Posted October 2000

Transfer of technology in poultry production for developing countries

By R.D.S. Branckaert,
Animal Production and Health Division (AGA)
and
L. Gaviria, J. Jallade and R.W. Seiders,
Research, Extension and Training Division (SDR),
FAO

Summary

Although commercial poultry production has made substantial progress during the last fifty years, development is constrained in those developing countries that are not self-sufficient in cereal production. Production will be dependent on costly imported inputs: day-old chicks from performant hybrid strains, balanced feeds, drugs, vaccines etc. and the presence of a consumer class able to afford expensive poultry products. Furthermore, the commercial poultry sector does not generate significant employment and thus, does little either directly or indirectly for food self sufficiency. Establishment of such commercial units in developing countries has mostly failed.

The policy of FAO's Animal Production and Health Division (AGA) has been to encourage family poultry production in both rural and peri-urban areas. For this purpose, the African Rural Poultry Development Network was created in 1990. In January 2000, AGA and SDRE developed a joint paper on the subject of Technology Transfer in Family Poultry Production for Developing Countries, which was presented at the XXI World's Poultry Congress held in Montreal, August 2000. This paper highlights the importance of poultry for food security, women and youth in developing countries and introduces poultry development within the framework of the Special Programme for Food Security (SPFS).

Introduction

In developing countries, family poultry represents an appropriate system to feed the fast growing human population and to provide income to poor small farmers, especially women. It makes one of the best uses of locally available resources. Although requiring low resource inputs and generally considered secondary to other agricultural activities by smallholder farmers, this type of production has an important contribution in supplying local populations with additional income and high quality protein. Family poultry are also valued in religious and socio-cultural lives. However, high mortality, mainly due to Newcastle disease, especially in growers, constitutes one of the greatest constraints on development. Other problems are related to breeding, feeding and marketing. Appropriate development programmes are those which adopt a holistic approach.

FAO is committed to family poultry development and, through the International Network for Family Poultry Development (INFPD), is ideally placed to co-ordinate family poultry development. Family poultry are within the Special Programme for Food Security (SPFS), launched in 1994 by Jacques Diouf, Director-General of FAO.

Background

Although food availability has kept pace with the growing human population during the last 30 years, there are still some 800 million people suffering from malnutrition. This problem is due not only to insufficient food production and inadequate distribution, but equally to insufficient income to acquire food in adequate quantity and quality to satisfy family needs (FAO, 1993)

Livestock production constitutes an important component of the agricultural economy of developing countries, a contribution that goes beyond direct food production and includes multipurpose products and uses, such as skins, feathers, fibre, manure for fertilizer and fuel, power and transportation, as well as a means of capital accumulation and as a barter product in societies where there is no circulation of currency. Furthermore, they are closely linked to the religious and socio-cultural lives of several million resource-poor farmers for whom animal ownership ensures varying degrees of sustainable farming and economic stability. However, official statistics generally underestimate the overall contribution provided by animals since they underestimate, or ignore, the multipurpose and culture roles played by livestock in food and agricultural production in developing countries

The world human and livestock populations have increased considerably over the last three decades but at different rates (Table 1). There are major differences between developed and developing countries, with the vast majority all of domesticated species found in the latter countries. Growth in human and livestock populations is both higher in developing countries than in the developed world. Although all categories of livestock have increased in numbers, the increase is much greater in poultry when compared to ruminants and pigs.

Table 1
Human and livestock population statistics between 1960 to 1990 (millions)

The world human population is expected to grow from 5, 285 million in 1990 to 7,032 million in the year 2010, again this increase will take place largely in the developing countries. To feed the growing human population, more land will need to be devoted to staple food and cash crops as intensification has not occurred in Low Income Food Deficit Countries (LIFDCs). Because land is a finite resource an increase will reduce land for pasture and fodder, as has already occurred in Asia. This situation will largely determine the composition of the livestock population, and will have a major effect on both the available natural resources and future demand for commodities and, consequently will determine the management systems adopted. What is clear to maintain food production will necessitate increased efficiency of resource utilisation as well as developing alternatives, such as marine and freshwater fish culture in a sustainable way.

