arrHitInfo=new Array("‘improving,4,1","000,34,2","00100,7,1,9,1,11,1","06,7,1,9,1","10,13,1,14,1,16,1,17,1,22,1,31,3,34,1,35,1,37,1,23,1","100,25,1,31,1,34,2,35,1","1000,20,1,28,1,36,1","11,30,1","110,21,1","12,14,1,32,1","120,24,1","1200,37,1","14,29,1","140,14,1,38,1","15,16,1,18,1,27,1,31,1,37,1,23,1","150,25,1,26,1","1500,34,1,36,1,37,1","180,30,1","1983,32,1","1985,15,1,27,1","1988,6,1,28,1,33,1,34,2","1990,32,1,36,1","1991,13,1","1992,4,1,6,1,22,1","1993,6,1,29,2,21,1,24,1,26,1,33,1,34,1,35,1,30,1","1994,14,1","1995,13,1","1997,4,1,6,1,20,1,24,2,35,1,36,1,23,2","20,29,1,13,1,16,2,19,2,20,2,21,1,25,1,31,3,36,1","200,35,1","2000,25,1","2001,13,1,21,1","2002,3,2,5,1,12,1,16,3,17,2,19,1,25,1,26,2,31,3,35,3,36,1,37,1,38,2,45,2","2003,5,1,14,2,15,1,16,2,17,1,18,2,19,1,20,1,38,1,12,1","2004,16,1,18,1,20,2","2006,3,1,4,1,5,1,6,1,7,1,9,1,10,1,11,2,29,1,13,1,14,1,15,1,16,1,17,1,18,1,19,1,20,1,21,1,22,1,24,1,25,1,26,1,27,1,28,1,31,1,33,1,32,1,34,1,35,1,36,1,37,1,38,1,39,1,41,1,42,1,40,1,43,1,44,1,45,1,12,1,23,1,198,1,30,1","210,21,1","2200,30,1","240,30,1","25,31,1,32,1","270,30,1","28,16,1,34,1","280,34,1","30,20,1,24,1,31,7,34,1,35,1","300,29,1,20,1,26,1,38,1","3000,30,1","35,31,1","36,29,1","39,7,1,9,1","3rd,38,1","40,21,1,25,1,31,2","400,37,1,30,2","45,31,1","50,37,1","500,17,1,25,1,28,1,34,1,36,1","57056798,7,1,9,1","5which,20,1","60,19,1,31,1","65,14,1,38,1","75,34,1","750,34,1","7m,34,2","80,38,1","800,20,1,24,1","90,31,1,38,1","aakar,14,1","ability,20,1","able,4,1,17,1,12,1","abrasive,30,1","abrasivedischuller,46,8","absence,5,1","acceptability,38,1","access,4,2,5,1,20,3,27,1,34,1,35,2,36,1,37,1","accompanied,5,1","accompanying,10,1","accuracy,27,1,12,1","accurate,15,1,12,1","accurately,17,1,14,1","achieve,31,2","achieved,20,1,38,1","acidity,20,1","acknowledged,11,1","acquiring,17,1","across,19,2,20,1,12,1","act,20,2","action,4,4,20,1,33,1","activities,3,1,4,2,5,1,20,1,33,1,37,1,45,1","activity,3,1,28,1,45,1","actors,4,1","adapt,5,1","adaptation,3,1,45,1","adapted,3,1,13,1,45,1","add,20,1","addition,5,1","additional,3,1,5,1,20,1,21,1,28,1,32,1,36,1,38,2,45,1,12,1,23,2","addressed,5,1,11,1,20,1,38,1","addressing,3,1,45,1","adds,31,1","adequate,29,1,18,1,25,1,26,1,28,1,34,1,30,1","adjust,20,1","adjusted,23,2","adjustment,30,1","administration,3,1,45,1","administrative,39,1,44,1","adopt,5,1,20,1","adulterated,13,1","advantage,16,1,37,1","advantages,3,3,5,1,29,2,13,2,15,2,16,4,17,2,18,2,19,2,20,2,21,2,22,2,24,2,25,2,26,2,27,2,28,2,31,2,33,2,32,2,34,2,35,2,36,2,37,2,38,2,45,3,12,4,23,2,14,2,30,2","adverse,32,1","affect,5,1","afield,32,1","africa,4,3,16,1,18,1,20,2,21,1,31,1,32,1,35,1,36,1,38,2,30,1","africa’,4,1","african,4,1,6,1,13,1,20,1","against,29,1,24,3,25,1,30,1","agencies,13,1","aggregation,18,1","agpc,6,1","agria,22,1","agricolas,14,1","agricultral,6,1","agricultural,4,5,5,1,6,3,7,2,9,2,15,1,17,1,21,1,32,1,38,3,39,1,41,1,42,1,40,1,43,1,44,1,14,1","agriculture,4,6,5,1,6,1,7,1,9,1,10,2,13,1,16,1,17,2,18,1,20,25,37,1,39,1,40,2,12,1,14,1","agro,32,13,43,1","agroforestry,32,3","ags,6,3","agsf,6,1","agst,6,5,7,1,9,1,16,1","aids,4,1,5,2,6,1,17,1,35,2,38,1","aims,3,1,39,1,45,1","air,26,2,27,5,31,1","airtight,28,1","alexandra,6,2","algae,34,1","alleviation,31,1","alley,32,2","allow,29,1,17,1,30,1","allowing,21,1,24,1","allows,16,1,18,1,20,1","almost,31,1","alone,16,1","along,13,1,19,1,32,1,30,1","already,3,1,5,1,16,1,17,1,32,2,36,2,45,1,23,3","alternative,28,1,39,1,43,1","alternatively,20,1,35,1","although,13,1,18,1,22,1,25,1,27,1,31,1,37,1","alvan,30,2","america,4,1,20,1","among,4,1","amount,5,1,13,1,16,1,27,1,31,2,34,2,39,1,44,1","angles,16,1","animal,4,1,7,4,9,4,10,4,11,4,16,25,17,15,19,3,20,7,33,2,35,1,36,13,38,1,39,5,41,5,42,5,40,7,43,4,44,5,23,10,30,12","animaldrawncarts,47,8","animals,5,4,29,1,16,18,17,8,18,2,19,2,20,5,31,1,34,1,36,18,37,2,44,1,23,3,30,1","annual,20,3,34,1","another,16,1,39,1,43,1","answers,34,1","apparatus,14,1","application,15,1,20,1","applications,11,1,13,1","applied,13,1,39,1,40,1,14,2","apply,20,1","applying,17,1","approach,20,2,39,1,43,1","approaches,5,1","appropriate,3,1,4,2,5,1,6,3,20,2,26,1,38,2,45,1,30,1","appropriately,16,1","approximately,21,2,14,1","aquifers,32,1","ard,16,1,48,8","area,10,1,29,1,16,3,17,1,18,1,22,1,24,1,25,1,26,1,34,4,36,2,30,1","areas,5,1,16,2,20,2,26,1,33,1,32,2,35,1,36,1,37,1","arid,20,2","arise,10,1","arising,3,1,45,1,12,1","arms,35,1","around,29,4,16,2,17,2,18,1,22,1,25,1,26,2,31,1,34,1,35,1,36,2,37,3,30,9","arrangements,30,1","article,14,1","asbestos,34,1","asia,4,1,6,1,18,1,32,1","asked,10,1","asp,9,4","aspects,5,1,16,1,38,1","assemblies,35,1","assess,3,1,39,1,45,1","assessed,38,1","assessment,3,1,45,1","asset,5,1","assets,5,1","assist,5,1,37,1","assisted,27,1","assists,4,1,26,1","associated,3,1,16,1,22,1,24,1,38,1,45,1","association,6,1,13,2,34,1","assumes,10,1","assuming,34,1","atnesa,16,1","ats,6,1,29,2,21,1,24,1,33,1,34,1,35,1,30,1","attached,20,1,24,1,23,1,14,1,30,1","attachment,20,1,21,1,37,1","attachments,22,1,24,1,12,1","attack,25,1,28,2","attending,5,1","attitude,16,1,20,1,31,1,38,1","attitudes,31,1,38,1","attract,15,1","attracting,15,1","attracts,15,2","audience,3,2,39,1,45,7","auger,30,2","author,10,1","authority,13,1","authorized,11,1","availability,5,1,13,1,16,2","available,3,2,13,3,16,2,17,1,19,1,20,1,22,2,24,1,25,1,34,1,35,1,36,1,37,1,45,2,14,1,30,1","average,33,1,34,1","avoid,14,1","aware,5,1,32,1","away,5,1,29,1,15,1,19,1,31,1,34,1,30,1","axial,25,1","axis,29,1,30,3","axle,18,13,22,12,35,1,36,2,37,8,39,1,41,1,40,2,30,1","axles,35,1,36,1","backs,36,1","bag,29,1","bags,29,1,24,1","ball,35,2","bamboo,28,1,34,1,35,1","ban,49,8","banana,34,1","bananas,35,1","bands,20,1","banged,24,1","bangladesh,18,2,26,1","banks,13,2","banner,51,8,144,8","bar,22,1,24,2","bare,27,1","barley,22,1","barrier,17,1","barriers,5,1","bars,22,2,30,1","bas,52,8","basalt,29,1","base,5,3,29,1,24,1,34,3,36,1,14,1,30,2","based,3,1,29,2,20,1,22,1,24,1,28,1,31,1,36,1,45,1,30,1","basic,34,1","basins,20,2","basket,25,1,31,13","baskets,26,2,35,1","batch,27,2","batteries,33,3,14,1","beam,16,1,23,3","beams,12,2","bean,13,1","beans,29,2,31,2,30,2","bearings,35,2,36,2","beaten,25,2","beating,24,1","beatings,24,1","because,17,2,19,1,20,2,32,1,34,1,36,1","become,5,1,36,1","becomes,32,1,39,1,44,1,20,1","bed,16,1,19,15,12,1","bedplanter,18,1","beds,19,26,39,1,40,2","beliefs,31,1","believe,31,1","bending,19,1","bends,20,1","beneficials,15,1","benefit,3,1,45,1","benefits,3,1,5,1,32,3,35,1,45,1,12,1","bengtsson,6,1","best,16,1","better,4,1,19,1","between,29,1,13,1,15,1,16,3,17,1,19,3,21,1,25,1,27,1,31,1,32,2,34,1,35,1,23,1,14,1,30,3","bicycle,35,6,53,8","bicycles,35,15,44,1","bielenberg,29,2","biennial,20,1","bins,28,3","biogas,33,1","biomass,27,1,33,6,20,2","birds,34,1","bishop,6,1","black,27,2","blade,17,1,21,1,23,1","bladed,30,1","blades,29,1,16,2,17,1,21,1,38,2,30,1","blanch,30,2","blown,26,1,27,1","boda,35,1","bodas,35,1","boiling,29,1","bolivia,36,1","books,4,2,6,1","boom,14,1","boomsprayer,54,8","borer,15,2","borers,15,1","borne,13,1,34,1","both,16,2,25,1,35,1,12,2,20,1","botonland,200,8","bottlenecks,25,1,26,1,35,1,36,1,37,1","bottom,27,1,14,1","boundaries,32,1","boundary,32,1","bovines,16,1,36,2","box,3,2,5,4,31,7,45,2","boxes,27,1","boys,5,1","br,16,1","bran,30,1","brand,10,1,38,1,12,1","brazil,17,2,12,2,14,1","break,15,1,16,1,36,1,20,1","breakage,30,1","breakdowns,35,1,36,1","breaking,16,1,24,1,20,1","breaks,13,1,30,1","breast,16,1,36,1,30,1","bred,13,1","breeding,13,2,34,1","bricks,28,1,34,1","brief,3,2,45,2","briquettes,33,1","broad,14,1","broadcast,17,1,12,1","broadcasting,12,1","broadly,20,1","broken,20,1","buffalo,16,2","buffaloes,16,1","build,19,2,28,1","builder,197,4","building,5,1,28,2","buildings,28,1","burden,5,3,39,1,43,1","buries,16,1","burkina,32,1","burkino,20,1","burn,31,1","burning,17,1,27,1,31,2,33,1","burns,31,2","burnt,28,1","bury,20,1","bush,35,1","business,29,1,36,1,37,1,30,1","buying,21,1","cage,29,2,30,1","cages,35,1","calculation,3,1,45,1","cambodia,15,1","camels,16,1","cancers,31,1","cane,30,1","cans,35,2","cap,27,1","capability,36,1,37,1","capable,13,1","capacities,28,1,36,1,39,1,40,1","capacity,5,1,27,1,28,1,33,1,34,1,35,1,36,2,37,1,20,1","capital,28,1,33,1,14,2,30,1","caracalla,7,1,9,1,11,1","cardiovascular,31,1","care,5,2,17,1,19,1,32,3","careful,13,1,14,1","carefully,27,1,14,1","caring,5,2","carried,29,1,17,2,26,2,35,1,38,2,39,1,44,1,12,2,14,1","carrier,19,1,35,1","carry,5,1,36,1","carrying,5,1,35,13,36,3,37,2,39,1,44,2","cart,35,2,36,9,37,1","carts,35,12,36,18,44,2","cascheme,207,8","case,29,1,35,1,20,1","cash,5,1,18,1,37,2,20,1","cassava,29,10,13,1,31,2,30,8","cassavacrop,55,8","cassavagrinder,56,8","cast,29,4,24,1,30,3","cat,57,8","catalogue,3,19,33,1,39,2,45,10,198,4","catalogue1,58,8","catalogue2,59,8","catches,34,1","catchment,34,1","cattle,16,3,25,2,32,1","cause,35,1,20,1","caused,20,1","causes,16,1,19,2","causing,19,1,31,1","cement,28,3,34,2","center,32,1","central,17,1,36,2,30,2","centre,34,1,35,3,36,1","centres,39,1,44,1","centrifugal,30,1","ceramic,31,1","cereal,13,1,39,1,41,1","cereals,21,6,22,5,41,2","certain,13,2","certified,13,14","certifying,13,2","cf,3,1,45,1","chaff,25,1,26,1","chain,13,1,16,1","chaka,38,1","chakahoe,60,8","challenge,5,1","challenges,5,1,16,1","chamber,29,1,27,1,30,1","change,5,1,38,1,20,3","changes,3,1,31,1,45,1,20,1","channelling,29,1","characteristics,32,2","charcoal,34,1","charity,4,1","cheap,16,1,27,1","cheaper,34,1,14,2","cheapest,28,1","chemicals,14,1","cherry,29,1,30,1","chicken,31,2","chief,11,1","children,3,1,38,1,45,1","chimney,27,1,31,3","chimneys,27,1,31,1","china,35,1,12,1","chisel,16,1,20,1","chlorination,34,1","chlorinationpotforhouseholdwells,61,8","choose,4,1","chosen,3,1,32,1,45,1","chronically,5,1","cirad,4,1","circular,24,1,28,1,34,1,30,1","circulates,30,1","circumstances,5,1","cistern,34,1","claims,29,1","claire,6,1","clare,6,1","clause,11,2","clay,31,1,14,1,20,1","clean,29,1,26,1,34,3,30,1","cleaner,26,1,34,1","cleaners,26,2","cleaning,26,15,34,2,42,1","cleanliness,34,1","clearance,30,1","clearing,5,1","climate,16,1","climates,6,1","climbing,28,1","clods,16,1","close,5,1,35,1,14,1","closely,34,1,12,1","closer,32,1,34,1,39,1,43,1","closure,28,1","clothing,15,1,31,1","cm,17,2,19,2,23,1,35,1,20,1","cob,24,4","cobs,24,2,27,1","coffee,29,11,30,12","collaboration,4,1","collaborative,6,1","collar,16,3,36,3","collars,28,1,36,2","collect,34,1","collected,21,1,32,1,34,6","collecting,31,1,34,1","collection,15,1,31,1,34,6","colombia,14,1","com,21,1","combination,26,1","combine,25,1","combineharvester,62,8","combustion,31,3","come,4,1,6,1","comes,29,1","comfortably,36,1","commercial,11,2,13,1","commission,13,1","common,16,7,17,2,21,1,24,1,36,1,35,1","commonly,16,1,18,1,24,1,27,2,28,1,36,1,38,2,35,1","communal,32,1,20,1","communally,32,1","communication,13,1","communities,3,4,4,1,5,2,15,1,17,1,39,1,45,4","community,3,2,6,1,29,2,13,2,15,1,25,3,26,2,33,2,32,1,34,1,45,2,35,1,30,2","compacted,19,1","compaction,16,1,18,1,19,3,20,2","companies,10,1","compared,16,2,17,1,18,1,21,1,22,2,24,2,31,1,36,2,37,2,38,1,23,1,35,3","comparison,12,1,20,1","compatible,32,1","competent,16,1","competition,20,1","complete,17,1","completed,31,1","completely,17,1","complex,13,1,17,1,18,1,22,1,24,1,26,1,33,2,37,1,12,1,20,1","component,4,1,28,1","components,3,2,36,1,37,1,45,2,35,1,20,2","compounds,28,1","comprehensive,4,1","compromise,21,1","compromised,20,1","concave,25,2","concentrate,19,1","concentrated,14,2","concentrates,4,1","concentration,19,1","concern,3,1,45,1","concerning,10,2","concrete,34,3","concreteringtank,63,8","condition,16,2,36,1,37,1,35,1,20,1","conditions,3,1,13,2,16,1,18,4,19,1,37,2,38,1,45,1","conducted,14,1","conical,29,1","conjunction,21,1","connected,36,5,35,1","consequently,25,1,39,1,42,1","conservation,4,3,5,2,16,3,17,2,19,1,32,1,39,1,12,1,40,2,14,1,20,31","consider,5,1","considerable,5,1,18,1,21,1,22,1,24,1,37,1","considerably,32,1","considered,38,1,20,1","constant,25,1","constitutional,10,1","constraint,3,2,45,2","constraints,3,2,5,1,45,2","constrict,31,1","construct,16,1,34,1,20,1","constructed,19,2,27,1,34,2","constructing,34,1,20,1","construction,19,2,28,1,32,1,34,1,26,1","consultant,6,2","consultative,13,1","consumables,33,1","consumes,34,1","consuming,32,1","consumption,31,2","contact,3,1,4,1,5,1,6,1,7,11,9,7,10,1,11,1,29,1,13,1,15,1,16,3,17,1,18,1,19,1,21,1,22,1,24,1,25,1,27,1,28,1,31,1,33,1,32,1,34,1,36,1,37,1,38,1,39,1,41,1,42,1,43,1,44,1,45,1,12,1,23,1,26,1,35,1,198,1,40,1,14,1,20,1,30,1","container,25,1,14,1","containers,34,2","contaminated,27,1,34,1","content,6,2,18,1,27,2,28,1,26,1,20,1","context,5,1,39,1,40,1","continued,27,1","continues,27,1","continuity,33,1","continuous,27,1","contour,19,2","contours,16,1,19,1,32,1","contractor,25,2,26,1","contractors,26,1","contractual,29,1,18,1,22,1,24,1,25,1,26,1,30,2","contributes,31,1","contributing,3,1,45,1","contribution,3,1,45,1","control,13,2,15,1,19,2,36,1,20,4","controlled,18,2,37,1","controlling,15,1,31,1","conventional