Posted March 1996
Case studies were commissioned to provide relevant information on the status, constraints and funding of agricultural research in four countries of eastern/southern Africa (Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania and Zimbabwe) and four countries of West Africa (Mali, Burkina Faso, Cote d'Ivoire and Nigeria). Depending on the situation and possibilities, the authors of the case studies were requested to concentrate on aspects respectively of public, private and consolidated funding of agricultural research. Brief synopses of the case studies follow.
Applied research activity is concentrated in the Institute of Agricultural Research and specific research areas are also served by centres for plant genetic resources, plant protection, forestry and livestock. Adaptive and developmental research is carried on under the auspices of ministries. Some relevant research is conducted at two universities and two junior colleges. Improved crop varieties, machinery and implements, and methods of livestock husbandry are useful outputs of past agricultural research, some of which have had a demonstrable impact on production.
Funding of agricultural research is mainly from the national (public) budget, averaging less than 1% of the total and about 11% of the agricultural budget over the past eight years. With budgets averaging 36% for personnel costs, 26% for operations and 38% for investment, costs incurred have been met from public funds to the extent of 45%, 34% and 21% respectively over the same period. Grant and loan funds were used to meet on average 20% of personnel costs and 10% of operating costs. In recent years, five commodity research programmes (for coffee, wheat, maize, sorghum and cotton) made up about 15% of the total agricultural research budget.
The main constraints to agricultural research have been lack of national policy, strategy and commitment, of a minimum critical mass of human resources in research disciplines, and of infrastructure maintenance. The needs are removal of these constraints and the setting of research priorities, an increase of allocated resources to adequate levels, means and mechanisms for coordination of the NARS and creation and use of a NARS-wide database, and institution of programme budgeting, all under a detailed master plan.
The Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) is the major institution undertaking research on agricultural commodities and farming systems. Separate research foundations exist for tea and coffee, and irrigation research is carried out outside KARI, as well as relevant research in the universities.
Investment in agricultural research stands at 2.1% of AgGDP, 1.4% of which comes from contributions by external donors. At 76% of allocations to KARI, personnel costs are considered too high in relation to operating costs, in part owing to progressive increases in staff for research (572 in 1993) and support to excessive levels. Acceptable ratios of personnel/operations costs prevail in coffee and tea research which is financed by a cess on these commodities. Private sector funding is estimated at 7% of total investment in agricultural research. KARI cooperates with private enterprises in some research areas.
Past achievements include improved crop plant varieties, crop production/protection technologies and livestock production/health technologies. Returns to investment in maize research are estimated at 68%. These achievements reflect continuing government priority for application of science and technology in order to meet the growing challenges from rapid population increase, declining natural resources, rising input costs, and impacts of structural adjustment programmes as well as of deteriorating terms of trade for Kenya's exports. This priority in the field of agriculture led to the reorganization of Kenya's NARS in the mid-1980s under a National Agricultural Research Project (NARP) set up in consultation with donors and revised recently in a Phase 2 extension to 1997.
A funding innovation created under the NARP is the Agricultural Research Fund, capitalized by major contributions from donors (US$500,000 from USAID and SDR 500,000 from the World Bank) and two small contributions for specific research from within Kenya. Objectives of the Fund include improving cooperation and collaboration between researchers of KARI and those working in other public institutions or in the private sector, and the focusing of research on problems and opportunities in Kenya's agriculture. The main use of the funds is for competitive grants to scientists. Researchers are encouraged to compete as well for grants available from external funding sources.
Prospects for increased funding of agricultural research from Kenyan sources is uncertain, especially while the influence of ongoing structural adjustment programmes is felt. Important needs are to reorganize the NARS contemporaneously with the expected decrease in the dominance of public sector research, to put emphasis on quality and capacity of researchers through graduate and postgraduate education and training in Kenyan universities, to ensure good coordination and increased collaboration in agricultural research and development, and to utilize regional research in some situations. The aim should be to adopt and implement an appropriate national research policy and strategy, a master plan that will suitably address research planning and programming, priority setting, and budgeting based on commitment to maintain strength in agricultural research.
The Department of Research and Training (DRT) of the Ministry of Agriculture is the lead institution of Tanzania's NARS, operating a network of institutions, centres and sub-stations for crop research, livestock research, farming systems research, and training and support services. Other constituents of the NARS are the Tropical Pesticides Research Institute, Sokoine University of Agriculture and the University of Dar-es-Salaam, and parastatal and private sector bodies for certain commodities (tea, wattle, sugar, barley, maize).
A National Agricultural Research Council and seven Zonal Advisory Agricultural Research Committees assist DRT and its zonal directors in establishing priorities, recommending funding levels, and monitoring progress in research and technology transfer. The structure and functions of DRT and of the advisory mechanisms constituting the main public sector NARS was devised under the National Agricultural and Livestock Research Project (NALRP) elaborated in the late 1980s jointly by the government and a group of donors. Initial activities under NALRP have been to place research in three categories of descending priority, and to produce a National Agricultural Research Master Plan (NARM).