Poultry production represents one of these alternatives. Over the last decade, poultry population has grown spectacularly throughout the world: 23 percent in developed and 76 percent in developing countries, respectively. This increase, due to the commercial production, has been most notable in the Far East where growth averaged of 90 percent. For example, in India, production has increased sixfold in ten years. However, most of the conditions required by the commercial poultry sector are not met in LIFDCs (Low Income Food Deficit Countries), namely:

• the ability to purchase most inputs, i.e. improved birds, feeds, vaccines, drugs and equipment;
• the availability of a highly-skilled manpower;
• the presence of a strict disease control; and
• the existence of national domestic markets able to absorb poultry products at attractive prices by consumers with a good purchasing power.

In fact before developing medium to large-scale units, either for broiler or egg production, it is important to achieve either self sufficiency in cereal products or to generate the necessary hard currencies provided by the export of oil or other expensive raw materials, or to have a developed services sector.

In many developing countries, poultry production is based mainly on traditional extensive poultry production systems (Aini, 1990; Spradbrow, 1994; Branckaert, 1996; Kitalyi, 1997; Guèye, 1998a; Sonaiya et al., 1998). All over the developing world these low input/low output husbandry systems have been a traditional component of small farms for centuries and are assumed to continue for the foreseeable future. For example, it has been estimated that 80 percent of the poultry population is found in traditional family-based poultry production systems, and which contribute up to 90 percent of poultry products in some countries. Approximately 20 percent of the protein consumed in developing countries originate from poultry produces, meat and eggs. Yet, despite the importance of family poultry (FP), relatively few field programmes have been initiated to improve the output.

Family poultry (FP) is an integrated component of nearly all rural, many peri-urban and some urban households and provides valuable protein and generates extra cash. All ethnic group tends to be involved in FP production. Women, assisted in some cases by children, play a key role in this sector, as they are the main owners and managers of FP. For instance, according to Guèye (1998b), more than 85 % of rural families in sub-Saharan Africa keep one or more species of poultry, and more than 70 % of chicken owners are women, while traditionally pigeons belong only to children.

According to Sonaiya et al. (1998), FP contributes more than 70 percent to total poultry production in most LIFDCs, with some exceptions. FP flock composition is heavily skewed towards chickens in Africa, towards ducks in Asia and turkeys in Latin America. Household flock sizes range from 3 to 97 in Africa, 10 to 31 in South America and from 50 to 2,000 in Asia. Flock size is related to the objectives of the poultry enterprise. The level of productivity is very low compared to high input systems. For example, a scavenging hen lays only 30-50 eggs per year and up to 90 eggs per year under improved feeding and husbandry conditions. In contrast, an industrialized battery hen lays 280 eggs annually. Furthermore, studies in Nigeria estimate that the overall flock mortality may be as high as 90 percent in some areas.

Poultry products

They represent important foods for improving nutritional and health status, particularly for at-risk populations, like children, pregnant women, weakened persons.

For instance, egg has represented - and still is - the reference sample food, perfectly balanced, containing most essential amino-acids, large amounts of Ca, P, Mg, Iron, Zinc. It represents one of the main sources of Vitamine A and of Vit. B complex. It can be directly consumed through many delicious, easy to prepare recipes, or be incorporated in a lot of well- elaborated products.

Annual world hen egg production approximatly represents 50 million tons, compared to 54 million tons of beef meat. Duck and guinea-fowl eggs consumption is widespread, respectively in Central and South-East Asia and in African dry areas. Between 1990 and 1995, egg production has increased by 26,5 %; (in Asia by 54,76 %).

Eggs represent the most affordable well-balanced source of proteins, important minerals and vitamins. One eff provides 11,5 % of the daily needs in proteins and 5 % of the daily energy requirements.

Unfortunately, there still exist large consumption discrepancies throughout the world.