,13,2,17,2,20,3","conventionally,17,1","converted,33,2","converting,30,1","cooked,29,1,31,1","cooker,31,5","cooking,5,1,31,11,33,3","cope,32,1","coppiced,32,2","copyright,10,1,11,3","copyrights,11,6","corners,28,1","correct,18,1,27,2,28,1,26,1","corrected,20,1","correctly,38,2","corrugated,27,1,28,1,34,1","cost,3,2,5,1,29,4,13,3,15,1,16,3,17,2,18,1,21,2,22,2,24,2,25,4,27,2,28,4,31,6,33,2,32,2,34,4,36,3,37,4,38,1,45,2,12,4,23,4,26,3,35,1,14,5,20,2,30,4","costly,12,1","costs,3,2,5,1,16,2,18,1,27,1,33,5,36,1,37,1,38,1,45,2,35,1,30,1","could,27,1,28,1,39,1,40,1,20,1","countries,16,1,27,1,38,1","country,10,1","cover,3,1,5,1,16,1,19,3,45,1,12,2,14,1,20,25","covered,5,1,17,2,34,1,12,2","covering,17,1","covers,27,1","cowpeas,20,1","cracker,30,1","cracks,31,1","cradle,21,1","creating,5,1","credit,6,12,205,8","credits,3,1,4,1,5,1,6,3,7,1,9,1,10,2,11,2,29,1,13,1,15,1,16,1,17,1,18,1,19,1,21,1,22,1,24,1,25,1,27,1,28,1,31,1,33,1,32,1,34,1,36,1,37,1,38,1,39,2,41,2,42,2,43,2,44,2,45,1,12,1,23,1,26,1,35,1,198,1,40,2,14,1,20,1,30,1","cret,6,1","crib©,28,1","cribs,27,1","critical,36,1,14,1,30,1","crop,29,12,13,3,15,2,16,1,17,1,19,6,21,5,22,1,25,3,27,7,28,1,33,3,32,3,37,1,39,2,41,1,42,3,12,3,23,1,26,1,14,5,20,21,30,13","cropped,15,1,16,1,17,1,32,1","cropping,5,1,15,1,16,3,32,2,37,1,38,1,12,1,20,4","crops,5,4,29,2,13,20,15,1,16,2,19,7,21,3,22,2,25,3,27,1,28,3,33,1,32,2,38,2,39,1,41,1,12,4,40,1,20,12,30,2","crouching,21,1","crush,20,1","crushed,30,1","crushers,30,2","crushes,20,1","cta,6,1","cultivated,16,2,18,1,19,1","cultivating,5,1","cultivation,3,1,9,4,13,1,15,2,16,1,17,2,18,1,19,6,37,1,38,6,39,2,41,5,42,1,43,1,44,1,45,1,12,1,40,5,14,1,20,1","cultivator,16,1,17,1,20,1","cultivators,16,4","cultural,38,1","currently,4,1","curved,24,1,34,1,23,1","cut,21,1,24,1","cuts,17,1,21,1","cutter,22,3","cutters,29,1,22,1,30,1","cutting,23,1,20,1","cycle,13,1,15,1,37,1","cycles,15,1","cylinder,24,2,30,3","dam,16,2","damage,10,1,18,1,25,1,31,1,26,1,14,1","damaged,25,1,27,1","dams,32,1","damscoops,20,1","dap,16,2,17,13,64,8,40,1,30,1","dapinterrowcultivator,65,8","dapseeder,66,8","dapuse,67,8","dapweeder,68,8","darrow,6,1","data,4,1,10,2,14,1","database,4,1","day,16,3,22,1,34,1,39,1,44,1","days,29,1,21,2,34,1","dealership,13,1","dealt,39,1,40,1","death,5,1","debilitating,5,1","decade,36,1","decision,39,1","declines,10,2","decorticator,24,5","decorticators,24,1","decreasing,33,1","deep,19,1,23,1","deficiencies,10,2","deforestation,31,1,32,1","degradation,3,1,31,1,32,2,45,1,20,1","degrees,37,1","delay,32,2,39,1,41,1","delays,36,1,35,1,37,1","delimitation,10,1","delivery,3,1,45,1","delle,7,1,9,1,11,1","demand,29,1,16,1,22,1,24,1,25,1,33,1,32,1,39,1,44,1,26,1,20,1,30,1","demanding,39,2,44,1,40,1","demands,38,1","demi,20,1","dense,26,1","density,28,1","department,33,1,32,1","dependence,20,1","dependent,13,1,18,2,19,1","depending,13,1,17,1,19,1,33,1,32,1,34,1","depends,16,2","depressions,19,1","depth,16,1,19,1,38,1,23,2","described,3,3,39,3,41,1,43,1,44,1,45,3,12,1,30,1","description,3,2,4,1,6,1,18,1,45,2,37,1","design,16,2,28,2,35,1,30,1","designations,10,2","designed,4,2,16,2,22,1,31,1,34,1,36,2,38,3","designs,28,2,34,1,36,1","desirable,34,2,36,1","destroying,15,1,18,1","detailed,3,1,45,1","detected,34,1","deteriorating,5,1,13,1","determinant,5,1","determine,15,1","determines,30,1","determining,27,1","develop,3,1,5,1,15,1,45,1","developed,3,1,5,1,13,1,19,1,33,1,32,1,39,1,41,1,42,1,43,1,44,1,45,1,40,1","developing,3,1,4,2,5,1,13,1,45,1","development,3,1,4,3,6,3,15,1,16,1,17,1,31,1,33,4,36,4,38,1,45,1,37,1","di,7,1,9,1,11,1","diagnostic,3,1,45,1","diameter,29,1,35,4","die,17,1","diesel,27,2,30,1","different,3,1,4,1,5,1,33,1,34,1,38,1,45,1","difficult,34,1,35,1","difficulty,27,1","digesters,33,1","digging,38,4","diluted,14,1","direct,20,1","directed,34,1","direction,36,1","directions,30,1","directly,4,1,33,2,34,1,35,1,20,2","directory,150,8","dirt,34,1","disadvantages,3,3,29,2,13,2,15,2,16,2,17,2,18,2,19,2,21,2,22,2,24,2,25,2,27,2,28,2,31,2,33,2,32,3,34,2,36,2,38,2,45,3,12,2,23,2,26,2,35,2,37,2,14,2,20,2,30,2","disc,30,2","disclaimer,10,4","discourages,15,1","discs,14,2","disease,13,2,19,1,26,1,20,3","diseases,5,1,13,1,25,1,31,2,34,1,12,1,19,1","disk,24,2","disks,29,1","dislodged,34,1","disseminating,5,1","dissemination,11,1","distance,31,1,32,1,30,1","distances,16,1,12,1,35,2","distinct,25,1","distribution,16,1,17,1,20,1","distributor,14,1","disturbance,20,4","disturbed,20,1","diverse,20,1","diversification,3,1,29,1,13,1,15,1,16,1,18,1,22,1,24,1,25,1,28,1,31,1,33,1,32,1,34,1,36,1,45,1,26,1,35,1,37,2,20,1,30,1","diversify,3,1,13,1,45,1","diversifying,3,1,45,1","division,4,1,6,2,11,1,39,1,41,1,42,1,43,1,44,1,40,1","documentation,10,1","documents,4,3","dolicos,20,2","dolicoslablabcovercrop,69,8","domain,5,1","domestic,5,1,34,2","donkey,16,1,36,3,70,8","donkeydrawncart,71,8","donkeys,16,2,36,3","double,16,3,12,1","doubles,16,2","doubleyoke,72,8","dough,29,2,30,1","down,29,1,16,1,34,1,36,1,38,2,19,1","downhill,34,1","draft,16,1","dragged,24,1","drains,16,1","draught,5,4,7,4,9,4,10,4,11,4,29,1,16,27,17,14,18,4,27,1,36,4,38,1,39,5,41,5,42,5,43,4,44,4,19,3,23,12,37,2,40,7,20,12,30,12","draw,27,2,31,1","drawbar,36,4","drawing,27,1,31,1","drawn,5,1,16,1,17,1,36,8,44,1,20,2","dribble,17,1","dribbled,12,1","dried,29,1,27,2,33,1","drift,14,1","drills,12,1","drinking,34,2","drip,34,1","drive,30,2","driven,30,3","driver,36,1","driving,18,1,33,1","droplet,14,1","dropped,12,1","drudgery,3,1,5,2,16,1,18,1,21,1,25,1,36,1,38,1,45,1,37,1,14,2,20,1,30,1","drum,24,3,25,3,30,1","drums,25,1,28,1","dry,13,2,16,1,17,2,18,2,27,1,28,2,32,1,23,1,34,1,20,1,30,1","dryer,27,2","dryers,27,2","drying,27,25,33,1,42,1","drylands,13,1","duck,16,1,17,1","due,5,1,13,1,15,2,16,2,17,2,18,2,32,1,38,1,19,1","dug,12,1,19,1,34,1","dung,32,1","during,13,1,16,1,25,3,27,2,19,2,26,1,34,1,20,3","dust,29,1,30,1","dusted,28,1","ear,25,1","early,13,1","earn,18,1,35,1","earning,16,1,36,1,34,1,37,1","ears,25,1","earthenware,34,1","eases,13,1","easier,3,1,21,1,38,2,39,4,41,1,42,1,43,1,44,1,45,1,12,3,34,1,14,1","easily,17,1,21,1,34,1","east,4,1,6,1,31,1","eastern,4,2","easy,3,1,29,1,16,3,17,1,21,2,25,1,28,1,36,1,38,1,45,1,23,1,26,1,34,1,35,1,14,2,30,1","eaten,36,1","eaves,34,1","ecology,15,1","economical,28,1,12,1","economies,12,1","economist,6,1","ecosystem,15,2","edge,15,1,24,1,25,1","edges,29,1","edible,13,1","edited,6,1","editing,6,1","editor,3,1,4,1,5,1,6,1,7,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,29,1,13,1,15,1,16,1,17,1,18,1,21,1,22,1,24,1,25,1,27,1,28,1,31,1,33,1,32,1,36,1,38,1,39,1,41,1,42,1,43,1,44,1,45,1,12,1,19,1,23,1,26,1,34,1,35,1,37,1,198,1,40,1,14,1,20,1,30,1","education,5,1","educational,11,1","effect,27,1,30,1","effective,3,1,5,2,29,1,15,1,36,1,45,1,23,1","effectively,4,1,5,1,16,3,17,1,18,1","effectiveness,5,1,17,1","effects,32,1","efficiencies,31,1","efficiency,5,2,31,3,32,1,34,1","efficient,5,1,16,2,18,1,22,2,24,2,25,2,31,15,33,1,39,1,43,2,26,1,37,1,30,2","efficiently,29,1,27,1,14,1","effort,13,1","eight,3,1,45,1,32,1","either,3,1,29,1,13,1,15,1,16,1,17,1,25,1,36,2,39,1,43,1,45,1,19,2,26,1,35,3,30,1","elderly,5,1","electric,24,1,27,1,26,1,37,1,30,1","electrically,27,1","electricity,27,1,33,3","elements,15,1","eligible,15,1","eliminate,39,1,40,1","eliminating,20,1","elliot,6,2","emergent,38,1","emerges,30,1","emission,31,1","emissions,31,1","emphasis,38,1","emphasize,4,1","employed,10,2","employment,5,1","empowering,16,1","empowerment,15,1","enable,3,1,5,1,31,1,36,1,38,1,39,2,41,1,45,1,12,1","enables,16,1,17,2,28,1,12,2","enabling,5,1","enclosed,26,1","end,16,1,21,1,36,2,35,1,20,2,30,2","endorsement,10,1","energy,3,1,5,4,13,1,16,1,25,1,31,2,33,38,38,1,39,2,42,1,43,2,45,1,20,1","engage,29,1,30,1","engine,18,1,197,4","engineer,6,1,7,1,9,1,14,1","engineering,4,1,7,1,9,1,16,1","engines,37,1,30,1","engleberg,30,3","enough,34,1","ensure,3,1,5,1,27,1,45,1,35,1,20,1","entering,34,1","enterprises,32,1","entitled,4,1","entry,20,1","environment,18,1,14,1,20,1","environmental,3,1,15,1,31,1,33,1,45,1,32,2","epidemic,5,1","equator,34,1","equilibrium,20,1","equines,16,2,36,4","equipment,3,5,4,2,5,1,6,1,29,8,15,1,16,5,17,6,18,2,21,2,22,3,24,4,25,13,27,17,28,3,31,2,33,7,36,3,38,3,39,1,42,1,45,5,12,4,19,1,23,3,26,13,34,1,35,2,37,3,40,1,14,5,20,6,30,13","equipments,39,1,42,1","equitable,16,1","equivalent,20,1","equivalents,16,1","ergonomics,31,1","eroded,5,1","eroding,19,1","erosion,18,1,19,2,32,1,34,1,14,1,20,1","errors,10,3","escorts,31,1","espaceur,73,8","especially,16,1,25,1,31,1,37,1","essential,28,1,38,1,14,1","establish,29,1,19,1,32,2,20,1,30,1","established,18,1,38,1,19,2,20,2","establishment,14,1","ethiopia,32,1","eucalyptus,32,1","european,20,1","evaluation,12,1","even,20,1","evener,36,1","evenly,13,1","evenness,16,1","examine,3,1,45,1","example,3,2,5,2,15,1,22,1,27,1,31,2,38,1,39,1,43,1,45,2,32,1,34,2,20,2,30,1","examples,5,1,20,1","exceed,36,1","except,29,1,21,1","exception,17,1","excess,20,1","excessively,13,1,20,1","exchange,4,1,37,1","exclude,34,1","exert,16,1,18,1","exist,29,1","existing,3,1,45,1","exotic,32,1","expansion,16,1,18,1","expelled,29,1,30,1","expellers,29,1,30,1","expenditure,5,1,15,1","expenses,5,1","expensive,3,1,15,1,17,1,27,1,28,1,31,1,33,1,45,1,34,1,14,2","experience,19,1","expertise,37,1","explained,27,1","explanation,3,4,5,4,45,4,198,4","explanations,19,1","export,14,1","exposed,3,1,17,1,45,1","expressed,10,1","expression,10,1","extend,39,1,40,1","extended,23,1","extension,13,2,19,1,23,1,32,1,20,1","extensive,15,1,16,1,36,1,20,2","extent,3,1,45,1","extracted,30,1","extraction,29,6,30,8","extremely,5,1","extruding,29,1","eye,31,1","fabricate,29,1,21,1,25,1,28,1,38,1,26,1,35,1,30,1","fabricated,28,1","faced,5,1","faces,29,1","facilitate,16,3,17,1,38,1","facilitates,17,1","facilities,13,1,28,5,42,1","facility,15,1","fact,19,1","factor,21,1","factors,5,1","fail,29,1,22,1,24,1,25,1,26,1,30,1","failed,5,1","failure,32,1","failures,17,1","fairly,35,3","fall,29,1,21,1,24,2,26,1","fallow,43,1,32,13","falls,23,1,14,1","familiar,32,1","family,3,1,45,1,34,2","fan,27,2,26,2","fao,3,8,5,8,6,9,7,9,9,9,10,10,11,9,29,8,13,9,15,10,16,13,17,9,18,9,21,7,22,6,24,6,25,7,27,7,28,7,31,9,33,8,36,8,38,9,39,6,41,6,42,6,43,6,44,6,45,8,74,8,4,13,12,8,19,8,23,6,26,9,32,9,34,8,35,9,37,7,198,6,40,6,14,9,20,11,30,7","far,16,1","farm,6,1,15,2,16,2,22,1,24,1,36,2,32,1,37,2,20,1","farmer,3,1,6,1,13,1,15,1,39,1,45,1,40,1","farmers,3,1,5,3,6,3,13,2,16,2,17,1,18,2,21,1,22,1,24,1,25,1,27,1,28,1,38,2,45,1,4,3,19,1,32,4,37,2,14,1,20,4","farmesa,6,2,24,2,36,1,4,1,23,2,35,1","farming,5,1,13,1,4,1,12,1,32,1,20,5","farms,13,1","farmstructures,75,8","farmyard,20,2","faso,32,1,20,1","fast,37,1","faster,17,2,27,1","favoured,16,1","feature,21,2","features,3,2,29,10,13,5,17,4,18,2,24,2,25,2,27,2,28,2,31,4,36,6,45,2,12,4,15,2,16,4,19,2,22,2,23,2,26,2,32,6,34,6,35,6,37,4,14,4,20,6,30,12","fed,25,2,30,2","federation,20,1","feed,34,1,30,1","feeding,25,1,16,3,17,1,30,1","feet,12,1","fences,32,1","fermented,29,1","ferro,28,1,34,1","fertiliser,33,1,12,3,17,4","fertilisers,17,2,20,2","fertilising,12,1,17,3,32,1","fertility,19,1,32,1,20,1","fertilizer,13,1,20,1","fetch,25,1,26,1","fetching,5,1,32,2","fewer,21,1,16,1,17,1","field,3,2,45,2,12,1,15,3,32,1,20,2","fields,19,1","figure,29,1","files,38,1","fill,33,1","filled,34,1,14,1","filter,34,1","filtering,34,1","filters,34,4","final,27,1","finance,17,1","financial,5,2,29,1,24,1,25,1,33,1,36,1,38,1,16,1,17,2,22,1,26,1,35,1,37,2,30,2","fine,16,1,14,1","fineness,29,1,30,2","fire,31,8","fireless,31,5","firelesscooker,76,8","fires,31,1","firewood,5,1,31,3,36,1,32,9,20,1","first,15,1,19,1,34,2","fit,36,2,39,1,40,1","fitted,21,1,16,1,23,1","five,17,1","fix,20,1","flail,25,1","flame,31,2","flash,32,1","flat,29,2,35,2","flavour,31,1","flesh,29,2,30,2","flights,30,1","flood,19,1","floods,32,1","flour,29,1,30,1","flow,25,3,27,1,33,1,31,2,19,1","flush,34,2","focal,6,1","focuses,3,1,45,1","fodder,32,3,35,1,20,1","followed,14,1,30,1","following,13,1","food,3,2,5,3,7,2,9,2,10,2,13,1,28,1,31,6,45,2,4,4,32,2","foods,27,1","foot,12,1,16,1,17,1,19,1","footpaths,35,2","forage,20,1","force,29,2,18,2,16,2","forced,29,1,25,1","forehead,16,1","foreign,37,1","forestry,43,1,32,15","forks,26,1","form,45,1,3,1,34,1,20,1","formation,20,1","formed,19,2","former,16,1","forming,16,1","forum,4,1,15,2","fostering,5,1","found,45,2,3,2","foundation,31,1","four,18,1,21,1,4,1,12,1,19,1,37,1","fourth,17,1","frame,29,1,24,3,25,1,35,3","frames,36,1","francisco,6,1","free,29,1,21,1,28,2,26,1,30,1","frequent,17,1,35,1","frequently,5,1,21,1,25,1,27,1,28,1,36,1,32,1","friedrich,6,1","friendly,31,1","frise,77,8","front,36,2,37,1","frontiers,10,1","fruit,32,2","fruits,27,1","fry,31,2","fuel,5,1,27,3,33,2,31,11,39,1,43,2,32,1,30,1","full,38,1,16,2,19,1,20,1","fully,5,2,11,1,36,1","fumigated,28,2","function,16,1","functioning,26,1","fundamental,15,1","funded,4,1","funerals,5,1,36,1","fungal,29,1,28,1,30,1","furrow,17,1,20,1","furrows,12,1,20,2","further,33,1,45,2,3,2,26,1,32,2","future,5,1