feature of the curricula is the importance accorded to practical training (20 hours per week of theoretical classes and 24 hours of laboratory training). After the ninth semester, students receive training in technical and administrative decision-making. Other characteristics of the training include a multi-disciplinary approach and research programmes oriented to the problems of poor, small-scale farmers.
- Jorge Roman, Characteristics of Agricultural Education and Training at the Pan-American Agricultural School, Latin American Regional Round Table, 1991.
The inaccessibility of the majority of small farmers to conventional high-technology agricultural production models proposed by higher education was mentioned by the Latin American round table. The model's appropriateness was said to be further limited by inadequate consideration of environmental issues.

Participants at the regional round table for the Near East considered the agricultural education systems in the region to be overly traditional and inadequate. They felt that environmental issues and social, economic and cultural development processes are not sufficiently linked with agricultural education. They also stressed the need for involvement of potential beneficiaries in the education process.

The representatives of Central and Eastern European countries also expressed the necessity for a reorientation of teaching and research programmes to meet the needs of local communities, for the participation of these communities in the formulation of the learning programmes, and for improving the level of communication among institutions.

According to the participants at the Anglophone Africa meeting, agricultural education and training strategies need to consider the implications of rapid population growth and the consequent increasing food requirements.

Participants at the meetings considered that institutions should have governing bodies with educational, administrative and financial autonomy to allow them to conduct their teaching, research and extension responsibilities with the greatest flexibility and efficiency.

It was also felt that autonomy should include the recruitment of teaching staff and the appointment of heads of the institutes. Furthermore:

The institutions should be able to re-evaluate their institutional objectives and not limit their activities to formal conventional education;
Admission regulations should be made more flexible to allow various types of students to be recruited; and
The institutions should be allowed to use income from selling farm produce and services for their own needs and for reinvestment.

The main concerns regarding the relevance and impact of agricultural education on rural development were:

Categories such as small and landless farmers, women farmers and fisherfolk are generally neglected;
Future beneficiaries and users need to be involved in defining objectives and programmes; and
There are too few links between the agricultural institutions and their socio-economic and cultural environments.

Participants at the meetings considered that in order for agricultural education institutions to interact more closely with rural environments they should:

Establish a unit to assess training programmes and undertake continual assessment of employment needs and opportunities;
Include sufficient representatives of agricultural enterprises and rural communities in the institutional governing bodies;
Make use of outside resource persons for teaching activities;
Establish a continuing education service; and
Participate more actively in research and extension activities.

Marginalization of the agricultural and rural sector

Due to increasing urbanisation, fed by out-migration from rural areas, governments often give priority to urban needs for health, education and social services at the expense of rural areas and the agricultural sector. Such action leads to even greater impoverishment in rural areas and leads to higher levels of migration. Without comprehensive rural development policies, rural populations are further marginalized by a more organized urban sector with a greater political voice. In all countries, regardless of their level of development, participants at the meetings observed an increasing marginalization of the agricultural economy and rural populations. It was felt that agricultural institutions are becoming increasingly isolated from the mainstream of national development and need to play a more dynamic role in rural development issues through better links with government and with other institutions. Countries in transition towards an industry-based economy, such as China and Korea, mentioned social problems arising from the rejection of the rural/ agricultural way of life by educated young people.

Important issues which need to be addressed include:

How to give agriculture students of urban origin a greater appreciation of rural life;
How to make agricultural education more accessible to rural youth (how to ensure that the sons and daughters of farmers have an opportunity to receive meaningful education in agriculture); and
How to make agricultural education more relevant to rural development.

In addition to problems of recruiting students into programmes of agricultural study, the marginalization of the rural world is demonstrated by changes in urban/rural relationships. The perceptions that urban people have of agriculture and rural activities are often divorced from reality. In general, urban populations view rural areas as suppliers of food and primary products to meet their consumption needs.

In response to these problems, some universities are adjusting their training objectives, making them more relevant to the current needs of agriculture and rural people. For example, they now are including in their programmes subjects such as marketing, biotechnology, computerisation, development communication systems, and non-agricultural rural land use.