In some poor African countries, consumption is very low for different reasons. One of them is the persistance of some taboos prohibiting such consumption by the most vulnerable people. Like children and pregnant women, and probably related to the need to keep all the eggs for brooding purposes and chick production.

Strategy for FP development

To improve FP productivity, and move from backyard to semi-intensive/commercial poultry production, a number of important constraints have to be overcome:

1. Disease control:

Newcastle disease (ND) constitutes the most serious epizootic poultry disease throughout the world, particularly in developing countries. No progress has been made in controlling ND in free-ranging village flocks, which represent more than 80 percent of the total poultry population. For example, several surveys in Africa showed high rates of seropositivity in the absence of vaccination. In developing countries, ND occurs every year and kills on an average 70-80 percent of the unvaccinated village hens. It is very difficult to organize vaccination campaigns covering free-range birds and the main constraints are:

• the difficulty of grouping together an adequate (large) number of birds in order to obtain an efficient vaccination rate;
• birds of various ages are usually raised together; and
• the need to maintain, at all stages, an efficient cold chain for proper vaccine conservation.

2. Protection against various predators

Predators such as snakes, rats, dogs, cats, foxes, racoons, birds of prey represent the main causes of losses, especially in young birds. Human beings can also represent another important predator for adult birds! Prevention can be contemplated through following measures:

• Proper housing that should be constructed using locally available materials.
• Predators should be trapped, hunted or repelled by specific plants. For example, in Nigeria, sliced garlic (Allium sativum) is placed around poultry houses to keep off snakes.

3. Feeding

Careful attention should be given to ensuring adequate feed resources, which represent 60 to 80 percent of the economic inputs in the commercial poultry sector. In LIFDCs, surplus of cereals is generally not available. It is, therefore, not advisable to develop a wholly grain-based feeding system. The recommended policy is to identify and use locally available feed resources to formulate diets that are as balanced as possible.

4. FP farmers organisations

Organizing FP farmers is not an easy task. There are several reasons. Flock sizes are small and birds are maintained with minimal land, labour and capital inputs. That means that FP is generally considered by farmers as secondary occupation compared with other activities in agriculture, trade, etc. Nevertheless, it is essential to :

• develop producers groups which will:

* allow the group members to have easier access to inputs: feed supplementation, improved birds, drugs and vaccines, technical advice, etc., and
* facilitate access to credit, training, transportation and marketing of poultry products

• encourage educated people to initiate poultry farming as a secondary occupation, conducted at family level using medium-sized flocks, and
• develop associated activities like market gardening which can utilize poultry manure and help to reduce or remove household waste and pests.

5. Genetic improvement

Indigenous or local breeds are generally raised in FP production systems. These birds are usually selected for their hardiness and sometimes for meat production, but not for egg production. Hens are thus poor layers, however they are good hatchers, except for guinea hens. When farmers contemplate to adopt a more intensive poultry production system, they are eager to purchase more productive birds. There is a need to find the best method to provide them with such birds and the options are:

• to supply hybrid strains which means the presence of well managed hatchery facilities and (grand) parent stock, or
• to supply pure-bred breeds which allows the farmer to renew his flock and to remain independent from external suppliers. Unfortunately pure-bred breeds are more and more difficult to purchase and produce less than hybrids.

6. Marketing facilities

Poultry products in most developing countries, especially in Africa, are still expensive. The marketing system is generally informal and poorly developed. Unlike eggs and poultry meat from commercial birds derived from imported stocks, those from indigenous stocks are generally preferred by consumers. The existence of a local market offering good sales opportunities and adequate transport facilities are obvious prerequisites for FP development. As most consumers with the greater purchasing power live in cities, intensification of poultry production should be initiated in peri-urban areas or, at least, in areas having a good road network.

7. Training and management

Technical skills need to be considered at both farmer and extension levels. Training is essential for both farmers and extension officers in the following areas: disease control, housing and equipment, feeding, genetic improvement and marketing. A basic knowledge in specific features of poultry anatomy / physiology is also important to understand the basis of above topics. Housing and management could be improved through appropriate farmer training, preferably conducted on-farm. Local craftsmen could be trained to manufacture small equipment, like feeders, drinkers, etc.