","gains,5,1","gallat,6,1","galvanised,34,1","gaps,29,1","gardening,12,2,19,3","gardens,34,1","gas,27,1,33,2","gather,21,1","gathering,27,1","gearbox,30,1","geared,30,1","gender,6,1,38,1,16,1","generate,5,1,33,1","generating,25,1,28,1,33,2,31,1,45,1,3,1,26,1","generations,4,1","genetic,13,2","germination,13,2,16,1","gif,49,8,51,8,52,8,73,8,74,8,77,8,98,8,110,8,145,8,150,8,205,8,206,8","girls,5,1","give,33,1,16,1","given,45,2,3,2","gives,5,1","global,4,1,15,1","glyphosate,19,1,14,2","going,19,1","good,29,1,13,2,18,2,21,1,31,1,17,1,20,1","goods,35,2,37,1","government,45,1,3,1,4,1","governs,30,1","grade,26,1","graded,34,1","grading,26,1","gradually,16,1,20,1","grain,5,1,29,11,21,1,25,10,27,2,28,3,33,1,26,8,35,1,30,11","grains,21,1,25,1,27,1,28,3,42,1,26,8","grams,31,2","granite,29,1,34,1","grass,15,3,22,1,35,1","grassed,19,1","grated,29,1","graters,29,1,30,1","gravity,36,1,35,2","grazed,19,1","grazing,5,1","greater,31,1,16,1,30,1","greatly,38,1","green,31,2,20,2","grind,29,1,30,1","grinder,29,1","grinding,29,4","grinding1,78,8","grinding2,79,8","ground,29,1,25,2,27,3,34,5,30,2","groundnut,24,9,41,2,42,1,43,1,44,1,23,11,40,1","groundnutdecorticator,80,8","groundnutlifterwithcurvedbalde,146,8","groundnutlifterwithvsweep,82,8","groundnuts,29,2,13,1,24,3,12,1,16,1,23,2,30,1","groundnutstripper,83,8","groundut,7,4,9,4,10,4,11,4,39,4,41,4,42,4,43,4,44,4,23,4,40,4","group,13,1,25,1,28,1,38,1,15,1,16,1,26,1","groups,5,1,45,4,3,4","grow,13,1,32,1,20,2","grower,13,1","growing,5,1,14,2,20,4","grown,13,3,12,1,19,2,23,1,32,2,20,3","growth,13,1,15,1,16,1,19,1,32,1,34,1","gtz,4,1","guide,6,2,33,1,4,1","guidelines,21,1","guttering,34,1","gutters,34,2","habitat,32,1","half,24,1,38,1,20,1","hammer,30,3","hammered,24,1,12,1","hammermill,84,8","hammers,30,1","hand,29,4,21,15,24,3,25,2,38,2,41,1,44,1,12,22,17,2,19,2,22,1,23,2,26,3,35,10,40,1,14,3,20,4","handcart,85,8,35,1","handcarts,35,4","handful,25,1","handle,24,1,14,2","handled,38,2,14,2","handles,38,3","handling,39,1,42,1","handridgerrowmarker,86,8","handsievingofgrain,87,8","hang,35,1","hard,38,1,19,1,20,1","hardness,16,1,20,1","hardpans,20,1","harness,88,8,16,1","harnesses,36,2,16,7","harnessing,36,6,16,9","harrow,17,1","harrows,39,1,16,2,40,1","harsher,18,1","harvest,7,1,9,1,29,1,13,2,21,1,24,1,25,1,27,3,28,2,39,3,41,1,42,6,45,1,3,1,4,3,26,1,40,1,30,2","harvested,21,1,32,1","harvester,25,1","harvesting,5,2,7,1,9,1,13,3,21,15,24,2,39,5,41,5,42,1,43,4,44,2,45,1,3,1,12,2,16,1,22,13,23,4,32,1,34,14,37,2,40,1,201,8","harvestingcollage,148,8","harvests,22,1","having,21,1,33,1","hay,31,1,22,1","haymaking,21,1","head,33,1,36,1,16,1,35,3","headed,5,1","health,5,1,31,2,15,1,16,2,17,1,34,1,14,1","heat,27,1,31,5,30,1","heated,27,2","heater,33,1","heaters,27,1","heating,33,1","heavily,20,1","heavy,5,1,29,1,25,1,38,1,23,1,34,1,35,1","hectare,13,1,22,1,14,3","height,28,1,32,1","help,5,1,6,1,7,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,29,1,13,3,18,1,21,1,24,1,25,1,27,1,28,1,33,1,31,1,36,1,38,1,39,1,41,1,42,1,43,1,44,1,45,6,3,2,4,2,12,1,15,1,16,1,17,1,19,2,22,1,23,1,26,1,32,2,34,1,35,1,37,1,198,1,40,1,14,1,20,1,30,1","hence,5,1,29,1,18,1,25,1,36,1,38,1,16,1,26,1,35,1,37,2","hera,31,1","herbaceous,20,1","herbicide,14,6","herbicides,5,1,39,1,40,1,14,5,20,7","high,29,2,13,1,18,4,21,1,24,2,25,4,28,1,33,3,31,2,36,1,38,1,16,1,19,2,22,2,23,1,26,2,37,1,20,2,30,4","higher,5,1,29,1,13,2,18,1,31,1,36,1,12,1,15,1,16,1,22,1,26,1,35,1,37,2,14,1,20,2,30,2","highly,5,1,39,1,41,1,34,1","hire,29,2,18,1,24,1,25,1,45,1,3,1,16,1,22,1,26,1,20,1,30,2","hired,16,1","hires,22,1","hiring,24,1,37,1","history,5,1","hiv,5,2,6,1,38,1,4,3,17,1","hoe,38,2,12,1","hoeing,20,1","hoes,18,4,38,38,39,1,45,1,3,1,12,1,40,2,14,1","hoeseller,89,8","hold,21,1","holders,11,2","holding,14,1","holdings,18,1","hole,29,1,34,2","holes,12,1,30,1","hollowed,29,1","home,5,3,6,1,7,1,9,1,10,1,11,1,29,1,13,1,18,1,21,1,24,2,25,2,27,1,28,1,33,1,31,3,36,1,38,1,39,2,41,1,42,1,43,3,44,1,45,1,3,1,4,1,12,1,15,1,16,1,17,1,19,1,22,1,23,1,26,2,32,2,34,2,35,1,37,1,198,1,40,1,14,1,20,1,30,1","hook,21,1","hooked,21,1","hooks,21,6","hoppers,28,1","horizontal,29,2,17,1,30,2","horses,36,1","hour,29,8,24,3,25,3,27,1,31,3,26,2,37,1,30,6","hours,21,2,31,4,38,3,16,5,14,3","house,34,2","household,5,6,7,1,9,1,33,2,31,2,36,1,39,3,41,1,43,6,44,1,45,2,3,2,4,1,32,2,34,2,42,1,40,1,20,1,202,8","householdcollage,152,8","householders,33,1","households,5,10,29,1,39,2,41,1,44,1,34,1,30,1","houses,5,1","housing,29,2,30,1","however,5,2,10,1,32,1","hrs,38,1","html,5,4,6,4,7,4,10,4,11,4,29,4,13,4,18,4,21,4,24,4,25,4,27,4,28,4,33,4,31,4,36,4,38,4,39,4,41,4,43,4,44,4,45,4,3,4,4,4,12,4,15,4,16,4,17,4,19,4,22,4,23,4,26,4,32,4,34,4,35,4,37,4,197,4,198,4,42,4,40,4,14,4,20,4,30,4","hull,29,1,30,2","hulled,30,1","huller,29,1,30,3","hullers,29,4,30,5","hulling,29,7,30,7","hulls,29,3,27,1,30,2","human,33,1,36,1,16,1,19,2,35,2","humanporterage,90,8","humid,27,1","hump,36,1","humped,16,1","hungry,13,1","husbandry,36,1,16,1","hydraulic,29,2,30,1","hydro,33,1","hydropower,33,6","icarda,13,1","ico,199,8","idea,45,5,3,5,198,4","ideally,29,1,30,1","ideas,45,4,3,4","identified,45,1,3,1","identifies,15,1","identify,5,1,39,1,45,1,3,1","idle,25,1,26,1","ifad,4,1","imediate,6,1","immediate,5,2","impact,5,1,35,1","impacted,5,1","impacts,38,1,4,1,15,1,17,1","impermeable,34,1","implement,25,2,16,4,17,1,14,1","implementos,12,1","implements,5,1,24,1,38,1,16,12,17,1,22,1,40,1,14,1,20,1","imply,10,2","import,20,1","importance,5,1,27,1","important,5,1,26,1,27,1,35,3,30,1","importation,17,1,27,1","imported,13,2,18,1","improve,5,1,39,1,45,1,3,1,4,1,16,5,19,2,27,1,32,1,34,1,20,1","improved,5,1,13,7,18,6,21,8,28,20,33,1,31,2,36,1,38,14,39,1,41,1,43,1,15,1,16,3,19,1,32,7,37,2,42,1,40,2,20,1","improvedstove,91,8","improvement,35,1","improvements,31,1,16,1","improves,29,1,13,1,36,1,12,1,19,1,32,1,34,1,37,1,14,1,30,1","improving,45,1,3,1,16,2,17,1","impurities,25,1","inappropriate,15,1","include,31,1,16,2,19,1,22,1,26,1,32,1,20,2","includes,25,1,20,2","including,5,1,29,2,31,1,36,1,45,1,3,1,16,1,19,1,32,1,37,1,20,1,30,1","income,5,1,18,1,25,1,28,1,33,1,31,1,45,1,3,1,26,1,32,1,34,1,35,1","incorporate,18,1","incorporated,34,1,20,1,30,1","incorrect,31,1","incorrectly,14,1","increase,5,2,29,1,13,1,18,1,25,2,28,1,39,2,4,1,15,1,16,1,17,1,26,1,27,1,42,2,20,1","increased,29,1,21,1,25,1,38,1,20,1,30,1","increases,16,3,17,2,19,1,27,3,32,1,20,1","increasing,36,1,39,1,44,1,45,2,3,2,32,1","indeed,45,1,3,1","index,39,4","india,37,1,14,1","indicative,38,1,16,1","indicator,32,1","indigenous,13,1","individual,18,1,25,1","indoor,31,1","industrial,33,1","industry,13,1","ineastern,20,1","ineffectively,27,1","inefficient,16,1","infections,29,1,30,1","infestation,28,1","infestations,20,1","infiltration,18,1,19,1,32,1","inflexible,33,1","influence,5,1","information,5,1,11,3,29,1,24,1,25,1,28,1,45,2,3,2,4,13,16,1,19,1,26,1,27,1,34,1,37,1,14,1,30,1","infrastructure,5,1,29,1,13,3,18,2,21,1,24,2,25,2,28,1,33,1,31,1,36,1,38,1,39,1,45,3,3,3,15,1,16,2,22,2,23,1,26,2,27,1,32,1,35,3,37,2,40,1,14,1,20,1,30,3","initial,28,1,31,1,45,1,3,1,32,1,37,1,20,1","initially,19,1,32,1,20,1","initiative,33,1,34,1","injure,36,1,16,1","injuries,36,1,16,1","innovative,45,1,3,1","inpho,24,1,25,1,4,1,26,1","input,29,1,13,3,28,1,15,1,19,2","inputs,5,2,13,3,21,1,39,1,44,1,45,1,3,1,15,2,16,2,32,2,20,5","insect,28,1","insecticides,28,1,15,1","insects,31,1","insecure,5,1","inserted,24,1","inspect,12,1","inspection,12,1","install,27,1","installed,19,1","institute,13,1,28,1,15,1,14,1","institutions,13,2,33,1,36,1,45,1,3,1,15,1,32,1,34,1,20,1","insufficient,29,1,24,1,25,1,22,1,26,1,30,1","insulated,31,12","insulating,31,1","insulation,31,1","integral,30,1","integrated,15,9,32,1,40,1,20,1","integrating,32,1","intensity,31,1","intensive,5,1,13,3,25,1,39,1,41,1,19,1,26,1","inter,5,1,18,1,38,1,12,3,15,2,16,1,17,2,32,1,20,2","interaction,32,1","intercrop,15,1","intercroplablabmaize,92,8","interests,5,1","intergrated,15,4","intermediate,4,1","internal,24,1","international,13,2,33,1,34,1","interrow,16,1,17,1","interrowcultivator,93,8","intervening,20,1","intervention,33,1,15,1","interventions,15,1","introduce,29,1,24,1,22,1,30,1","introduced,5,1,25,1,16,1,26,1","introducing,15,1","introduction,5,5,39,1","invert,16,1,20,1","inverting,17,1,20,2","inverts,16,1,17,1","investment,24,1,36,1,38,1,45,1,3,1,16,2,22,1,32,1,35,1,20,1","involved,5,1,45,1,3,1,27,1","involves,25,1","ipm,15,5","iron,29,2,24,1,28,1,27,1,34,2,30,3","irreversible,5,1","irrigated,18,2,19,1,34,1,37,2","irrigating,34,1","irrigation,16,1,34,1","isolated,19,1","issues,4,1","italy,7,2,9,2,11,1","items,29,1,35,1","its,21,1,36,1,45,1,3,1,17,1,32,3","jab,5,1,12,5,20,1","jabplanter,94,8","jacto,14,1","james,6,1","japan,4,1","jars,29,1,34,1","jerry,35,2","job,39,1,43,1","joint,4,1","josef,6,3,7,2,9,2","journey,39,1,44,1","jpg,46,8,47,8,48,8,53,8,54,8,55,8,56,8,57,8,58,8,59,8,60,8,62,8,63,8,64,8,65,8,66,8,67,8,68,8,69,8,70,8,71,8,72,8,75,8,76,8,78,8,79,8,80,8,82,8,83,8,84,8,85,8,86,8,87,8,88,8,89,8,90,8,91,8,92,8,93,8,94,8,95,8,96,8,97,8,99,8,100,8,101,8,102,8,103,8,104,8,105,8,106,8,108,8,109,8,111,8,112,8,113,8,114,8,115,8,116,8,118,8,119,8,120,8,121,8,122,8,123,8,124,8,125,8,126,8,127,8,117,8,61,8,128,8,129,8,130,8,131,8,133,8,134,8,135,8,136,8,137,8,138,8,139,8,140,8,141,8,144,8,146,8,148,8,149,8,151,8,152,8,153,8,200,8,201,8,202,8,203,8,204,8,207,8","judgement,10,1","justified,12,1","justify,29,1,25,1,26,1","jute,24,1","jz,12,1","keeping,28,1","keith,6,2","ken,6,1","kenya,18,1,31,1,38,1,12,1,15,1,16,2,17,1,19,1,20,1","kenyan,14,1","kernel,30,1","kernels,24,4","key,5,1,39,1,45,1,3,1,4,5","kg,29,8,13,1,24,3,25,3,28,1,36,4,38,2,26,1,35,2,37,3,30,6","kienzle,7,2,9,2,6,3","kill,20,1","killed,19,1","killing,17,1","kilogram,15,1","kindly,10,1","kingdom,4,1","kisii,34,1","kitchen,31,1","km,35,2,37,2","knapic,17,1","knapsack,39,1,15,1,40,2,14,18","knapsackinuse,95,8","knapsacksprayerinuse,96,8","knife,20,3","kniferollerinaction,97,8","knives,21,1","knocked,24,1","knowledge,5,2,13,2,33,1,36,1,45,1,3,1,4,1,32,1,37,1","known,15,1,20,1","korea,16,1,20,1","kw,18,1,24,1,22,2,26,1,27,1,37,2,30,6","lab,15,2","lablab,20,2","labor,39,1","labour,5,30,7,9,9,9,10,13,11,13,29,11,13,20,18,11,21,12,24,10,25,12,33,10,31,10,36,10,38,12,39,18,41,10,43,9,44,9,45,17,3,22,4,13,12,15,15,11,16,15,17,12,19,14,22,11,23,10,26,13,27,11,28,11,32,13,34,10,35,13,37,10,198,13,42,10,40,10,14,10,20,18,30,10,6,10","labourer,21,1,38,1","lack,18,1,15,1,17,1,32,1,37,1","laden,35,1","laid,27,2","land,5,4,9,4,13,1,18,2,38,7,39,3,41,5,43,1,44,1,45,1,3,1,12,1,15,1,16,6,17,1,19,5,32,3,34,1,37,1,42,1,40,7,14,1,20,11","landcollage,149,8","landform,19,1","lands,19,1","lanes,38,1","large,29,3,25,1,33,1,39,2,44,1,16,1,27,1,34,3,35,3,40,1","larger,29,1,34,1,35,1,30,1","last,36,1,15,1","latin,4,1,20,1","latter,18,1,25,1,16,1,26,1,30,1","layout,31,1","lazy,20,1","lead,25,1,34,1,20,1,6,1","leading,32,2","leads,18,1,19,1","leaf,32,1","leaks,34,1","learn,12,1","learnt,5,1","least,38,1","leather,30,1","leave,26,1","leaves,34,2,14,1","leaving,13,1,18,1","left,24,1,16,1,17,1,14,1,20,1","legal,5,1,7,1,9,1,10,3,11,2,29,1,13,1,18,1,21,1,24,1,25,1,33,1,31,1,36,1,38,1,39,1,41,1,43,1,44,1,45,1,3,1,4,1,12,1,15,1,16,1,17,1,19,1,22,1,23,1,26,1,27,1,28,1,32,1,34,1,35,1,37,1,198,1,42,1,40,1,14,1,20,1,30,1,6,1","legs,24,1","leguminous,5,1","length,38,1","lennart,6,1","less,5,1,13,3,18,4,31,4,39,3,43,1,44,1,12,1,16,1,17,1,19,1,26,1,34,1,37,1,40,1,14,1","lessons,5,1","level,21,1,16,1,27,1,35,1","levellers,20,1","levelling,16,3","levels,21,1,33,1,38,1,15,1,27,1,28,1,20,2","lever,29,3","library,6,1","lies,25,1,26,1","life,5,1,33,1,15,2,28,1,20,1","lift,34,1","lifter,7,4,9,4,10,4,11,4,39,4,41,5,43,4,44,4,23,18,42,4,40,4","lifting,23,1","light,38,2,35,1,37,1,14,1","lighting,33,2","lights,33,1","lightweight,36,1","likely,5,1,35,1","lime,20,1","liming,20,1","limitations,19,1","limited,33,1,15,1,34,1,35,1,37,1,20,1","limits,20,1","line,4,2","lined,31,2,34,1","liner,31,1","link,98,8","links,33,1,45,1,3,1,4,1","list,29,1,13,1,18,2,21,1,24,2,25,1,33,1,36,1,38,1,4,1,22,1,26,2,27,3,28,2,37,1,14,1,30,1","litres,34,5","little,5,1,16,1,14,1,20,1","live,32,1","livelihood,5,2,29,2,13,2,18,3,21,1,24,2,25,2,33,2,31,2,36,2,38,2,45,5,3,5,12,2,15,2,16,2,17,1,19,1,22,2,23,1,26,3,27,1,28,2,32,2,34,2,35,2,37,3,14,1,20,2,30,2","livelihoods,39,1,45,2,3,2,4,1","lives,4,1","livestock,5,2,33,1,17,1,20,3","living,5,2","load,36,3,35,3","loaded,36,1","loading,25,1","loads,5,1,36,2,35,4,37,1","local,13,8,31,2,36,2,38,2,45,3,3,3,16,3,17,1,27,1,28,3,32,2,20,1","localised,16,1","locally,13,2,31,1,26,1","location,31,1","logging,20,2","logo,74,8","logoblue,99,8","logoinpho,100,8","long,5,1,33,1,38,2,15,1,28,2,32,1,34,1,20,1","longer,16,1,19,1,28,1,35,1","loosen,17,1","lopez,6,1","losing,39,1,41,1","loss,5,2,21,1,32,1","losses,21,2,39,2,45,1,3,1,23,2,27,2,28,5,42,2,20,2","lost,13,1,31,1","lower,29,1,25,1,16,1,27,1,32,1,37,1","lowest,28,1","lst,199,8","lstp,5,11,39,1,45,15,3,15,16,1","lstp1,38,4","lstp10,20,4