Funding of agricultural research from the national (public) budget has been limited, in recent years accounting for about 25% of requirements, with donor contributions covering about 75%. Because of strong government commitment, however, agricultural research is receiving about 30% of the total budget allocated to the Ministry of Agriculture, and the intention is to raise funding to 1.0% of AgGDP from the current 0.5%. The funding ratio of 75%-donor/25%-government is expected to continue in effect for the duration of the NALRP, i.e. to 1997/98. DRT-donor meetings are held semi-annually to discuss and monitor funding related matters.
Additional limited funds for research, including research executed by DRT, come from the private sector and commodity/marketing parastatals. The contribution made by international agricultural research centres and by regional and international research networks (e.g. through training, germplasm, information and guidance, and small sums for operations) is substantial though not quantifiable.
An Agricultural Research Fund has been conceived and is being established by DRT with a capital of US$500,000 provided by the World Bank (IDA), the African Development Bank and the Government of Tanzania. It takes the ARF of Kenya (see above) as a model and is expected to concentrate research activities on priority commodities, to promote collaboration in research, and to attract and help coordinate donor and other funding.
To complete the transition to an effective public sector NARS, the persisting unreasonably low levels of salaries and emoluments of research and support staff must be raised from their current total of less than 40% of the research budget, and the human resources for research, for capacity in technology assessment and transfer, and for research management and information management must be strengthened. The NARM is the strategy blueprint for these goals, but additional funding will be needed.
Tanzania has volunteered to test the SPAAR initiative of "consolidated funding" of agricultural research. This is understood to mean in the Tanzanian context that government provides "unrestricted core" funding for public sector agricultural research while donors (including Tanzanian contributors) support "restricted core" or special project research and related activities. Research on third priority commodities/topics would not be funded from the "core" budget.
Public sector agricultural research is the responsibility of the Department of Research and Specialist Services (DRSS) of the Ministry of Lands, Agriculture and Water Development. An Agricultural Research Council has an overall planning and coordinating function. DRSS carries out most of the research on crop and livestock commodities other than tobacco, sugarcane, poultry and pigs. Private local and transnational companies undertake research on the latter commodities and in crop plant breeding and testing, seed production and distribution, horticulture, fertilizers and pesticides, machinery and equipment. Farmer organizations exert pressure for organized research on the commodities they produce. Some of the research sponsored by private enterprise is undertaken in collaboration with DRSS, and some of it complements public sector research.
Past achievements have been spectacular in maize breeding (e.g. variety SR52) and in more recent years in breeding of varieties of cotton, groundnut, wheat, soybean, millet and sorghum, and maize hybrids. The need is seen for future research to focus more on crop management and protection, diversification and utilization/marketing.
Funding of agricultural research in the public sector has been somewhat inadequate particularly in view of increased responsibilities given to DRSS in recent years. Funding has increased in amount (to Z$25 m in 1990-91) but decreased in real terms to 70% of the 1980 allocation.
Substantial funding of agricultural research occurs in the private sector. Its value is estimated at between Z$40 and 50 m annually, with tobacco research accounting for more than half of the expenditures. Producer levies on marketed commodities (tobacco, cotton, maize, poultry pigs) are applied in part to finance research. An Agricultural Research Trust is privately funded from sales of own crop produce and livestock, contract research fees and commodity producer associations' contributions. It provides land and facilities for agro-economic trials and demonstrations involving field and horticultural crops.
Funding prospects for public sector research could improve if provision were made for the generation of revenue from DRSS activities. Private sector research is hampered to some extent by limited availability of foreign exchange for importation of equipment and intermediate goods. Private sector expansion in or into horticulture, dairy, cotton and oilseed research depends in part on loosening of price controls and of restrictions on profit repatriation, and on favourable legislation on property rights (e.g. for hybrids). Through contract research, the University of Zimbabwe could be enabled to contribute beyond its current emphasis on human resources development.
A national research master plan should be elaborated and implemented to create a well coordinated and effective NARS embracing all of the research actors.
Agricultural research is the responsibility of the Institut d'Economie Rurale (IER) within the Ministry of Agriculture. The institute is specialized to conduct studies, evaluations and research in agriculture. IER is organized in departments dealing respectively with research planning and economics, agricultural (crop) research, livestock research, forestry and fisheries research, and farming systems research. In a recent reorganization, agricultural research moved from a nation-wide organization exemplified by the department structure to a regional orientation. Agricultural research centres have been set up in each of Mali's six regions, complete with experiment stations and experimental sites. Regional Technical Committees serve to guide planning and build liaison to administrators, extension, and the users of research results.