FAO and FP development

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations is committed to support FP production (Branckaert / Mack, 1997).Its mandate targets the poorest and most disadvantaged groups in developing countries. Many efforts to develop the commercial poultry sector have failed because of their dependence on imports of expensive inputs such as day-old chicks, cereals, drugs and pre-mixes (which need hard currencies) and because of periodic shortages of feed and other inputs. Moreover, the highly mechanized commercial sector does not provide many job opportunities. Thus, the wellbeing of small-scale poultry farmers, who represent the majority in developing countries, is not improved through this poultry sector.

For more than ten years FAO / AGA has identified, formulated, backstopped and monitored, with the financial assistance of UNDP and FAO's Technical Co-operation Programme (TCP) Projects to support FP development activities . Countries involved were: Bangladesh, Burundi, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Democratic Republic of Korea, Ethiopia, Gambia, Honduras, Madagascar, Myanmar, Nigeria, Philippines, Rwanda, Tanzania, Turkey, Vietnam and Zimbabwe.

The FAO Special Programme for Food Security (SPFS) was launched in 1994 by the FAO Director-General to respond to the urgent need to boost food production. In 1997, improved household poultry production - either peri-urban or rural was identified as a key element in the overall SPFS approach, and a major activity of the SPFS diversification component.

The SPFS presently covers 40 countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America. It is rapidly expanding and more than 60 countries are expected to join the SPFS during the next few years. The collaboration between SPSF and INFPD will grow simultaneously. The development of South-South Co-operation in the field of Rural FP is encouraged through the use of TCDC (Technical Cooperation between Developing Countries) experts.

Since 1997, another important support has been provided by Telefood: up to  US$10,000/group has been distributed for small-scale poultry projects in several countries.

Methodologies

What should transfer technology include?

A strategy is a systematic process and starts taking into account the projects objectives, the results to be achieved and the technical activities.

In a participatory planning strategy it is necessary to identify and bring about the needs of the stakeholders and target groups in order to:

• determine shared values and knowledge and the advantages the project implementation;
• identify the strengths and weaknesses of the topics to be disseminated;
• identify the appropriate tools / media and methodologies;
• assess the constraints which are likely to limit the range of alternative actions (eg. limited resources);
• assess the opportunities and threats;
• consider all alternative proposals given to achieve the objectives;
• select the plan which appears to have the greatest chance of achieving the objectives;
• implement the plan / activities;
• periodically monitor, evaluate and revise plans / activities.

* A systematic, rational and pragmatic approach to planning, implementing, managing, monitoring and evaluation training, information and extension programmes:
Strategic Extension Campaign (S.E.C.)

One of the strengths of this approach is to apply a systematic, rational, and pragmatic approach to planning, implementing, managing, monitoring and evaluating training, information extension programmes. The SEC methodology, emphasises the importance of people's participation in strategic planning, systematic management, and implementation of information, extension and training programmes.

Its training / extension strategies and messages are specially developed and tailored based on the results of a participatory problem identification process on the causes or reasons of non-adoption, or inappropriate practices, of a given recommended technology or innovation.

SEC activities are geared to narrowing the gaps between existing and desired knowledge, attitudes, and/or appropriate practice levels of the target beneficiaries vis-à-vis the technology recommendations. The SEC programme follows a systems-approach which starts with the target public's knowledge, attitude and practice (KAP survey) whose results are used as planning inputs and benchmark / baseline for evaluation purposes.

Who are the target populations?

The primary target beneficiaries should be the poorest households and women (in particular widows and female-headed households), the disabled (often as a result of civil conflict) women's groups, and schools.

Women

Rural women carry out a fundamental role in agricultural production, rural development and food security. FAO studies and statistics state that women produce between 60 and 80 percent of food in Africa and Asia and approximately 40 percent in Latin America. In many regions, women are also responsible for the management of small livestock, including reproduction. An appropriate approach for working with women and poultry, will not only boost productivity, reduce work time , workload and strain, but also promote the transfer of appropriate technology knowledge, tools and skills.