","lstp13,21,4","lstp14,22,4","lstp15,23,4","lstp16,24,4","lstp17,25,4","lstp18,26,4","lstp19,27,4","lstp2,12,4","lstp20,28,4","lstp21,29,4","lstp22,30,4","lstp26,31,4","lstp27,32,4","lstp28,33,4","lstp29,34,4","lstp3,13,4","lstp30,35,4","lstp31,36,4","lstp32,37,4","lstp4,14,4","lstp5,15,4","lstp6,16,4","lstp7,17,4","lstp8,18,4","lstp9,19,4","lstps,5,3,45,1,3,1","lune,20,1","machine,25,1,17,1,26,1","machinery,24,2,33,1,4,1,22,2,30,2","machines,29,1,25,4,17,1,22,1","mail,9,1,11,1,7,1","main,13,1,45,1,3,1,4,1,15,1,16,1","mainly,25,1,16,2,35,3","maintain,5,1,29,1,13,1,21,1,25,1,38,1,16,2,26,1,32,1,35,1,14,2,30,1","maintained,38,2,32,1","maintenance,5,1,10,1,13,1,18,1,25,2,33,2,36,1,45,1,3,1,12,1,16,1,19,2,26,1,27,1,34,1,35,1,37,2,14,1,20,1,30,2","maize,13,1,21,1,24,9,31,2,5,1,15,5,27,2,28,1,20,1,30,1","maizesheller,101,8","major,5,2","makers,16,1","making,31,1,41,1,43,1,44,1,39,3","malagnoux,6,1","malaria,5,1","mali,20,1","managed,20,1","management,11,1,15,13,32,1,40,1,20,2","manhoeing,102,8","manner,5,1,20,1","manual,29,10,21,1,24,2,25,7,36,2,44,1,4,1,12,3,15,1,16,1,22,2,26,6,28,1,35,9,42,3,14,2,20,1","manually,29,3,24,8,25,4,26,3,42,1","manufacture,31,2,36,2,16,1,17,2,23,1,27,1,20,1","manufactured,36,1,23,1","manufacturer,22,1,30,2","manufacturers,18,1,21,1,24,1,25,1,33,1,38,1,45,1,3,1,12,1,16,1,17,1,22,1,26,3,27,2,28,2,35,2,37,1,14,2,30,1","manufacturing,33,1,45,1,3,1","manure,16,1,20,3","manures,20,1","map,10,1","maquinas,14,1","mark,12,1","marked,12,1","market,29,1,13,1,32,1,30,1","marketing,36,1,37,1","markets,45,1,3,1,20,1","marketscene,103,8","mat,25,1","matengo,20,1","material,10,1,11,2,16,1,19,1,27,1","materials,31,4,45,1,3,1,28,5","matter,18,1,19,1,20,1","mature,21,1","maturing,13,1","maximise,36,1,17,1","mdroit,52,8","mealie,38,1,12,1","means,33,1,5,1,34,1,35,1,30,1","meanwhile,5,1","measures,14,1","meat,16,1","mechanical,33,1,12,1","mechanics,37,1","mechanised,21,1,25,3,12,1,26,2,27,3","mechanism,12,1,17,1","mechanisms,12,1,22,1","mediabase,6,1","medical,33,1,44,1,5,1,39,1","medicines,16,1","medium,24,1,19,1","meeting,33,1,16,1","melinis,15,1","members,45,1,3,1,4,1,5,1,34,1","men,5,1","mention,10,1","mesh,29,1,26,1,28,1","metal,31,2,36,1,26,1,28,2","metering,12,4,17,1","meters,27,1","methane,33,1","method,25,1","methodologies,4,1","methods,29,2,21,1,25,2,31,1,45,2,3,2,12,2,17,1,26,1,27,1,36,2,30,1","metres,33,1","mexico,20,1","michel,6,1","micro,33,1","microfiche,6,1","migration,5,1","mike,6,1","milk,16,1","mill,30,1","milled,29,1","millet,21,1","milling,29,7,26,2,30,9","mills,33,1,5,1,26,1,30,4","mindset,20,1","minimal,21,1,31,1,33,2,38,2,16,2,23,1,27,1,28,2,32,1,35,1,20,1","minimise,21,1,16,1,17,1,19,2,27,1,35,2,36,1,14,1,20,2","minimised,30,1","minimises,16,1","minimum,5,1,15,1,39,1,40,1,20,3","minor,31,1","minutes,31,17","minutiflora,15,1","mitigation,38,1,17,1","mix,31,1","mixed,26,1,14,1,20,1","mm,34,2,20,2","mobile,26,1,27,1","mobilization,15,1","moderate,29,1,36,2","modest,25,1,26,1,28,1","modifications,35,1","module,11,2,45,1,3,1","module1,40,4","module2,41,4","module3,42,4","module4,43,4","module5,44,4","modules,6,1","moisture,18,2,16,2,26,1,27,6,28,1","molasses,15,1","moller,6,1","money,16,1","monitor,15,1","monitoring,15,1","months,20,1","mortar,29,2,28,1,34,1","mosquitoes,34,1","moths,15,1","motion,24,1,30,2","motor,24,1,30,6","motorcycles,37,1","motorised,25,13,38,1,41,1,44,1,22,7,26,11,35,1,37,12,42,3,30,21","motorized,4,1,30,1","motors,26,1,30,1","mouldboard,16,1,17,3,23,1,20,1","moulds,29,1,30,1","mounted,24,1","mousques,6,1","move,20,2","moved,31,1","movement,30,1","moving,32,1,34,1,14,1,20,1","mower,104,8,22,2","mowers,24,1,41,1,22,15","mr,9,1,7,1","mucuna,20,1","mud,31,1,28,1","mulch,12,1,16,1,17,1,19,6,20,1","mulched,19,1","mulches,12,1,19,1","mulching,12,1,19,1,32,1","multiple,16,1","multiplication,13,1,32,1","multipurpose,16,1","nails,24,1,26,1","names,10,1","napier,15,1","nappier,15,1","narrow,15,1","nation,33,2","national,13,2,28,1","nations,9,1,10,2,7,1","naturally,31,1","near,34,1","nearly,35,1","neatly,21,1","necessarily,10,1","necessary,5,1,15,1,16,1,19,1,27,1,34,1,20,1","neck,16,1,36,2","needed,33,1","needs,31,1,38,1,4,1,23,1,27,1","negative,15,1","negligible,33,1","network,4,1,20,1","networks,13,1","neutralised,14,1","never,36,1","new,13,3,33,1,45,2,3,2,5,3,28,1,20,2","newspapers,31,1","ngos,45,1,3,1","niger,32,1,20,1","nil,15,1,28,1","nill,21,1,32,1","nitrogen,20,1","non,11,1,31,1,16,1,17,1,27,2,14,1","normal,31,1","normally,38,1,19,1","northern,32,1","note,9,1,10,3,11,2,29,1,13,1,18,1,21,1,24,1,25,1,31,1,33,1,38,1,41,1,43,1,44,1,45,1,3,1,4,1,5,1,12,1,15,1,16,1,17,1,19,1,22,1,23,1,26,1,27,1,28,1,32,1,34,1,35,1,36,1,37,1,39,1,198,1,42,1,40,1,14,1,20,1,30,1,6,1,7,1","noted,45,1,3,1","noting,45,1,3,1","nozzle,14,1","number,38,1,16,2","nurseries,32,2","nut,29,1","nutrient,16,1","nutrition,45,2,3,2","nutritious,29,1,30,1","nuts,24,1","objective,4,1","objects,26,1","observed,14,1","obtain,29,1","obtained,33,1","occasionally,36,1,30,1","occur,19,1","off,29,1,21,1,24,1,16,1,19,1,27,1,36,1,37,1,20,1,30,1","offer,24,1,22,1","offering,45,1,3,1","officers,6,1","official,13,1","offset,5,1,28,1","ohio,19,1","oil,29,11,27,1,28,1,30,14","oilseed,29,1,30,1","ola,6,1","old,24,1,31,1,45,1,3,1,197,4","omission,10,1","omissions,10,1","once,19,2,32,1,20,2","ones,28,1,36,1","onto,24,1,17,1,23,1,36,2,14,2","open,24,1,31,3,26,1,35,1","openfire,105,8","opening,31,1,17,1","operate,29,1,25,1,45,1,3,1,5,1,26,1,27,1,37,1,30,2","operated,29,7,24,9,25,5,26,6,27,2,42,1,20,1","operates,16,1","operating,38,1,45,1,3,1,16,2,35,1,36,1","operation,18,2,24,2,25,1,33,1,4,1,5,1,22,2,37,1,14,1,30,2","operational,30,1","operations,9,1,29,1,18,1,24,1,25,4,38,1,41,1,43,1,44,1,45,2,3,2,4,2,12,1,16,5,26,1,27,1,28,1,39,2,42,5,40,1,14,1,20,3,30,3,7,1","operator,18,1,31,1,5,1,12,1,22,1,37,2,14,3","operators,12,1,16,1,17,1,36,1","opinion,10,1","opportunities,25,1,45,1,3,1,5,1,26,1,34,1,35,1,36,1,37,1","opportunity,29,1,13,1,18,1,24,1,31,1,15,1,22,1,20,1,30,1","opposed,30,1","opposite,30,1","option,39,1,40,1","options,45,1,3,1","order,29,1,5,1,20,3","org,9,2,10,1,11,2,29,1,13,1,18,1,21,1,24,1,25,1,31,1,33,1,38,1,41,1,43,1,44,1,45,1,3,1,4,1,5,1,12,1,15,1,16,1,17,1,19,1,22,1,23,1,26,1,27,1,28,1,32,1,34,1,35,1,36,1,37,1,39,1,198,1,42,1,40,1,14,1,20,1,30,1,6,1,7,2","organic,18,1,15,1,19,1,28,1,20,2","organisation,13,1,33,1","organisations,13,1,33,1,32,1,34,1,36,1,20,1","organization,9,1,10,2,7,1","organizations,3,3,45,3","orphans,5,2","otherwise,18,1","outcomes,5,1","outcrops,34,1","outlet,34,1","outlets,13,1","output,29,1,24,1,25,2,33,1,3,1,16,1,26,1,27,1,28,1,32,1,45,1,30,3","outputs,29,7,25,2,33,1,16,1,26,1,30,3","outset,5,1","outside,31,2","outweighing,5,1","ovens,33,1","overall,38,1","overflow,19,1","overview,16,1,35,1","own,5,1,19,1,23,1,27,1,32,1","owned,29,1,25,1,26,1,32,1,30,1","owner,18,1","owners,16,1","ownership,29,1,18,1,25,1,26,1,37,1","ox,36,2","oxen,18,1,16,8,36,2,37,1","pacific,13,1","pack,44,1,36,12","packed,34,1","padded,36,2","padding,16,1","page,24,1,25,1,4,1,26,1","paid,16,1","pain,16,1","painted,27,1","pair,16,4,36,2,37,1,30,1","pairs,36,1","pakistan,13,1","palm,29,2,30,4","pan,19,1","panels,33,2","panicle,25,1","pans,29,1,19,1,20,3","paragraphs,3,1,45,1","parameters,30,1","parasitic,15,1","part,10,1,13,1,19,1,23,1,20,1","partial,34,1","particles,18,1,14,1","particular,3,1,45,1,30,1","particularly,18,2,25,1,31,1,5,1,16,2,26,2,35,1,36,1,30,2","partly,18,1,24,1","parts,33,1,5,1,37,1,14,1","pass,17,1,20,1","passes,16,1","past,28,1","path,31,1","paths,19,3,35,1","pay,29,1,24,1,25,1,33,1,18,1,22,1,26,1,37,1,30,1","payment,20,1","peak,25,1,12,1,16,1,26,1,28,1,20,1","pedal,26,1","peeled,29,1","peg,25,1","pegs,24,2","penetration,17,1","pennisetum,15,1","people,29,2,3,1,32,1,33,1,35,2,45,1","peppers,30,1","per,29,9,13,3,21,3,24,3,25,4,38,1,44,1,15,1,16,2,19,3,22,1,26,2,27,1,28,1,33,1,34,2,37,1,39,1,14,1,30,6","perennial,19,1,20,1","perforated,29,1,27,1,30,2","performing,5,1","period,25,1,26,1,27,2,20,1","periodic,34,1","periods,25,1,15,1,19,1,26,1,28,1","peripheral,30,1","perishable,27,1","permanent,20,4","permission,11,3","person,29,1,21,2,25,1,38,5,14,2","personal,35,1","pest,13,1,25,1,15,18,26,1,28,2,40,1,20,4","pestcollection,106,8","pesticide,15,2","pesticides,15,1","pestle,29,2","pests,13,1,12,1,15,6,27,1,29,1,30,1","petrol,30,1","philippines,15,1","photgallery,6,1","photo,6,5","photos,6,2","photovoltaic,33,2","physical,13,2","physically,44,1,15,1,39,1","pictures,18,1,37,1","piecemeal,20,1","pins,30,1","pipe,34,1","piped,34,1","piston,29,2","pit,20,1","pivot,30,1","place,44,1,17,2,19,1,39,1","placed,31,1,38,1,17,2,27,1,28,1,29,1,35,2,36,1,14,1","placement,12,1,17,1","places,17,1,20,1","placing,24,1,34,2","planks,16,1","plans,16,1","plant,13,3,24,3,12,3,15,1,16,1,17,2,19,1,23,1,32,1,20,3","plantadeira,17,2","planted,21,1,38,1,15,1,19,2,32,5,20,1","planter,5,1,12,8,17,11,20,3","planters,12,15,17,8,39,1,40,3,20,1","planting,13,1,38,8,43,1,5,2,12,24,16,3,17,8,19,2,26,2,32,3,39,2,40,3,20,8","plantings,19,1","plants,21,1,24,1,23,1,32,1,14,1,20,2","plastered,28,1","plastering,34,1","plastic,34,1","plate,27,1,29,2,30,3","plates,26,1,27,1,30,2","play,35,1","plot,21,1,38,1,15,1,16,1,18,1,20,1","plots,22,1,24,1","plough,16,8,17,3,19,1,23,4,20,3","ploughed,17,1,19,1","ploughing,16,3,17,1,23,1,20,2","ploughshare,23,1","pneumatic,36,1","pods,24,2,27,1","point,6,1","points,20,1","pole,29,1,35,4","poles,32,2,34,1","policies,4,2","polishers,30,2","pollarded,32,2","pollution,31,1,33,1","polyethylene,27,2,34,1","polythene,28,1","pond,34,1","ponding,19,1","poor,13,1,38,2,4,1,5,2,16,2,17,2,19,1,32,1,35,2,36,1,39,1,42,1,20,1","poorer,34,1","poorly,23,1","population,15,1,6,1","portable,31,1","porterage,35,2,36,1","position,21,1,38,1","positive,32,1","possibility,13,1","possible,31,2,3,2,12,1,19,2,28,1,35,1,45,2,20,1","possibly,34,1,20,1","post,9,1,25,1,41,1,43,1,44,1,3,1,4,5,24,1,26,1,27,1,28,1,29,1,45,1,39,3,42,6,40,1,30,2,7,1","postharvesting,203,8","postharvestingcollage,151,8","postures,38,1","pot,31,4,34,1","potatoes,31,2","potential,13,1,3,1,16,2,17,1,18,2,36,2,37,2,45,1,14,1","potentially,5,1","potholing,20,1","pots,31,3,35,2","pottery,31,1","poultry,35,1","pounded,29,1","pounding,5,1,29,2","poured,29,1","poverty,34,1","power,9,4,10,4,11,4,25,1,38,1,41,4,43,4,44,4,3,1,5,2,16,18,17,10,18,2,22,3,23,4,24,2,26,2,27,1,33,15,35,1,37,1,45,1,39,4,42,4,40,6,14,1,20,1,30,7,7,4","powered,25,1,41,1,23,5,24,1,39,1,42,1,40,1,20,5,30,5","powering,33,1","practical,4,3,33,1,34,1,6,1","practicalaction,108,8","practice,20,1","practices,9,4,10,8,11,8,13,4,21,4,25,4,31,5,38,4,41,4,43,4,44,4,3,12,4,8,5,9,12,4,15,5,16,4,17,4,18,4,19,4,22,4,23,4,24,4,26,4,27,4,28,4,29,4,32,4,33,4,34,4,35,4,36,4,37,4,45,7,39,10,198,4,42,4,40,4,14,4,20,8,30,4,6,4,7,4","practicing,5,1","pre,29,1,30,1","precipitation,20,1","predators,15,3","preferable,34,1","preferably,34,1","premium,13,1","premiums,20,1","preparation,9,4,13,1,38,7,41,5,43,1,44,1,3,1,5,1,12,1,15,1,16,2,17,1,18,2,19,1,37,1,45,1,39,3,42,1,40,7,14,1,20,4","prepare,16,1,20,2","prepared,12,1,20,2","preparing,5,1,16,1,26,1","presence,32,2,36,1","present,15,1","presentation,10,1,3,8,5,8,45,4,198,4","presentation1,109,8","presented,3,1,45,1","presents,3,1,45,1","preserved,27,1","press,29,5,30,5","presses,29,4,30,3","pressing,29,2","pressure,16,1,32,1,14,1,30,2","prevent,31,1,15,1,16,1,17,1,19,2,28,1,34,2,14,1,20,1,30,1","previous,13,1,14,1,20,3","prey,15,1","price,13,1","pricerunner,21,1","prices,25,1,3,1,26,1,28,2,45,1","primarily,32,1,20,1","primary,38,4,16,3","principles,30,1","prior,11,1,13,1,28,1,29,1,20,1,30,1","priority,5,1","private,25,1,26,1,29,1","problems,31,1,18,1,20,1","process,5,1,26,1,29,1","processed,29,1,30,1","processes,39,1,42,1","processing,41,1,43,1,44,1,23,1,29,27,33,2,42,3,40,1,30,28","procurement,21,1","produce,15,2,26,1,36,2,37,1,14,1,20,1,30,1","produced,13,2,31,2","product,10,1,11,2,29,2,30,2","production,4,3,15,1,19,2,32,3,20,2","productive,33,1","productivity,16,1,17,1,32,2,39,1,42,1","products,10,1,44,1,4,1,5,1,32,2,39,1,30,1","program,10,1","programme,31,1,33,1","programmes,32,1","prohibited,11,1","project,31,1,24,1","projects,13,1,21,1,31,1,38,1,3,1,5,1,12,1,15,2,16,1,17,1,19,1,23,1,24,1,27,1,28,2,29,1,32,1,33,1,34,1,35,1,36,1,37,1,45,1,14,1,20,1,30,1","prolonged,5,1","promote,5,1","promoting,38,1,5,1","prompt,36,1","proof,28,1","proper,14,1","properly,38,1,5,1,23,1,20,1","properties,13,1","proportion,3,1,18,1,45,1","proposed,3,1,45,1","prosopis,27,1","protect,27,1,34,1,14,1,20,1","protection,15,1","protective,15,1","protrusions,24,1,29,1","provide,13,2,19,1,32,1,33,1,20,1,30,1","provided,10,1,11,1,28,1,14,1","providers,5,2","provides,4,1","providing,16,1,35,1,36,1,37,1","province,12,1","proximity,32,1","prunes,27,1","public,5,1","publication,13,1,4,1,6,2","publications,13,1,21,1,31,1,38,1,3,1,4,1,12,1,15,1,16,2,17,1,19,1,23,1,24,1,27,1,28,1,29,1,32,1,33,1,34,1,35,1,36,2,37,1,45,1,14,1,20,1,30,1","publishing,11,1","puce,110,8,145,8","pull,38,4,36,3","