A National Agricultural Research Council has undergone many changes in assigned tasks, the most recent calling for it to study programmes of research and of the education/training of researchers, to support the IER in scientific and technical matters, to arrange external programme reviews of the research centres, and to foster inter-institutional relationships and cooperation. The Council may in future administer a fund for research requested by user groups in the country.
According to a study (ISNAR), agricultural research funding from the public budget stood at about 0.3% of AgGDP during the period 1987-90. Public funding of IER increased nominally by 20% during this same period, but decreased from 36% to 28% because of a 75% increase in external donor funding of the total budget (2,368 m F CFA in 1990). Government allocation and donor contributions are the only sources of funds; meagre self-generated earnings must be turned in to the Treasury.
Public funding of agricultural research is inadequate. The budgeting process does not reflect the real possibilities and needs of IER. There are delays and discontinuities in disbursements, and disadvantages in some forms of non-cash receipts. Financial procedures vary by project, causing a profusion of routines that adds to other obstacles to integration and coordination of research programmes in line with priorities. IER depends on the Ministry of Agriculture for most financial arrangements, controlling only about 6% of the funds to be received for project work. This lack of autonomy is expected to be corrected by making IER an "EPA", "administratively" public entity.
Personnel costs are said to be excessive, leaving too little money for operations. Variability in the costs of research make sound planning difficult. The professional cadre consist mostly of young, inexperienced researchers; lack of research planning and management expertise is felt especially strongly. Fragmentation of research programmes, low salaries and relative isolation induce a low level of motivation in the research staff. Decentralization of researchers away from the capital is needed.
Excessive reliance on external donor contributions is likely to continue in the present economic circumstances. The government has adopted in 1991 a 12-year national strategic plan for research elaborated with the assistance of ISNAR. This would streamline research into five programmes oriented to agricultural production of industrial crops, cereals and food legumes, horticulture (vegetables and fruit), forestry and inland fisheries, and livestock. Two programmes would support these production oriented programmes, namely natural resources management, and farming systems and rural economics. IER is being restructured to fit into this strategy, another aspect of which is expanded cooperation with research organizations and universities of developed countries including CIRAD and OSTROM, IARCs within and outside the CGIAR, development agencies, regional organizations including INSAH and CORAF, and regional networks as well as national programmes for research in West Africa.
Agricultural research is concentrated in the public sector under the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRST). Four institutes are under the direction of CNRST, with those for agricultural research (INERA) and forestry and environment (LBTA) receiving 90% of the allocation to the Centre. The other institutes undertake research respectively in food technology and social sciences. Research is also undertaken at the University of Ouagadougou, particularly on topics of rural development. Research units are maintained for relatively limited and specialized work by various ministries (Agriculture and Livestock, Environment and Tourism, Equipment and Transport, and Water).
Public funding of agricultural research amounts to about 0.08% of GDP and 0.25% of AgGDP. By far the greater part of funding is derived from donor contributions, particularly the World Bank (IDA). Some improvement has occurred since 1989-91 when the Burkinabe funding stood at about 20% and barely served to cover personnel costs. In 1993 the national public funding was 28% of total financing with some increased amount for operations, and the World Bank (IDA) contribution stood at 47.8% or two-thirds of the donor funding.
Of the total investment in agricultural research, CNRST accounts for about 65%, of which 85% serves to fund INERA and its activities. In 1992 INERA was funded at 2984 m F CFA, 16% from government, 56% from IDA credits and 28% from other donors, all funds being managed by CNRST directly. Additionally limited income is derived by INERA from sale of own produce and from fees for research and services performed for public or parastatal bodies.
Among constraints are inadequacies in the calibre of the research staff, in research management and in information management. Funding from public sources is irregular. Coordination of research is poor. With funding from World Bank (IDA) a National Agricultural Research Plan has been elaborated which defines 8 priority programmes. Support in policy and strategy for strengthening the NARS may be growing with Government recognition of the importance of agricultural research, but there are no prospects that public funding can be increased in the foreseeable future. Thus reliance on donors will continue particularly for research capital investments and operations. Collaboration in research and networking with regional and international research centres and institutions already contributes greatly to the research output from the Burkinabe NARS, and efforts will be made to increase this further.
Shrinking markets and lower prices for export crops are prodding the government to take steps for its agriculture to become more competitive on the international markets and to emphasise product quality. Evidence of environmental deterioration is focusing attention on the need for sound management of the natural resources for production. Cote d'Ivoire is embarking on a restructuring of the country's agricultural production system with the aid of the World Bank. Among the aims is to increase the "value added" to export goods in the country.