Numerous disparities persist regarding the participation of rural women on the productive scene. Undoubtedly they face greater difficulties than men in relation to access to productive resources (land and credit, among others) and to services designed to increase productivity, such as research and the transfer of technology and extension services. The training programmes for women should be planned taking into account the socio-cultural traditions, and their high illiteracy rate; in many region such programmes should also consider the training of women as extension workers in order to effectively reach this extensive and important target audience.

Youth

During FAO World Food Day (1999), the theme Youth Against Hunger, was given considerable attention together with the significant role that youth can play in food security. An important message of this event is that given adequate training, education and support, young people can become active partners in helping to meet the World Food Summit goals of halving the number of hungry by the year 2015.

In terms of technology transfer, many government agricultural extension services include rural youth programming as an integral part of their overall work to help women, men and young farmers apply new practices. An even larger number of NGOs, through extension-type programmes, work to assist youth audiences in the use of improved agricultural technology.

Some of the features of rural youth programmes that make them particularly valuable include their ability to successfully promote the application of technology, such as poultry production, to improve agricultural production on a sustainable basis. Experience has shown that young people are often more open to new ideas and practices than adult farmers. Most programmes also focus on the start-up of agricultural and rural-based non-agricultural income generating activities. Any attempt to enhance the knowledge, skills and experience of young people, and increase their access to resources through rural youth programmes will have an immediate impact on food security.

Rural youth programming, as a technology transfer mechanism, has the potential to overcome some of the major constraints related to expanding poultry production in developing countries mentioned earlier in this paper, such as training, management, group organisation, disease control, feeding, genetic improvement and protection against predators.

There are already some experiences in developing countries related to training and education of rural young people in the area of poultry, that if supported more fully and expanded to other countries, could contribute significantly to more efficient and effective egg and meat production.

Through community-based non-formal educational programming, rural youth gain the necessary knowledge, skills and experiences enabling them to be productive today, as well as, to become better farmers for the future. It is essential for farmers to have some knowledge of basic agricultural science related to their every day work. Without this, too often, the technology manipulates farmers, forcing them to act in ways they often do not understand, which can be a severe hindrance to effective technology transfer.

Individual and group poultry projects and activities have been a part of youth programming in some countries for many years. There are two primary ways of reaching young people in rural areas. One is through community-based rural youth programmes, which target out-of-school rural young people. The other is using the rural schools by incorporating agricultural topics as an integral part of the regular curriculum or as extracurricular activities.

Basic poultry science is easily adapted to either community-based groups or school programmes. The most effective way to work with youth in a practical way, either in the community or the schools, is through non-formal education methodology using a hands-on, experiential approach to learning. Community youth members learn such things as basic poultry anatomy and physiology through structured group learning activities and then apply the knowledge through practical experiences, planning and carrying out individual and/or group small-scale poultry projects.

Where proper facilities are available, small scale poultry projects can be carried out on the school grounds. Students can lean first hand many of the practical aspects of raising chickens. The study of embryology by hatching chicken eggs is particularly well suited to the classroom. So much can be learned by students from the incubation of chicken eggs. Experience around the world has shown that this activity generates much interest and excitement among young people as they anxiously wait for the eggs to hatch.

One of the constraints mentioned above to expanded poultry production in developing countries is the difficulty of helping farmers organise themselves into groups and / or associations. This is not a problem where farmers as youth had the experience of being a member of an community or school agricultural club. Belonging to a formal group offers the young person experiences of democratic action with elected officers and structured decision making. Communication and leadership skills gained enable youth to make immediate contributions to their communities. These skills learned also help them accept formal and informal leadership roles in community and farmers organisations as adults.

Through school and community-based rural youth programmes dealing with poultry production, youth learn and practice knowledge and skills related to sanitation, vaccination, housing made of low-cost naturally available materials, predator control, adequate nutrition, improved breeds of chickens and alternative marketing strategies.