pulled,25,2,12,4,16,1,17,3,36,4","pulling,36,1,30,1","pulp,29,1,30,1","pulpers,29,1,30,2","pulses,26,14,27,1,42,1","pulverise,18,2","pump,34,2","pumped,14,1","pumping,33,2","pumpingscheme,111,8","pumpkins,13,1","pumps,33,3","purchase,37,1,20,2","purchased,13,1","purchasing,22,1,24,1","pure,20,1","purity,34,1","purpose,3,2,4,1,45,7,39,1","purposes,5,1,11,2,34,1","purpureum,15,1","push,38,5","pushed,12,3,24,1,35,1","pushtypeweeder,112,8","quality,13,3,21,1,38,1,16,1,18,2,19,1,28,1,20,1","quantity,18,1","quern,29,2,30,2","question,9,1,7,1","questions,3,1,45,1","quicker,21,1,23,1,14,1","quiet,33,1","quieter,13,1","quoted,26,1","racks,27,1,35,1","rain,17,1","rainfall,19,2,34,2,20,2","rains,17,1,34,1","rainwater,34,7","rainy,27,1","raise,5,1,32,1","raised,12,1,19,18,27,1,39,1,40,2","raisedbed,113,8","raisedbedwithmulch,114,8","raisins,27,1","ram,29,3,33,1","range,13,1,18,1,22,1,25,1,26,2,31,1,34,1,36,1,37,3,20,2,30,1","ranges,26,1","ranging,24,1,28,1,34,1","rapid,32,1","rasp,24,2,30,1","rate,38,1,17,2,18,1,22,1,25,2,27,2,29,1,31,1","rates,21,3,12,1,16,2,18,2,22,2,24,1,25,1,26,1,27,1,29,2,38,3,14,1,30,1","rather,21,1,28,1,20,2,30,1","rating,33,1","ratio,3,1,45,1","reach,5,1","reached,20,1","readily,3,1,45,1","reading,3,1,45,1","readings,33,1","ready,14,1","reaped,12,1,32,1","reaper,22,1","reapers,41,1,22,11,24,1","reaping,21,6,22,1","reapinghooks,115,8","rear,35,1","rearing,5,1","reasonable,37,1","reasonably,18,1,33,1,35,2","receive,20,1","recharge,32,1","rechargeable,33,1","recharging,33,1","reciprocal,16,1","reciprocating,24,1,29,1","recognised,5,1","recognizes,4,1","recover,5,1","rectangular,24,1,27,1,34,1","reduce,43,1,3,1,5,2,15,2,19,2,28,3,29,1,31,1,34,1,36,2,38,1,45,1,39,3,42,1,14,2,20,2","reduced,21,1,44,1,12,2,15,1,16,1,18,1,28,2,32,2,35,2,39,2,40,1,20,6","reduces,21,1,5,2,16,2,19,1,23,1,25,2,26,1,27,1,31,1,32,1,35,1,36,1,37,2,14,1,20,2","reducing,21,1,3,4,5,1,31,1,45,4,30,1","reduction,5,1,31,2,32,2,38,1,20,1","reeds,28,1","reflect,10,1","reformed,19,1","refrigerators,33,1","regard,20,1","regarded,32,1","regarding,17,1,31,1","regardless,20,1","region,4,1,16,1","regions,4,1,17,1,33,1,20,1,6,1","registered,4,1","regular,21,1,19,1","regularly,13,1,19,1,27,1","reinforced,34,1","reinforcedmortartank,116,8","related,4,1","relating,38,1","relation,3,1,12,1,17,2,33,2,45,1","relative,32,1","relatively,13,1,21,1,16,1,17,2,18,1,22,1,23,1,24,1,25,4,26,3,27,1,29,3,31,1,33,2,36,2,37,3,38,1,14,2,30,2","relevance,3,1,45,1","relevant,4,1","reliable,33,1,36,1","relies,20,1","relieve,5,2","relying,25,1","remain,5,1,19,1,20,1","remainder,33,1","remaining,25,1","remark,9,1,7,1","remittances,5,1","remote,33,1","removal,26,1,20,1","remove,24,1,26,1,20,1,30,1","removed,17,1,24,2,27,2,29,1","removes,20,2","removing,15,1","reneable,33,4","renewable,43,1,27,2,33,7","repair,21,1,3,1,16,2,25,1,26,1,29,1,35,1,37,2,38,1,45,1,30,1","repairing,5,1","repairs,36,2","repears,22,4","repeated,19,1","repel,15,1","repels,31,1","replacement,33,1,14,1","replacing,23,1","report,10,1,4,1","represents,20,1","reproduction,11,2","require,43,1,5,1,12,1,16,2,18,1,19,1,25,1,28,1,31,1,32,1,34,2,36,1,38,2,39,1,20,2","required,13,4,21,2,3,2,5,1,15,3,16,3,17,3,18,2,19,1,22,2,23,2,24,2,25,1,26,2,27,1,28,1,29,2,31,3,32,2,33,1,34,1,35,2,36,1,37,2,38,1,45,2,39,1,42,1,30,3","requirement,27,1,20,1","requirements,13,2,3,3,5,1,19,2,25,1,31,1,32,1,33,1,34,1,36,1,37,1,45,3,20,1","requires,21,2,5,1,17,2,23,1,25,2,26,2,20,1","requiring,37,1","resale,11,1","research,13,2,15,1,24,1,25,1,26,1,36,1","researches,13,2","reserved,11,1","reservoirs,33,1","residue,20,4","residuecover,117,8","residues,32,1,33,1,20,10","resilient,5,1","resistance,13,2,35,2","resort,15,1","resource,5,1,16,1","resources,43,1,4,5,28,1,32,2,33,5,39,1,206,8","respiratory,31,1","respond,4,1","responsibility,10,3,13,1","restrict,31,1","result,3,2,19,1,28,1,45,2,20,1","resulting,39,1,42,1,20,3","results,13,1,41,1,32,1,39,1","retail,13,1","retailers,13,1","retained,31,1","retention,20,1","reversed,20,1","revisit,5,1","ribbed,29,2,30,1","rice,13,2,21,1,22,2,25,1,27,1,29,8,31,2,30,10","rickshaw,37,1","ridge,20,1","ridger,16,1","ridgers,16,1,19,1","ridges,20,1","ridging,20,1","right,29,1,20,1","rights,11,1","rigorous,13,1","ring,34,1","rip,19,1","ripe,21,1","ripper,118,8,16,5,17,1,20,4","rippers,39,1,40,1","ripping,20,1","rise,5,1","risk,21,1,3,1,13,2,15,1,16,2,17,3,18,1,19,2,22,3,23,1,24,3,25,4,26,3,27,1,28,1,29,3,31,1,32,2,33,1,35,1,36,2,37,2,38,1,45,1,20,5,30,3","risks,3,1,5,2,16,1,18,1,31,1,35,1,37,1,38,1,45,1,30,1","road,35,1,36,1","roads,5,1,35,2,36,1,37,1","robust,25,1,26,1,29,1,30,1","rocky,34,1","rodent,28,2","rodents,28,1","rods,23,3","roettger,6,1","roisk,14,1","role,4,1,35,1","rolled,25,1","roller,36,1,20,2,30,2","rollers,20,1,30,1","rolling,35,2","rome,9,2,11,1,7,2","roof,5,1,34,6","roofs,34,1","roofwater,43,2,5,1,34,14,39,1","root,13,3,28,1,29,2,30,1","roots,23,1,14,1","ropes,36,1","rotary,18,1,22,1","rotate,29,1,30,1","rotated,24,1","rotates,29,1,30,4","rotating,24,1,25,1,30,1","rotation,20,1","rotational,29,1,30,3","rotations,15,1,20,2","rotor,29,2,30,2","rotovator,18,2,37,2","rotovators,18,3","rottger,6,1","roughened,30,1","roughly,25,1,34,1,37,1","round,15,1,29,1,34,1","roundup,19,1","row,12,20,15,1,16,1,17,3,18,1,19,1,22,1,38,3,39,1,40,2,20,1","rowplanting,119,8,12,1","rows,21,2,12,8,17,4,19,2,23,1,24,1,38,1,14,1","rpm,30,1","rubber,30,2","rucksack,35,1","ruminants,30,1","run,27,1","running,22,1,24,1,33,2","runoff,19,1,34,11","rural,41,1,43,1,44,6,3,5,4,4,5,9,15,1,17,1,33,1,35,3,36,3,37,2,38,1,45,5,39,4,42,1,40,1","sacks,35,1","safe,22,1,24,1,31,2,14,2","safety,15,1,31,1,14,1","saharan,4,1,16,1","sale,26,1,27,1,31,1","sales,29,1,30,1","same,12,3,13,3,17,3,19,1,25,1,26,1,31,2,37,2","sands,34,1","sandstone,29,1","sandy,20,1","satisfied,32,1","save,41,1,43,1,44,1,3,1,5,2,32,1,45,1,39,3","saved,13,2,31,1","saves,12,1,16,1,34,1,20,2","saving,9,9,10,13,21,10,41,9,43,9,44,9,3,18,4,13,5,19,11,13,12,12,13,10,15,9,16,11,17,11,18,11,19,10,22,10,23,10,24,10,25,10,26,10,27,10,28,10,29,10,31,10,32,10,33,10,34,10,35,11,36,10,37,10,38,10,45,13,39,17,198,13,42,10,40,9,14,10,20,12,30,10,6,10,7,9","savings,12,2,35,1,38,1","sawdust,33,1","saxenian,6,1","scale,44,1,15,1,29,1,33,1,37,5,30,3","scheme,33,1,20,1","schemes,17,1","school,5,1,15,3","schools,44,1,39,1","scoops,16,2","scrapes,24,1","screen,24,3,30,2","screening,30,1","screens,26,2","screw,29,2,30,5","screws,26,1","scythe,21,10","scythes,21,3","sdrr,6,1","sdw,6,3","sea,10,1","search,5,1,39,1,197,12,198,9","season,12,1,13,1,16,3,19,2,20,5","seasons,13,1,27,1","seat,22,1","second,33,1","secondary,16,2,18,1,38,2","section,3,1,29,1,45,1","sector,4,2","sectors,4,1","secure,3,1,5,1,32,1,45,1,20,1","security,3,2,4,2,5,1,13,1,28,1,32,1,45,2","see,16,1","seed,12,9,13,15,16,1,17,7,26,3,29,1,20,3","seedbed,16,1,18,1,20,1","seedbeds,12,1","seedcleaning,120,8","seeder,12,4,17,4,20,1","seeders,12,12,40,1","seeding,16,1","seedlings,32,2","seeds,121,8,12,3,13,27,17,1,19,1,29,2,32,1,40,1,14,1,20,1,30,3","seeds2,122,8","select,32,1","selecting,26,1","selection,13,2","selective,14,1","selectively,21,1","sell,15,1,28,1","sellers,21,1,18,2,22,1,24,2,25,1,37,1,38,1","selling,5,1,27,1","semeadeiria,12,1","semi,24,1,20,3","sense,5,1","sent,5,1","separate,24,2,25,1","separated,29,2,30,2","separates,25,1","separating,24,1,25,4,26,1","separation,25,2","seriously,16,1,36,1","service,4,1,5,3,11,1,15,1,33,1,39,1,40,1,20,1","services,9,1,3,2,4,1,13,1,16,4,18,3,22,3,23,1,24,3,25,2,26,2,29,3,36,3,37,4,45,2,20,1,30,3,7,1","servicing,37,1,30,1","set,15,1","setting,5,1,15,1,14,1","several,3,1,4,1,5,1,29,3,32,1,45,1,30,1","severe,5,1","shade,32,1","shadow,32,1","shallow,18,1,27,1,20,1","shaped,36,2","shapes,16,1","shaping,16,1,29,1","share,16,1,23,1","sharp,21,1","sharpened,38,1","sharpening,21,1,38,1","shea,29,1","sheanutpress,123,8","sheanuts,29,2,30,1","shear,30,1","sheared,30,1","sheet,19,1,34,1,36,1","sheeting,34,1","sheets,27,2,34,2","shell,30,1","shelled,24,1","sheller,24,7","shellers,24,14,42,1","shelling,25,1,27,1","shells,24,2","shift,20,1","short,19,1,25,1,26,1,27,1,35,1,38,2,20,1","shortage,3,1,45,1","shortages,5,2,32,1","shortening,31,1","should,11,1,13,1,16,1,17,1,19,3,28,1,29,1,32,2,34,1,35,1,36,4,30,2","shoulder,16,3,35,3","shoulders,35,2,36,1","shrubs,32,1","shying,5,1","sickle,21,4","sickles,21,6,124,8","sickness,5,1","side,17,2,26,1,34,1,35,1,36,1","sides,20,1","sieves,26,2,29,1,30,1","sieving,5,1,26,3","significant,15,1,16,1,28,1,35,1,36,1,37,2","silos,28,2","siltation,32,1","similar,17,1,18,1,35,2,30,1","simple,12,3,24,1,25,1,26,4,27,5,29,1,33,1,34,3,35,1,36,1,14,1,30,1","simplest,25,1","simultaneous,20,1","since,36,1","single,41,1,5,1,16,8,18,13,22,12,31,1,35,1,36,4,37,8,39,1,40,2","singleaxletractor2,125,8","singleaxletractorwithbedplanter,126,8","singleaxletractorwithrotarytiller,127,8","singly,36,1","site,15,1,197,4","sitting,36,1,37,1","size,44,1,3,1,18,1,36,1,45,1,39,1,14,1,30,1","sized,24,1","sizes,21,1,16,2,38,1,30,1","skill,21,2,29,1,35,1","skilled,17,2,36,1,37,2,20,2","skills,21,3,3,2,5,2,12,2,13,1,15,3,16,2,17,1,18,1,19,1,22,1,23,4,24,1,25,3,26,3,27,2,28,1,31,2,32,2,33,1,34,1,35,2,36,4,37,1,38,2,45,2,14,2,20,1","slaughtered,36,1","slight,35,1","slightly,16,1,19,1","slotted,29,1,30,1","slow,21,1,27,1,30,1","slung,35,1","small,21,2,44,1,3,1,15,2,16,1,18,3,22,2,24,3,25,2,26,1,28,1,29,4,33,4,35,1,37,9,38,1,45,1,14,2,30,5,6,1","smaller,43,1,3,1,35,1,45,1,39,1","smallholder,4,1,6,1","smell,31,1","smoke,31,8","smokeless,31,1","smooth,35,1","soalr,33,4","social,32,1","soil,12,2,16,9,17,8,18,9,19,9,23,1,26,1,27,1,32,4,34,1,38,1,14,6,20,24","soilaggregates,18,1","soiling,20,1","soils,23,1,20,3","solar,27,19,33,6,42,1","solardrying,128,8","solarheater,129,8","sold,25,1,26,1","solid,33,1","solutions,3,2,36,1,45,2","sometimes,19,1,26,1,36,1","soon,28,1","sophisticated,12,1,27,1","sores,16,1","sorghum,21,1,25,1","sorting,25,1","sourcbook,130,8","source,11,1,16,1,32,3,33,1,34,1,30,1","sourcebook,6,2","sources,3,1,5,1,27,1,33,6,35,1,45,1,30,2","south,4,1,13,1,32,1","southern,4,3,20,1,6,1","sowing,12,1,17,1","sown,19,1","soya,29,2,30,1","spaced,12,2","spacing,17,1","spades,26,1","spare,5,2,37,1","special,19,1,21,1","specialised,26,1","specialist,13,1,15,1,25,1,26,1","speciality,27,1","specialized,3,1,12,1,19,1,45,1","specially,4,1,38,1","species,13,1,15,3,16,2,32,3","specific,10,1,3,1,16,1,45,1,39,1,40,1","specifically,38,1","specifications,21,1","spectrum,15,1","speed,12,1,33,1,35,2,37,2,30,2","spell,34,1","spent,5,2,31,1","spices,30,1","spikes,12,1","spinning,14,2,30,1","split,16,1,28,1,34,1","spray,19,1,14,3","sprayer,15,1,39,1,40,1,14,8","sprayers,40,1,14,16","spraying,14,2","spread,3,1,13,1,45,1,39,1","spreads,13,1","square,12,1,19,1,28,1","srisaket,12,1","stability,31,1,35,1","stable,31,2","stacked,21,1","stacking,22,1","staff,3,1,45,1","stand,20,1","standard,15,1,16,1,23,2,35,1,37,2,197,4","standards,14,1","standing,12,1","stands,28,1","start,16,1,27,1","starting,19,1","starts,3,1,27,1,45,1","state,19,1","stations,13,1","status,10,1,16,1,36,1","steel,16,2,23,2,24,1,26,1,29,2","stem,15,2","stems,21,1","step,5,1","stephanie,6,1","stew,31,2","sticks,21,1,29,1","still,38,1,14,1","stimulate,20,2","stimulates,34,1","stock,13,1","stocks,13,1,24,1","stone,29,2","stones,26,1,29,8,31,1","storage,15,1,25,1,26,1,27,2,28,14,33,1,34,12,39,1,42,2","store,28,4","stored,28,1,34,2","stores,28,13","storing,27,1,33,1","storm,16,1","stove,31,9","stoves,43,2,5,1,31,17,33,4,39,1","straight,32,1","strain,36,1","straps,16,1,36,1,30,1","strategies,4,1,5,1","strategy,4,1","straw,25,8,26,1,28,1","straws,25,1","strengthening,3,1,12,2,13,1,15,1,16,1,17,1,18,1,19,1,21,1,22,1,23,1,24,1,26,1,27,1,28,1,29,1,31,1,32,1,33,1,34,1,35,1,36,1,37,1,38,1,45,1,14,1,20,1,30,1","stress,5,2","strict,13,1,14,1","strip,29,1,20,1,30,1","stripper,24,2","strippers,24,13,42,1","strips,20,2","stroke,21,1","strong,36,1,20,1","stronger,13,1","structural,31,1","structure,3,2,13,1,18,1,19,1,36,2,45,7,39,1,14,1,20,1","structures,5,1,6,2","stubble,17,2,20,1","studied,3,1,45,1","studies,3,1,45,1,20,1","study,4,1","sturdy,35,1","style,22,1","sub,4,1,16,1,20,1","subsequent,19,1","subsidy,31,1","substantial,23,1,38,1,39,1,42,1,30,1","substantially,22,1,27,1,29,1,36,1,37,1","subsurface,34,1","success,31,1,37,1","successfully,5,1","sudan,36,1","sufficient,34,1","sufficiently,28,1","sugar,30,1","suggest,38,1","suit,3,1,18,1,45,1","suitability,13,1,27,1","suitable,12,2,13,1,16,1,17,1,18,2,19,1,21,1,22,2,24,1,25,1,32,1,33,1,34,1,35,1,37,1,38,1,20,1,30,1","suitably,16,1","suited,12,1,20,2","sulky,22,1","sun,27,2","sunflower,29,2,30,1","sunlight,34,2","supervision,13,1","supplementary,16,1","suppliers,5,2,27,1","supplies,32,1,33,1","supply,5,1,13,1,16,1,17,1,32,1,33,2,14,1,30,1","support,41,1,43,1,44,1,4,3,5,2,18,1,22,1,24,1,34,1,35,1,37,1,39,2,42,1,40,1,20,1,6,2","supporting,25,1,26,1","suppress,5,1,13,1,19,1,20,2","surface,16,1,17,3,25,1,27,1,14,1,20,5","surfaces,34,1,35,1","suspended,35,1","suspending,34,1","sustainability,3,1,15,1,45,1","sustainable,4,1,5,1,31,1,33,3,37,1,20,1","sustained,3,1,45,1","swamp,32,1","sweep,23,1","sweet,31,2","swingle,36,1","switch,17,1","switching,16,1,20,3","system,3,1,16,1,19,2,27,1,32,1,34,6,36,1,37,1,38,1,45,1,20,11,30,2","systemic,14,1","systems,41,1,43,1,44,1,4,2,12,2,16,3,17,1,27,5,33,1,34,10,37,1,38,1,39,2,42,1,40,2,20,4,6,1","table,29,1,32,1","take,16,1","taken,16,1,19,1,32,1","takes,12,2,14,2","taking,17,1","tangential,25,1","tank,24,1,34,6,14,1","tanks,34,2","tanzania,3,2,5,2,15,1,16,1,25,1,26,2,31,2,35,3,36,1,37,1,38,1,45,2,20,2","tanzanian,3,1,45,1","taper,30,1","tapered,30,2","task,41,1,44,2,3,2,16,1,17,1,32,1,38,1,45,2,39,6,42,1,40,2","tasks,9,1,41,1,43,6,44,1,3,1,16,1,18,1,31,1,32,1,33,1,34,1,38,1,45,1,39,3,42,1,40,1,7,1","tassa,20,1","taxis,35,1,37,1","tdg,31,1","team,18,1","teca,9,9,10,9,41,9,43,9,44,9,3,1,4,1,5,1,11,9,12,1,13,1,15,1,16,1,17,1,18,1,19,1,21,1,22,1,23,5,24,5,25,5,26,5,27,5,28,5,29,5,31,1,32,1,33,1,34,5,35,5,36,5,37,5,38,1,45,5,39,10,198,5,42,9,40,9,14,1,20,5,30,5,6,2,7,9","technical,3,1,4,1,16,1,18,1,19,2,21,1,24,1,25,1,26,1,27,1,28,2,29,1,33,1,34,1,37,3,45,1,14,1,30,1,6,1","techniques,12,1,19,1,28,1,32,1,33,1","technologies,9,10,10,13,43,10,3,17,4,14,5,20,11,13,12,9,13,9,15,9,16,9,17,9,18,9,19,9,21,9,22,9,23,9,24,9,25,9,26,9,27,10,28,9,29,9,31,9,32,9,33,9,34,9,35,9,36,9,37,9,38,10,41,10,44,10,45,12,39,19,198,13,42,9,40,9,14,10,20,10,30,9,6,10,7,10","technology,9,4,10,4,43,4,3,7,4,8,5,5,11,4,12,4,13,4,15,4,16,4,17,5,18,4,19,4,21,4,22,4,23,4,24,4,25,4,26,4,27,5,28,4,29,4,31,4,32,4,33,5,34,4,35,4,36,4,37,4,38,4,41,4,44,4,45,7,39,5,198,4,42,4,40,5,14,4,20,4,30,4,6,8,7,4","teeth,24,1","tel,9,1,7,1","telecommunications,33,2","temperature,20,1","tend,18,1,19,1","tenure,32,3,20,1","term,3,1,15,1,28,1,45,1","terme,9,1,11,1,7,1","termites,31,1","terms,3,2,12,1,13,3,33,1,45,2,30,1","terrain,35,2","territory,10,1","testing,12,1,13,1","text,22,1,26,1,27,1,37,1","tfa,22,1","thailand,12,1","thanks,15,1,6,1","thatch,34,1","thatching,34,1","themselves,16,1","theodor,6,1","thereby,17,1,21,1","third,17,1,14,1","thoroughly,31,1","those,10,1,5,1,16,1,17,1","three,17,1,19,1,21,1,25,1,29,1,31,1,37,8","threewheeledvehicleinfarmuse,131,8","threshed,26,1","thresher,25,5","threshers,25,9,26,1,42,1","threshing,25,7,26,2,27,1","throat,36,1","through,3,3,12,2,16,3,17,1,18,2,19,1,24,2,25,2,27,2,29,3,31,1,32,2,33,1,36,1,37,1,38,1,45,3,39,1,40,1,14,1,20,5,30,4","throughout,13,1","tiled,34,1","till,17,1,20,2","tillage,5,2,12,1,16,10,17,1,18,1,38,3,39,1,40,1,20,24","tilled,17,1","tiller,18,1,22,1,24,1","tilling,5,2,19,1,20,1","tilth,16,2,19,1","timber,32,1","time,3,1,5,7,12,5,13,4,15,1,16,3,17,5,21,1,26,1,31,8,32,4,34,1,38,1,41,1,43,1,44,1,45,1,39,4,42,1,20,5","timeliness,3,1,16,1,18,1,38,1,45,1","timely,17,1,36,1,37,1,20,1","times,12,1,13,1,16,2,17,2,19,1,29,1,37,1,38,1,14,2","tine,16,4,17,3,20,1","tined,38,2,20,1","tines,16,1,17,2","tip,16,1","tipping,31,1","tips,34,1,30,1","tiring,12,1","title,150,8,205,8,206,8","today,4,1","together,16,1,35,1,14,1","tolerance,32,1","tomatoes,27,1,30,1","tonne,21,4,26,1,27,1","too,31,1","tool,10,2,21,1,45,5","toolkit,29,1","tools,9,4,4,3,5,2,17,1,21,16,22,1,23,1,24,1,33,1,38,3,41,6,43,5,44,6,45,4,39,3,198,4,42,5,40,5,6,3,7,4","top,9,1,3,1,4,1,5,1,10,1,11,1,12,1,13,1,15,1,16,1,17,1,18,1,19,1,21,1,22,1,23,1,24,1,25,1,26,1,27,1,28,1,29,1,31,1,32,1,33,1,34,1,35,1,36,1,37,1,38,1,41,1,43,1,44,1,45,1,39,1,198,1,42,1,40,1,14,3,20,1,30,1,6,1,7,1","topped,19,1","torque,30,1","tossed,26,1","total,3,1,13,1,45,1","towards,38,1,20,2,30,1","towed,35,1","town,5,1","tracao,17,2","tracks,35,1","traction,16,2,17,1,36,1","tractor,16,1,18,8,19,1,39,1,40,1","tractors,18,8,19,1,37,10,40,1,20,2","trade,13,1","tradition,16,1","traditional,3,2,5,2,12,1,13,3,16,6,17,1,21,1,26,2,27,1,28,2,29,2,31,2,38,2,45,2,14,1,20,1,30,1","traditionally,29,2,32,1","traditions,28,1","traffic,19,2","trailed,22,1","trailer,37,2","trailers,35,5","trained,16,1,36,1","trainer,15,1","training,5,1,12,2,15,2,16,1,17,1,18,1,19,1,28,1,31,2,32,1,33,1,34,1,37,1,14,1,20,2","trample,17,1","trampled,25,1","transfer,5,1","transference,31,1","transferred,31,1,36,1","transferring,16,1","transport,9,1,3,1,4,1,5,1,35,9,36,6,37,18,41,1,43,1,44,7,45,1,39,3,42,1,40,1,7,1,204,8","transportation,4,1,35,1","transportcollage,153,8","transported,35,1,36,1,37,1","transporting,36,1,44,1,39,1","traps,15,2","trash,16,1,17,1,26,2,20,1","travel,35,1,37,1","trays,27,1","treadle,25,1","treadmill,14,1","treatment,30,2","tree,29,1,32,6","trees,5,1,32,11,34,1,36,1,43,1,39,1","tricycles,37,1","trition,17,1","tropical,4,1,6,1","trucks,37,2","true,30,1","trunk,29,1,32,1","tuberculosis,5,1","tubers,29,3","turbines,33,1","turn,5,1,17,1,19,1","two,16,1,17,1,19,1,22,1,25,1,26,1,27,1,29,4,31,1,32,1,35,3,30,2","type,16,2,31,1,38,1,30,2","types,25,1","typical,21,1,27,1,36,1,37,1","typically,3,1,45,1","uganda,35,1","ultra,14,4","unable,5,1,17,1","unaided,35,1","unaware,33,1","uncertain,13,1","undamaged,25,1,26,1","under,5,2,13,1,18,4,19,1,27,1,34,2,37,2,14,1","undermining,3,1,45,1","underside,29,1","understanding,15,2","undertake,5,1,20,1","undertaken,16,1,26,1","undisturbed,14,1","undue,5,1","uneven,19,2,20,1","unfamiliar,33,1","uniform,38,1","uniformly,21,1","unit,13,2,19,1,28,1,6,2","united,9,1,4,1,10,2,33,2,7,1","units,22,1,24,1","university,19,1","unknown,13,1","unless,27,1,33,1","unlike,21,1","unstable,31,1","unsuitable,19,1","until,24,1,20,1","untilled,12,1,17,2","updating,10,1","upgrading,10,1","upon,13,1","upper,29,1","upright,12,1,38,1","upwards,36,1","urea,19,1","urgency,5,1","urgent,4,1","usage,28,1","use,3,4,4,1,5,2,12,8,15,3,16,5,17,1,18,2,21,4,23,1,25,1,26,2,27,3,28,3,29,1,31,5,32,1,33,6,34,3,35,4,36,2,37,1,38,8,45,4,40,1,14,6,20,3","used,3,2,4,1,12,1,15,1,16,19,17,5,18,4,19,1,21,3,23,1,25,4,26,1,27,1,29,3,31,3,32,1,33,14,34,3,35,6,36,9,37,5,38,6,45,2,14,2,20,2,30,4,6,1","useful,28,1","useofscythe,133,8","user,31,1","users,10,1","uses,32,1","using,3,5,5,1,12,2,13,1,15,1,16,8,17,2,18,1,25,1,26,3,27,2,29,5,31,1,32,1,35,2,36,4,38,2,45,5,14,3,20,4,30,1","usual,5,1","usually,5,1,13,1,16,2,18,3,22,2,24,1,25,3,29,1,31,1,32,1,33,1,34,1,35,2,36,2,37,1,38,1","utilisation,15,1","valuable,25,1","value,5,1,15,1,16,1,27,2,28,1,29,1,39,1,42,1,20,1,30,1","variability,16,1,38,1","variable,16,1","variations,33,1","varies,16,1","varieties,13,11,32,1","variety,13,2","various,5,1,13,1,15,1","vary,25,1","varying,37,1","vegetable,28,1,34,1","vegetables,27,1","vegetative,20,1","vehicle,37,1","vehicles,37,7","ventilated,28,1","ventilatedmaizecrib,134,8","ventilation,28,1","venting,31,1","venture,32,1","verde,27,1","verify,27,1","versatile,22,1,24,1","versatility,37,1","versions,12,1,25,1,30,1","vertical,13,1,24,1,29,1,30,1","vertically,26,1","veterinary,16,1,23,1,36,1","viability,18,1","viable,14,1","viale,9,1,11,1,7,1","vibro,20,1","views,10,2","vigorous,13,1","village,3,1,32,2,45,1,6,1","villages,35,1","villagewoodfuelmarket,135,8","volcanic,29,1","volume,14,5","volunteer,6,1","volunteers,6,1","vulnerable,5,3","walkers,25,2","walking,18,1,35,1","walks,22,1","walls,34,1","waru,19,2","wash,29,1,30,1","washed,29,1","wasp,15,1","waste,33,2","water,5,3,18,1,19,2,29,2,31,1,32,5,33,5,34,22,35,2,36,1,44,1,39,1,14,1,20,4,30,1","waterways,19,1","way,12,1,28,1","weave,26,1","weaving,25,1","web,15,1","website,3,1,4,1,22,1,33,1,45,1,20,1,6,2","websites,4,1","weed,19,2,39,1,40,2,14,20,20,3","weeded,14,1","weeder,17,4,38,1","weeders,16,1,17,6,40,1","weeding,5,1,12,3,16,5,17,3,18,2,37,1,38,13,39,2,40,3,14,5,20,4","weeds,5,1,13,1,16,1,17,3,19,2,21,1,38,2,14,5,20,5","weedwiper,136,8","weighing,31,1","weight,18,1,36,1,37,1","wells,32,1","werner,12,1","west,36,1","wet,23,1","wetland,18,1,37,1","wetted,30,2","whatsoever,10,1","wheat,13,1,21,1,22,1","wheel,18,1,35,4,37,1,30,1","wheelbarrow,137,8,35,3","wheelbarrows,35,12,44,1","wheeled,18,1,35,1,37,8,38,4","wheels,18,1,22,1,35,6,36,2","whether,20,1","while,15,1,23,1,26,1","whilst,5,1,20,1","whitaker,6,1","who,3,1,45,1","whole,25,2,20,1","whose,5,1","wick,14,1","wide,12,2,19,3,26,1,31,1,35,1,37,1,20,1","widely,12,1,33,1","width,16,1","wildlife,32,1","wind,33,10","windbreaks,32,1","windmill,33,1","windmills,33,1","windy,26,1","wings,20,1","winnowed,24,1","winnower,26,2","winnowers,26,1","winnowing,25,2,26,3,29,1,30,2","winter,19,1","wipe,14,1","wiper,14,1","wipes,39,1,40,2,14,17","wire,26,1,28,1,29,1","without,11,2,16,1,21,1,25,1,31,1,34,1,20,3","woman,26,1","womanjabplanter,138,8","womanthreshing,139,8","women,5,1,13,1,16,1,36,1,38,2,30,1","women’s,4,1","wood,28,1,31,6,32,5,33,1,35,1,36,1,43,1,44,1,39,2","wooden,16,3,25,1,26,1,35,1","woodenwheelbarrow,140,8","woodfuel,32,1","woodlot,32,2","woodlots,5,1,32,13,33,1,43,1","woodlotsandwindbreak,141,8","work,12,2,13,1,16,5,17,2,18,3,19,1,21,5,22,2,23,1,24,1,25,2,26,1,29,3,38,5,14,1,20,1,30,1","worked,3,1,45,1","working,3,1,5,1,16,1,17,2,21,1,36,1,38,5,45,1","workloads,3,1,16,1,17,1,45,1,39,1","works,4,1,16,1,19,1,23,1,34,1","workshops,33,2","world,4,1,5,1,26,1,32,1","worldwide,18,1,21,1,22,1,24,2,25,1,26,1,27,1,28,2,33,1,37,1,38,1,14,1","worn,38,1","worsens,18,1","would,15,1,34,1","woven,35,1","written,3,1,11,2,45,1","yams,27,1","year,13,3,19,3,25,2,26,2,34,1,20,2","years,13,1,32,4,37,1,20,1","yield,13,3","yields,3,1,13,2,15,1,19,1,34,1,45,1,20,1","yoke,16,4","yokes,16,6,36,4","young,5,2","youth,5,1","zai,20,1","zambia,16,2,17,2,19,1,38,1,14,2,20,1","zero,5,1,33,1,20,1","zimbabwe,12,1,38,1","zone,16,1"); arrFiles=new Array();arrFiles[0]=new Array(3,"Catalogue_ presentation_en.html","2006-07-26","The Labour Saving Technologies and Practices catalogue","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, idea catalogue, presentation, explanation","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices","- Home - Purpose - Audience - Structure The Labour Saving Technologies and Practices catalogue Tanzanian family.© FAO/2002/Tanzania. Purpose of the ideas catalogue The Labour Saving Technologies and Practices (LSTP)ideas catalogue aims to enable rural communities to identify and assess labour saving technologies and practices which can reduce or spread the workloads and improve their livelihoods. It will be of particular relevance to communities where a shortage of labour or other sources of power is undermining household food and nutrition security, and the sustainability of rural livelihoods. Audience The idea catalogue has been written for use by people and organizations working in rural communities such as: staff from government local administration and NGOs members of community-based organizations (including village development groups, farmer groups, income generating activity groups and other self-help groups) others involved in field diagnostic studies Children with hoes.© FAO/2002/Tanzania. Structure of the catalogue The ideas catalogue focuses on addressing the main labour constraints typically found in rural communities:	Land preparation and cultivation	Harvesting	Post-harvest operations	Household tasks	Rural transport Each section starts with a brief description of the labour constraint and then presents LSTP options to make the task either smaller or easier. The features of each LSTP are described, noting its advantages and disadvantages and infrastructure requirements. The LSTPs presented in the catalogue only cover a small proportion of the total possible solutions to the constraints identified. Indeed, many of the most appropriate solutions may already be in use by innovative farmers in the community who have adapted them to suit local conditions. Further ideas may be found in the reading materials noted in each module. Traditional methods used in the field are exposed and brief description of the labour constraint is given. Features of the labour saving technology proposed are developed in one or several paragraphs. Traditional methods	An assessment of the LSTP is made: advantages and disadvantages in terms of contribution to livelihood and requirements are given. (Cf. Box 1) Box 1: Eight key questions in term of advantages and disadvantages of the LSTP: Labour saving : to what extent will the LSTP save time and/or energy through reducing drudgery, increasing output or reducing the size of the task? Livelihood strengthening : as a result of using the LSTP, will the existing livelihood system be made more secure by contributing to food and nutrition security through, for example, improving timeliness of operations, increasing yields, reducing losses or reducing environmental degradation? Livelihood diversification : as a result of using the LSTP, will there be any opportunities to develop and diversify into new livelihood activities through, for example, offering equipment hire services to others, diversifying into new markets, manufacturing the equipment, or developing repair and maintenance services? Equipment : will the inputs required be readily available and easy to operate? Skills : will additional skills and knowledge be required