Agricultural research was managed fully by French institutions until 1971 when a national Ministry for Research was created. Since 1982 the numerous commodity-specific research institutions have been replaced by IDESSA (Institut des Savanes) and IDEFOR (Institut des Forêts). IDESSA has departments for food crops, industrial crops and livestock husbandry. IDEFOR's departments deal with coffee and cocoa, fruit crops, rubber, oil palm and coconut, and forestry in general. Some relevant research is also undertaken at the National University and at ENSA, the school of agronomy. Both educational institutions have helped to relieve the formerly critical shortage of human resources for agricultural research, and both are supported by public funds.
Public funding of agricultural research comes from three main sources: government, sales and services fees, and contracts. IDEFOR depends for only 12% of its finance on government allocation, the bulk being raised through contracts and income from sale of own production and of services. Personnel costs account for only about 30% of the yearly budget of more than 7,000 m F CFA. For IDESSA, on the other hand, government allocation accounts for more than 60% of the funding (1,540 m FCFA in 1992), with over 30% being derived from contracts and the rest from sale of own production and of services. Personnel costs take up about two-thirds of the budget, leaving too little for operations. Allocation of public funds had been decreasing and irregular for some time.
Funding of specific research projects by external donors (e.g. EEC, UNDP/FAO, IDRC, etc.) is particularly important for IDESSA's research on food crops. These contributions cover mostly the costs of operations and equipment. Limited private funding of agricultural research in public sector institutions is provided on a project or contract basis by domestic and transnational companies and by parastatals.
The situation and prospects for agricultural research in Cote d'Ivoire have changed dramatically since 1992 when IDESSA and IDEFOR were given the status of private institutions with government as the major shareholder. The Ministry of Science and Technology is calling for a restructuring of the country's research institutions and for adequate, flexible and timely funding of agricultural research. The institutions face the task of becoming more effective and cost effective through better management and coordination of research and through increased participation and collaboration in research with regional and international agricultural research centres, institutions and networks.
Agricultural research is carried out predominantly in public sector institutions, including also a number of the universities. The contribution of the private sector has been negligible for lack of interest with the exception of research by a few multinational companies. Nigeria's NARS benefits from collaboration with international research institutes (e.g. the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture headquartered in Nigeria and units of ICRISAT, ILCA and WARDA located in the country) and with regional networks such as the West African Farming Systems Research Network.
Sixteen publicly funded agricultural research institutions are located in different parts of the country. Additionally one institute specializes in coordination of research-extension programmes. In total they employ about 800 graduate scientists, the largest complement in SSA. The institutes are semi-autonomous and have a commodity orientation to research, although factor research is also done. The physical and human resources are considered adequate, though infrastructure and equipment is in need of repair and better maintenance, and overstaffing especially at the junior level is a common problem. The institutes cooperate with the Ministries of Agriculture of the individual States of Nigeria, especially in transfer of research results deemed useful. Given these means and an ample supply of natural resources for agriculture, investment in agricultural research is said to hold good potential for high returns.
Since the 1950s the agricultural research service has been reorganized a number of times, with unsettling effects on coordination, direction and execution of research. Responsibility passed from one Ministry to another in succession, with one period (1970-1976) under the Agricultural Research Council of Nigeria and the Nigerian Council for Science and Technology. The re-establishment of a National Agricultural Research Council was announced in 1993. The Council would operate under the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and administer and coordinate the activities of the 17 research institutes within a new organizational structure.
Funding of agricultural research from the federal government budget (always the main and now virtually the sole source of funds) has been in regression since the collapse of oil prices in the early 1980s. In recent years budget requests have been met on average to the extent of only 46%. As a result the research institutes are no longer adequately funded nor equipped. Funding has declined between 1985 and 1990 from 0.068% to 0.051% of AgGDP in real terms and from 0.23% to 0.12% in current costs. A World Bank report estimated that public funds provided for agricultural research in 1990 had declined to below 10% of those received in 1980. In the two years 1991 and 1992, 267 m naira was allocated to agricultural research, representing about 8% of the federal government's expenditure on agriculture.
The multi-level budgeting process has been complicated and non-transparent. Timely release of allocated funds has been a general problem. Personnel costs of the institutes are excessive. A study indicated that about 75% of the total research budget goes for recurrent expenditures. For many years able scientists were lost to the universities because pay scales were higher; this situation has been corrected recently.
There has been less scope than desirable for demonstrating effectiveness and usefulness of research undertaken. This, combined with poor prospects that allocations from public sources will increase during the period of structural adjustment programmes, suggests that steps must be urgently taken to put the NARS on a sound financial footing through integration, better coordination and administration, and development of mechanisms for generating revenue from research and services for production enterprises. Increased collaboration with IARCs, networks, and the accelerated development projects of the World Bank should be pursued. Suggestions are given on how government can assist in opening or promoting some mechanisms for generating revenue for agricultural research.
 
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