As a mechanism for technology transfer, youth programmers, when given adequate support, can make a significant contribution to expanding poultry production in developing countries. Young people learn basic principles and sound practices of raising poultry through practical, hands-on projects and activities, enabling them to successfully start and maintain a small enterprise in an efficient and effective manner, thus contributing to food security.

Disabled - Handicapped

During the last decades in many developing countries, civil wars, international conflicts, dissemination of mines with their terrible consequences have been responsible for a considerable increase in the number of disabled persons and victims of the propagation of handicapping diseases and the spread of traffic accidents.

For the disabled, backyard or semi-commercial raising of small animals, especially poultry, represents a valuable occupation providing an excellent revenue and enabling them to insert themselves again in the social community.

One advantage is that most of the disabled persons are litterate and can, therefore, easily be approached and trained.

Rural workers

Whatever their gender or their age the vaccinators, the extension workers and the rural development agents need some basic socio-cultural information in order to improve their impact in technology transfer.

The vaccinator needs to know the reasons of the non-adoption of the technology and must be prepared to provide the farmer with relevant demonstration / explanation. The extension worker should develop extension and training programmes according to the farmer's knowledge / information needs. Finally, the development agent should be able to explain the positive advantages for the rural community in having members develop income generating activities. Specific training programmes, didactic materials, using appropriate media should be produced to cover these requirements.

How to identify the problems to face and overcome?

S.E.C. as a privileged approach

Phase 1: Technology & Problems Identification and Information Needs Assessment

A procedure for conducting a participatory assessment of problems (technical, economic, social) and needs is through a baseline survey of target beneficiaries' Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice (KAP) on specific and critical elements of a recommended technology.

KAP survey is oriented towards problem-solving and it operates at micro-level, with a focus on determining at least three distinct conceptual categories: Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice levels of target beneficiaries vis-à-vis the critical elements of a given recommended technology. Qualitative information provided by KAP surveys is very useful, especially in the identification of campaign objectives or in goals formulation and strategy development.

Phase 2: Formulation of Objectives

Programme objectives should specify some important elements or characteristics of the activities which will help to provide clear operational direction, and facilitate a meaningful evaluation of the programme.

Phase 3: Strategy Development and Information Positioning

Data from baseline / KAP surveys, including problems identification and needs assessment results should be analysed carefully. The central issue(s) or problem(s) which might impede progress in achieving the extension goal should be identified.

Phase 4: Audience analysis and segmentation

One of the most important elements in a campaign is the target audience or beneficiaries: who they are, where they are located, why they are chosen as target beneficiaries and what information contents or messages should be communicated to them. Analysis of a target audience is an integral part of the programme designing and planning. In such an analysis, certain types of information or data are needed; for instance, the size and the location of the target audience, their socio-economic profile (including age group, income, occupation, education, etc.) and their socio-cultural profile (including religion, language, family life patterns, traditional belief systems, norms, values, information sources, communication and interaction practices, etc.). Characteristics, interests and information needs of the target audience might be different, so audience segmentation into different target grouping is usually necessary.

For each group, a specific programme may be required. In this phase, it is also important to prioritise the target beneficiaries as to which group(s) should be reached first or be given the most intensive treatment.

Phase 5: Multi-media selection

An important aspect to be considered in employing a multi-media approach is the proper selection of available channels in order to avoid redundant or superfluous media usage and to optimise the level of multi-media support required. In developing an appropriate multi-media mix, results of audience analysis should be considered, especially on information-seeking habits, preferred information sources, media access or ownership, media consumption or usage patterns, communication network interactions and group communication behaviour.

The rationale behind the use of a multi-media approach is that a coherent, co-ordinated, and reinforced system of communication should be able to address specific but varied information problems and needs of target beneficiaries.

Phase 6: Message design, development, pretesting and material production

Training and extension materials / messages must be able to attract the attention of the target audience, be easily and clearly understood, and be accurately perceived by them. Positioning a message strategically and effectively requires a well-planned, creative and innovative approach in presenting the material / message. In designing and developing them, the intended medium to be utilised for delivery must also be taken into consideration.