The urban origin of agriculture students

One of the consequences of migration to the towns and cities from rural areas is the increasingly urban background of agricultural students, especially after several generations. Sometimes, students have limited interest in agriculture and enrol in agricultural courses only when they are unable to gain admittance into other programmes of study.

In Latin America, the Latin American Association for Higher Agricultural Education stressed that this urban origin of agricultural students is now so dominant, with students having so little knowledge and experience of rural areas, that it is becoming difficult to teach them. Introducing such students to rural life and village people often requires special education programmes.

The increasing number of students with urban backgrounds has led some institutions to look for ways to ensure that these students gain a practical understanding of the realities of rural and farm life. The round table for Latin America stressed the necessity for an early integration of students in rural life through practical training before final admission and a series of practical training periods during the course of study. The round table for the Near East stressed that agricultural universities and colleges should take into consideration the aptitude of students to adapt to rural conditions and assess their willingness to follow an agricultural career before admission to programmes of study.

Two examples of successful implementation of these practices are:

The Faculty of Agronomy of the University of Buenos Aires in Argentina which has organized a series of field seminars throughout its courses since 1981. All seminars are organized with the participation of farmers and farmers' organizations. This programme was supported by FAO.
The Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II, Morocco which conducts a system of practical field training periods as a fundamental part of its teaching programme. The practical work is carried out with rural people who take an active part in the students' work.

Improving the entry of rural young people into the agricultural education system

In many developing countries, rural young people find difficulty in obtaining a basic education of the same quality as urban youth, and hence the difficulty in gaining entrance to higher education institutions. This situation is unlikely to change as long as entrance to these institutions is based solely on academic qualifications which place rural young people in direct competition with better schooled urban youth. The result is a significant waste of human resources, since rural youth possess unique aptitudes and qualities for understanding of and work in the rural sector. The rural background make them well suited for professional and technical work in agriculture. Rural young men and women are a human resource which is not developed to its fullest potential.

Rural young women have a particular disadvantage in gaining access to agricultural education and training. Even when they receive a good basic education, they have less access to the secondary and higher education levels. In some cultures, increased numbers of female graduates are needed since only female extension agents are allowed to work directly with women farmers.

The low standards of general education in rural areas of developing countries make it difficult for rural young men and women to obtain the entry level qualifications for access to agricultural education, particularly at the higher levels. Ways to improve access by rural youth include short courses to up-grade students to the required standards, the provision of continuing education and specific 'bridges' between the various levels of education.

The round table for French-speaking Africa suggested that admission standards should be defined jointly by a number of groups according to the various types of training (formal education, up-grading or continuing education). These groups should include the agricultural education and training institutions together with the services responsible for development, the professional organizations and local communities.

The round table for Latin America considered that access to agricultural education for students from rural areas should also emphasise their experience and knowledge of the rural environment as opposed to only their academic qualifications. The round table for the Near East suggested identifying qualifications for students entering agricultural education according to their origin (i.e. rural areas or urban areas). It was also suggested that governments give students a better preparation by introducing agriculture into general education systems at the primary and secondary levels.

Rural illiteracy and the role of agricultural education and training

Although the right to education is acknowledged as one of the basic rights of children, many developing countries have not succeeded in bringing this about. Youth illiteracy, however, is primarily a rural problem (in Latin America rural illiteracy averages 31% compared to 7.6% in urban areas). It is in rural districts that the rates of school enrolments are lowest, the need to repeat years is most frequent and the drop-out rates highest.

In spite of recent initiatives, Sub-Saharan Africa and Southern Asia are the regions which have the lowest adult rates of functional illiteracy. Part of the problem is the lack of relevance to rural life of much of what is taught in rural schools. Teaching of basic literacy should be combined with teaching practical skills for rural employment and agricultural production.

The following are examples where integrated programmes have linked basic literacy with practical skills training are:

Since 1975, Guinea Bissau has conducted Senior Primary Education Courses for young people aged 12 to 16 years through Integrated Popular Education Centres (Centros de Educaÿao Popular Integrada). The approach relies on observation and experience of village life. Teaching is structured into four themes: agricultural production; health; handicrafts and processing techniques; and the rural community and its culture.

For more than 30 years, Burkina Faso has conducted a special education programme for young people from rural areas who have never been to school and, due to their age, will never have an opportunity for formal rural schooling. This system of Training Centres for Young Farmers links basic literacy courses with practical technical training. Training of three years duration is given in the villages and relies heavily on the rural community. The instructors are trained in a special institution. Two upper level centres then receive the best graduates from the 350 centres. The system has become so successful that some parents now prefer this programme to conventional schooling, and are pressing for even younger youth to be admitted to the centres. Some also consider these centres as a remedial system for admission into secondary level conventional institutions.

Senegal has Medium Level Vocational Training Centres which train about 45,000 students annually from the primary education level. The centres were established following a study of the needs and potential of the surrounding areas. Business and community leaders, as well as the parents of trainees, participate in the education programmes. The training is practical and oriented towards agriculture, handicrafts and household management. The centres are managed by a training co-ordinator who helps the instructors in the teaching of knowledge and skills. These co-ordinators are trained in a special three-year programme.

The 'ruralization' of basic and secondary education

The need for 'ruralization' of basic education in those areas where there is a significant rural population was frequently mentioned at the round tables, often in relation to the need for equitable development. The term 'ruralization' was used by the participants of to describe education at the same level as urban education, but with greater relevance to the rural sector and to rural youth.

A number of countries include an introduction to agriculture at the primary school level, particularly in English-speaking Africa. The practice of school gardens, sometimes supported by World Food Programme (WFP) projects, is widely practised in rural areas, but generally without technical support from extension officers or agriculturally trained teachers. This fragmentary approach is rarely sufficient because of a lack of resources and the inadequate training of teachers. It also does not meet the full need for a 'ruralization' of basic education in those countries or areas where there is a large rural population that has different educational needs from those of urban residents.

The round table for French-speaking Africa linked ruralization with the orientation of the education system towards self employment, distinguishing between two groups and the purpose of their training for employment, future opportunities, and place in modern society:

Young people who leave primary school either with or without completing the programme; and
Those who have never been to school and have limited opportunity of being admitted to the formal education system.

The participants in the meetings proposed that a rural educational system be developed according to the following principles:

Educational methods should be based on the observations, experience and environment (family, nature, commercial activities) of young people.
Educational activities should be linked to families, leaders and rural elders as holders of knowledge of the environment and cultural traditions.
Youth should be helped to acquire and structure knowledge, moving from observation to reflection and analysis. This should then lead to questions which will help them to consider rural change and progress, and their potential contributions.

There are few examples of rural education being conducted in this way; the cases that do exist are of isolated programmes on specific subjects. The participants at the meetings observed that, with some notable exceptions, agriculture is rarely satisfactorily taught in general education institutions, even in rural districts.

Agricultural education in secondary schools has been debated in many countries. Should it be seen as a vocational subject, or part of the mainstream educational curriculum? In both cases, the difficulty in finding and training competent teachers was mentioned by participants. Very interesting programmes of secondary school agriculture can be found in Kenya and Swaziland.

The cultural gap and extension work

In many cases the lack of relevance of agricultural education to the rural world is a problem for students graduating from the agricultural institutions. The gap between the methods and content taught and the rural socio-cultural context causes difficulties for graduates in establishing good communication with producers. This is especially serious for those with an urban background who go into extension work.

This situation calls for more interaction among academic staff of institutions of higher education in agriculture and members of the farming community. The development of mechanisms and channels of communication which institutionalize the process of developing, transferring and utilizing knowledge is of vital importance for the training of extension workers. Periodic curriculum review and revision keep the knowledge-base relevant and ensure that there will not be a "cultural gap" between extension workers and the ultimate beneficiaries of the knowledge base of farmers and rural dwellers.

Agricultural Education and Training: Issues and Opportunities - Part II