In order to ensure that target beneficiaries correctly interpret, perceive and understand the meaning of a message, a pretesting exercise should be undertaken. The pretesting exercise can be done in a very short time with limited cost and simple methodology, and may result in a significant improvement in the effectiveness of the message as well as a considerable saving of resources (time, effort and funds).

Phase 7: Management planning

The first component of a management plan is the assignment of responsibility regarding the specific tasks to be undertaken to conduct the field implementation of the strategic plan. The second second one refers to the organisation and co-ordination of the planned multi-media activities.

Phase 8: Training of personnel

Training sessions, or at least orientation meetings for the various types of agents/workers and their relative needs should be specifically planned and conducted before implementing a training programme or an extension campaign.

Phase 9: Implementation

The most important element in ensuring that a programme is implemented as planned is the appropriate monitoring and supervision of worker's performance and of the delivery system. Such a task can be facilitated by a good management information system which is able to provide organisers with rapid feedback on the various important activities and thus, can help in readjusting or changing strategies if considered necessary. Co-ordination linkages must be carefully developed, especially if several agencies are involved in executing different aspects of the campaign activities.

Effective programme implementation also requires proper execution of activities within the estimated time period. A delay in one of the usually interdependent activities may have chain-reaction effects.

Phase 10: Process documentation and summative evaluation

The main purpose of an evaluation is to assess the performance, effects and impact of a campaign. Unlike formative evaluation (such as baseline / KAP surveys) which is normally conducted at the planning stage of implementation, a summative evaluation (evaluation of the impact in terms of, for instance, increased production or larger and proper use of new technologies; cost effectiveness evaluation) is almost always conducted near or after the conclusion of a programme. Whereas formative evaluation findings are often utilised to improve campaign strategy or performance during its implementation, the results of summative evaluation are normally used to determine whether the campaign has accomplished it objectives.

Usefulness of SEC

• Positive results can be more likely obtained, if the complete SEC process is implemented, rather than implementing it partially or some of its operational phases only.
• It applies a strategic planning approach in programming and managing its activities, to achieve maximum outputs or results using minimal inputs or resources in the shortest time possible.
• It selects, prioritises, and utilises only the most relevant and necessary information or facts which can maximise the effectiveness of extension efforts to minimise or solve the identified problems of non-adoption.
• Providing specifically designed and relevant extension pretested support and materials, and special training to extension workers will not only facilitate their tasks, it will also ensure a certain degree of quality control in the delivery of technical information or extension message contents.

SEC application worldwide

The first systematic effort in applying the SEC process and methodology was carried out in Bangladesh by FAO / UNDP project BGD / 79 / 034 "Strengthening Agricultural Extension Service". The introduction of SEC in Malaysia, the Philippines and Thailand and Sri Lanka during 1985-1987, as the projects' main IPM (Inter-Country Programme on Integrated Pest Management) extension activities, produced concrete and tangibles results. Based on FAO experiences in planning and conducting SEC programmes the methodology was also adopted as the basic method for an FAO inter-regional project funded by UNFPA "Strategic Integration of Population Education into the Agricultural Extension Service" with pilot activities in eight countries in Asia, Africa, the Near East and Caribbean / Latin America. In Africa and the Near East, SEC replications at the country level in most cases have been implemented within the context of FAO project extension and training activities. The topics ranged from population education, tick-born disease control, pest surveillance system, rat control, rodent control, etc. More than 50 trainers of trainers have been trained and are able to train and replicate the methodology.

Communication for Development

Communication for Development has three functions:

a) Facilitates participation: giving a voice to different stakeholders to engage in platforms where negotiation among different parties takes place. This includes, for example, the use of communication methods and media to engage rural people in situation analysis and in communicating their perspective on development opportunities to local authorities and other decision-makers. This trend responds to a pluralistic context where many actors play a role in information exchange. As the various international conferences affirmed: stakeholders are users and generators of relevant information with regards to sustainable development.

b) Make things "visible" / make information understandable and meaningful: explaining and conveying information for the purpose of training, exchange of experience, transfer of know-how and technology. The trend here is to create new perspectives rather than transferring pre-packaged solutions. This trend recognises that solutions to locally specific problems are assembled locally.

c) Foster policy acceptance: enacting and promoting policies, especially when these bring new opportunities for rural people to access services and resources. The trend here is towards creating a communication linkage between policy-makers and the people affected by the policies; this is a trend away from persuasive advertising approaches and towards interactive processes of policy adjustment and implementation.

Guiding principles for strategic component to achieve successful communication efforts within a programme / project could be the following:

A social process: Communication has been defined as a social process designed to seek a common understanding among all the participants of a development initiative, creating a basis for concerted action. Communication technology and the media are useful tools to facilitate this process, but should not be considered a means to an end. The process is important.

Sharing of knowledge and two-way communication: People oriented and sustainable development can only realise its full potential if rural people are involved, motivated and if information and knowledge is shared. Sharing is not only the transfer of information; it implies an exchange between communication equals. On the one hand technical specialists learn about peoples' needs and their knowledge; on the other the people learn of the scientific techniques and proposals to improve their lives.

Listening to people: Communication for development efforts should begin by listening to people, taking into account the perceptions and needs of rural people, their knowledge and experience, their culture and traditions and the reality of rural areas.

Today have many participatory methods have been developed (for planning, for research, for evaluation, etc). However, there is still much to be done in terms of training and changing the attitudes of field staff and development agents, who have been applying top-down, authoritarian methods.

Sustainability: The sustainability of communication efforts is probably one of the major problems confronting development communication practitioners today. It is necessary to include these efforts within bodies that ensure their sustainability.

Holistic approach: Communication efforts should cover all the multifaceted aspects of life in rural areas, and therefore deal with agriculture, health, habitat, nutrition, population and women's issues, local knowledge, food security, biodiversity. Partnerships should be sought with all the stakeholders in the development process.

Training: and the development of human resources in communication at all levels, will remain a major priority in any activity for rural development. Training of a critical mass of people in various disciplines at all levels, from field workers to trainers to planners is an essential requirement for development efforts. Training field staff in communication for development methodologies will reproduce and replicate the lessons learned.

National languages: Communication for development has increasingly encouraged the use of national languages in rural programmes recognising that learning / information and communicating is easier and more effective in the affective domain of one's tongue and is likely to facilitate the transition to international languages. Communicating in the mother tongue inspires pride, and pride of place, empowering rural people to speak up in their homes and communities, facilitating intergenerational communication and solidarity.

Monitoring and evaluation: The monitoring and evaluation of the impact of different communication approaches and methods should continue to be pursued.

Multi-media approach: Communication strategies should make use of all media infrastructures and channels available in a country, in a project, both modern and traditional in an orchestrated fashion. The communication technologies and media applied should be suited to the cultural, social and economic conditions in developing countries, so as to be sustainable and not create dependence upon technologies available only in industrialised countries. Communication for development will be the key to meeting the objectives of the programme / project, a communication strategy has as general objective to contribute to reach those objectives.

PRCA (Participatory Rural Communication Appraisal) as a common denominator for all the communication and training activities

PRCA is built on a definition of communication that views it as an interactive process characterised by the exchange of ideas, information, points of view and experiences between persons and groups. In PRCA communication is a two-way process in which all the people involved are seen as important sources of and ideas worth listening to. Passiveness is non-existent in this process because the methodology requires the active mental co-operation of all involved people until a common awareness and understanding is reached. It is a process in which all participants decide on a course of action together. This view of communication treats all participants or stakeholders as equal partners. PRCA is used for creating dialogue with groups in rural communities in order to identify and analyse their problems and needs; their existing knowledge and practices; their feelings an attitudes; as well as their perceptions of the development issues under investigation. It is also used to ascertain the characteristics of the different groups in a community and to map their existing patterns and networks of communication.

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