to use the LSTP? Cost : how expensive is the LSTP, in terms of initial investment and operating costs? Risk : what are the possible risks associated with using the LSTP? Infrastructure : what are the infrastructure requirements of the LSTP to ensure effective and sustained use? A detailed cost benefit ratio will need to be worked out for each potential LSTP using local prices. The calculation will examine specific components of the old technologies and practices used in relation to different components of the chosen LSTP, the costs of adaptation and delivery, and changes in benefits arising from using the LSTP. Further information is available in the form of website links, and concern:	- Publications and projects on the technology studied	- Institutions and organizations specialized in the technology described	- Equipment manufacturers	- Technical information (on the equipment described, etc) Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",13);arrFiles[1]=new Array(4,"general_information_en.html","2006-07-26","Key resources","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, general information","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices","- Home - On-line documents - Books Key resources These documents are related to general information on Labour Saving Technologies and Practices: On-line documents Labour Saving Technologies and Practices for Farming and Household Activities in Eastern and Southern Africa	This report is one component of a joint IFAD/FAO study, funded by the Government of Japan,entitled ‘Improving Women’s Access to Labour Saving Technologies and Practices in Sub-Saharan Africa’. Agriculture and Food Engineering Technologies Service of FAO	The Agricultural Support Systems Division of FAO assists FAO Members in the development of appropriate policies, strategies and methodologies for agricultural support systems and services as well as technologies for rural development, production and post-production in the agricultural and food sectors. Practical Action website	Practical Action is a charity registered in the United Kingdom which works directly in four regions of the developing world – Latin America, East Africa, Southern Africa and South Asia, with poor communities to help them choose and use technology to improve their lives for today and generations to come. Post-production operations	INPhO, the information Network on Post-Harvest Operations was designed by FAO with the support and collaboration of GTZ and CIRAD. The main objective is to increase the development of activities of the global post- harvest sector for tropical agricultural products for a better access to technical data and an exchange of information among the different post harvest actors. Conservation Agriculture Technology	The Conservation Agriculture Technology database concentrates on equipment and machinery for manual, animal or motorized operation which has been specially designed for the needs of Conservation Agriculture. Practical Action \'s list of rural transport websites This page provides several relevant links on general information on rural transportation: forum, knowledge, information on policies and sustainable issues, etc HIV/AIDS and Food security	FAO recognizes the urgent need for action to be able to respond effectively to the impacts of HIV on food security and rural livelihoods and is currently developing a comprehensive HIV strategy for the agriculture sector. In that purpose, they emphasize the role of labour saving practices. Books Farmers \' tools: a description of agricultural tools used by farmers in the Eastern and Southern African region (a FAO/ Farmesa publication) 1997	Tools for Agriculture: a guide to appropriate equipment for smallholder farmers (Intermediate Technology Publications) 1992 Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",12);arrFiles[2]=new Array(5,"LSTP presentation_en.html","2006-07-26","Introduction to Labour saving Technologies and Practices (LSTP)","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, presentation, explanation","Labour Saving Technologies","- Home - Why? - What? - How? Introduction to Labour saving Technologies and Practices (LSTP) Jab planter use.© FAO/2003/Tanzania. Why such technologies? The availability of rural labour is under considerable stress in many parts of the developing world. Several factors affect the labour in rural areas: More girls and boys are attending school and the youth are drawn to town in search of employment, shying away from the drudgery of working on the land. Whilst improved education and migration may generate remittances to be sent back to rural households in the future, the immediate impact is a reduction in labour to assist with rural living. The household labour base is also being eroded by the ill health of household members (due to HIV/AIDS, malaria, tuberculosis and other debilitating diseases) and the time spent caring for them by others. Prolonged sickness and death are usually accompanied by a loss of income and an increase in expenditure on medical care and funerals. In resource-poor households, these additional expenses are frequently covered by selling household assets, including draught animals, tools and implements. This is often an irreversible step from which households are unable to recover. Meanwhile, many aspects of rural life remain very time and energy intensive, from fetching water and firewood and preparing food, to clearing and tilling the land, cultivating crops, planting trees, creating conservation structures, rearing livestock, building houses and repairing rural roads. In this setting, many households are extremely vulnerable to shortages of labour and the loss of draught animals and other sources of power (Box 1). The amount of power (time and energy) and the knowledge base a household can raise has a major influence on the household \'s livelihood strategies and is a major determinant of livelihood outcomes. The challenge is to identify, promote and support opportunities to relieve the burden of labour shortages and enable households to become more resilient. Box 1: Vulnerable Households the poor, food insecure, and those whose asset base is deteriorating households headed by women, the elderly, young orphans and single men. households caring for the chronically ill or fostering young orphans Traditional sieving of grain.© FAO/2002/Tanzania. What are Labour Saving Technologies and Practices? There is a new sense of urgency to revisit labour saving technologies and practices (LSTPs) which can reduce the burden of rural living, particularly for households and communities which are under severe labour stress. It is recognised that many LSTPs have been developed and are already in the public domain (Box 2). For example, draught animals save time tilling land or relieve the burden of carrying heavy loads; conservation agriculture reduces the time spent on tillage and weeding; roof water harvesting reduces the need to carry water home; and mills save time and energy pounding maize. However, the gains made in reducing time and energy inputs are often offset by higher requirements for operator skills and knowledge. Box 2: Examples of Labour Saving Technologies and Practices tools and equipment which reduce the drudgery and/or improve the efficiency of performing various farming or household activities, such as using draught animals for land preparation and rural transport, cooking on fuel efficient stoves, or harvesting roofwater for domestic purposes. other potentially labour saving inputs, such as herbicides. labour saving practices, for example growing crops which require less labour than traditional crops, practicing minimum tillage, inter-cropping leguminous cover crops to suppress weeds, planting woodlots close to home, or zero grazing livestock. How can LSTPs be introduced successfully? What is required is a means of enabling rural communities to access this information, develop appropriate skills, and adopt and adapt the technologies to their own circumstances. However, there has been a long history of failed agricultural projects to increase labour efficiency and it is important that lessons are learnt. Of key importance is the cost effectiveness of the LSTP, with the benefits to farmers outweighing the costs, and the absence of undue financial risks. If farmers are fully aware of these advantages, they are more likely to make effective use of the LSTP, value it and operate it with care and properly maintain it. In order to do this, they need an effective supply and service infrastructure and training on operation and maintenance. In turn, suppliers and service providers must consider that it is in their financial interests to support the products. This requires farmers, suppliers and service providers to be fully involved from the outset of the process to ensure labour constraints are addressed effectively and in a sustainable manner. Promoting change and technology transfer in the context of HIV/AIDS gives rise to new challenges. In addition to the usual barriers faced when disseminating new technologies, many households impacted by the epidemic have no spare labour, have no spare cash, and have little capacity to undertake risks. Their priority is to secure their immediate food security. Hence different approaches may be necessary to reach highly vulnerable groups. Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",14);arrFiles[3]=new Array(6,"credit_en.html","2006-07-26","Credit","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, photo credit","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices","- Home Credits -Lead Unit of the \'Labour Saving Technologies Modules \'	Agricultural Support Systems Division (AGS), -Collaborative and Support Unit Gender and Population Division (Hiv/Aids focal point/SDW) -Technical Officers: Josef Kienzle (AGST), Stephanie Gallat (AGST), Alexandra Roettger, (AGSF) -Content Development Clare Bishop, Agricultral Economist, consultant (SDW/AGS);Keith Elliot, Agricultural Engineer, consultant (SDW/AGS);and Josef Kienzle (AGST) -Content Editing and Development Claire Mousques, FAO volunteer, AGST -Website Development Francisco Lopez, (SDRR/TECA) Photo credits The photos of this website come from:	Josef Kienzle (AGST) and Theodor Friedrich (AGPC)	ATS: Appropriate Technology Sourcebook, A guide to practical books for village and small community technology. 1993. Ken Darrow and Mike Saxenian. A.T Microfiche Library.	FARMESA: Farmers \' tools, a description of agricultural tools used by farmers in the east and southern African regions. 1997. Ola Moller. FARMESA publication.	Farmer Structures in tropical climates. 1988. Edited by Lennart P. Bengtsson and James H. Whitaker. Tools for Agriculture, a guide to appropriate equipment to smallholder farmers. 1992. Imediate technology publication in association with CRET and CTA.	FAO mediabase photgallery. Appropriate Technology Sourcebook. © Volunteers in Asia Farm structures.© FAO. Thanks to Alexandra Rottger, Michel Malagnoux and Elliot Keith for their photos. Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",9);arrFiles[4]=new Array(7,"contact_en.html","2006-07-26","Contact Us - TECA TOOLS","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, draught animal power, groundut lifter","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices - TECA","- Home Harvesting Post-harvest operations Household tasks Transport Contact us	If you have any question or remark, please contact: Mr. Josef Kienzle Agricultural Engineer, FAO, Rome (Italy) Agricultural and Food Engineering Technologies Services (AGST) Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Viale delle Terme di Caracalla 00100 Rome, Italy Tel: (+39) 06 57056798 E-mail: josef.kienzle AT fao.org Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",8);arrFiles[5]=new Array(9,"contact_en.asp","2006-07-25","Land preparation and cultivation - TECA TOOLS","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, draught animal power, groundut lifter","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices - TECA","- Home Harvesting Post-harvest operations Household tasks Transport Contact us	If you have any question or remark, please contact: Mr. Josef Kienzle Agricultural Engineer, FAO, Rome (Italy) Agricultural and Food Engineering Technologies Services (AGST) Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Viale delle Terme di Caracalla 00100 Rome, Italy Tel: (+39) 06 57056798 E-mail: josef.kienzle@fao.org Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",8);arrFiles[6]=new Array(10,"disclaimer_en.html","2006-07-26","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices - TECA","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, draught animal power, groundut lifter","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices - TECA","- Home - Credits - Copyright note Legal Note FAO declines all responsibility for errors or deficiencies in this tool or in the documentation accompanying it, for program maintenance and upgrading as well as for any damage that may arise from them. FAO also declines any responsibility for updating the data and assumes no responsibility for errors and omissions in the data provided. Users are, however, kindly asked to report any errors or deficiencies in this product to FAO. The views expressed in this tool are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. The mention or omission of specific companies, their products or brand names does not imply any endorsement or judgement by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Designations Employed The designations employed and the presentation of material in the map(s) do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of FAO concerning the legal or constitutional status of any country, territory or sea area, or concerning the delimitation of frontiers. Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",8);arrFiles[7]=new Array(11,"copyrights_en.html","2006-07-26","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices - TECA","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, draught animal power, groundut lifter","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices - TECA","- Home - Credits - Legal note - Module 3 - Module 4 -- Copyrights clause All rights reserved. Reproduction and dissemination of material in this information product for educational or other non-commercial purposes are authorized without any prior written permission from the copyright holders provided the source is fully acknowledged. Reproduction of material in this information product for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without written permission of the copyright holders. Applications for such permission should be addressed to the Chief, Publishing Management Service, Information Division, FAO, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy or by e-mail to copyright AT fao.org © FAO 2006 Copyrights clause Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",8);arrFiles[8]=new Array(12,"LSTP2_en.html","2006-07-26","Row planting, hand seeders and planters","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, row planting, hand seeder, hand planter","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices","- Home Land preparation and cultivation - Features of row planting - Features of hand seeders and planters - Advantages and Disadvantages Row planting, hand seeders and planters Rowplanting.© FAO/2003/China. Features of row planting Planting in rows for closely spaced crops: spikes are hammered into beams at planting row distances. The beams are pulled across the field to mark the rows. The seeds are dribbled into the furrows and covered over. Planting in rows for more widely spaced crops: Rows are marked in the same way as described above. Planting holes are dug using hoes, seeds are dropped in and covered over. Fertilising can be carried out at the same time, using the feet to cover the seed and fertiliser with soil. Jab planter.© FAO/2002/Kenya. Features of hand seeders and planters Hand seeders and planters make it easier to plant in rows. In very simple hand pulled or pushed seed drills the metering of the seed is done by one operator metering the seed in by hand. In more complex and costly versions the metering mechanism is mechanical. Hand pushed or pulled seeders require well prepared seedbeds for their use so they are not suitable for planting through cover crops or mulches. Jab planters are able to plant seeds into untilled soil and through mulch, and are suited to reduced tillage farming systems Both hand seeders and jab planters can be used with fertiliser attachments to enable both operations to be carried out at the same time. Advantages Disadvantages Advantages of row planting Labour saving: row planting makes weeding and harvesting easier. It is also possible to use mechanised inter-row weeding and so saves labour and time. Livelihood strengthening: planting in rows enables inter-cropping or mulching. Most crops are easier to inspect for pests and diseases when grown in rows. Skills: simple training in row planting methods. Cost: more economical use of seed in comparison to broadcasting. Advantages of seeders and planters Labour saving: operators work standing upright with jab planters and hand pushed or pulled seeders so they are generally less tiring than planting with a hoe. The equipment improves speed and accuracy of sowing, with work rates up to four times higher than for planting by traditional methods. Livelihood strengthening: enables accurate placement of fertiliser in relation to seed. Equipment: jab planters are suitable for use in conservation agriculture systems. Skills: simple training in use and maintenance of equipment Cost: economies in use of seed. Labour: it takes more time to plant in rows than broadcast but the labour saving benefits are reaped later in the season (weeding, crop inspection and harvesting). Takes some time to learn how to use planters. Cost: the additional cost of planters with more sophisticated metering mechanisms may not be justified in terms of the savings arising from reduced seed use and labour savings. Publications and projects Specialized gardening techniques: wide row planting, square foot gardening and raised bed Inter row planting of groundnuts in Srisaket province (Thailand): testing and evaluation Equipment manufacturers	JZ implementos (Brazil): Semeadeiria manual Werner (Brazil) - Double manual row crop planter with wide peak - Manual row crop planter to seed	Mealie brand hand planter (Zimbabwe) Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",15);arrFiles[9]=new Array(13,"LSTP3_en.html","2006-07-26","Seeds and crops","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, seeds, certified seeds, crops","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices","- Home Land preparation and cultivation - Features of certified seed and improved varieties - Features of less labour intensive crops - Advantages and Disadvantages Seeds and crops Root crops on the market. © FAO/1995/Pakistan.	Plant seeds are saved from previous harvest Farmer-grown seeds are at risk of deteriorating over time Various seeds. © FAO/1991/South Pacific Commission. Features of certified seed and improved varieties Using new certified seed from the same variety every few years improves the quality of seed and breaks the seed borne disease cycle, with the following results: improved germination; stronger, more vigorous growth; improved pest and disease resistance; and maintenance of high yield. Planting new varieties of the same crop that have been bred to increase yield and resistance to certain pests and diseases. Certified seed should be locally produced although it may be imported depending upon the crop and variety. Certified seed is usually grown for a premium price to the grower on local farms under careful supervision and control of the certifying authority. Bean seeds.© FAO/2001. Features of less labour intensive crops Some root crops have low labour requirements and have no strict time for harvesting, such as cassava. They also provide more edible energy per hectare and per labour unit than conventional cereal crops such as rice and wheat Varieties that are early maturing help during the hungry season prior to the harvest of the main crop. Some maize and rice varieties are adapted to dry conditions and provide the possibility of farming in dry seasons or in drylands which spreads the labour requirements to quieter times of the year. Some varieties have developed features which ease harvesting, such as groundnuts with a vertical root structure that eases harvesting in terms of physical effort and time. Certain crops have physical properties that help suppress weeds such as pumpkins. Advantages Disadvantages Labour saving: some crops are less labour intensive either in terms of total labour input over the year or the labour inputs are spread more evenly throughout the year. With improved varieties, labour saved in terms of work input per kg produced due to improved germination and higher yield, or food security improved for the same amount of labour input. Livelihood strengthening: yields from certified seeds are generally 10 - 20% higher than conventional yields. Livelihood diversification: opportunity to diversify range of crops grown. Inputs: knowledge of traditional crops within local community and seed selection is often the responsibility of women. Skills: required to grow traditional varieties available within community. Cost: seeds traditional crops are available at low or no cost. Infrastructure: local seed banks to maintain genetic stock of local varieties. Inputs: certified seeds need to be available locally and some may be excessively dependent on fertilizer applications. Cost: new certified seeds have to be purchased regularly. Infrastructure: relatively complex infrastructure required for certified seeds with national plant breeding and research stations capable of developing varieties or testing imported varieties for their suitability to local conditions as well as seed banks, out breeding facilities, and retail and local dealership networks. Good communication required between national seed institutions and commercial retailers and outlets and extension services. Risk: Poor local availability of suitable certified seeds. Quality control not rigorous applied, with potential for seeds to be adulterated in supply chain leaving farmers with unknown seeds of uncertain quality. Local stocks of indigenous seeds being lost over time, along with the specialist knowledge required for their selection and multiplication. Publications and projects Good seeds, extension and farmers (African Seed trade Organisation publication) Institutions and organisations Association of Official Seed Certifying Agencies Association of seed industry Icarda Seed Unit (part of the Consultative group on International Agriculture Research) International Plant Genetic Researches Institute: list of crops and species \' researches Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",17);arrFiles[10]=new Array(14,"LSTP4_en.html","2006-07-26","Weed wipes and knapsack sprayers","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, weed wipes, knapsack sprayer","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices","- Home Land preparation and cultivation - Features of weed wipes - Features of knapsack sprayers - Advantages and Disadvantages Weed wipes and knapsack sprayers Weeding by hand using traditional hoes takes 140 hours for one person to weed one hectare (which falls to 65 hours per hectare by the third weeding). Weeding is conducted at critical times to avoid establishment of weeds and crop damage. Late weeding of previous crop is done to prevent setting of seeds. Weed wiper.© FAO/2003/Zambia. Features of weed wipes A small volume of ready mixed non-selective systemic herbicide (such as glyphosate) is placed in a small container attached to the top of the handle. The herbicide is applied through the handle to a broad wick at the bottom of the implement, which is used to wipe the herbicide onto weeds growing in between crop rows. Weeds growing close to the crop have to be weeded by hand. Knapsack sprayer in use.© FAO/1994/Colombia. Features of knapsack sprayers Diluted herbicide is carried in a tank on the operator \'s back and is hand pumped under pressure to the distributor with a nozzle to produce a fine spray, which is applied to the weeds. Boom sprayer.© FAO/2003/Zambia. These are simple implements but careful operation and maintenance standards must be observed and strict operator safety measures must also be followed. Ultra low volume sprayers, using spinning discs to reduce the droplet size, are available; they use concentrated herbicide with less water and so reduce drudgery. Advantages Disadvantages Labour saving: the work rates of knapsack sprayers and weed wipes are much higher than manual weeding: it only takes 12 hours for one person to cover one hectare (approximately 10 times quicker). Weed wipes are light and minimise drudgery. Livelihood strengthening: spraying leaves the soil undisturbed, the weed roots still holding the soil together and weeds on the surface. This improves soil structure and reduces soil erosion potential. When weed wipes are used with glyphosate, what little herbicide is left on the top soil is neutralised by clay particles in the soil. Equipment: weed wipes are easy to use with no moving parts and easy to maintain. Generally more viable than knapsack sprayers. Skills: weed wipes relatively safe to use provided the concentrated chemicals are handled carefully when the apparatus is being filled. Cost: weed wipes are generally much cheaper than sprayers, and are also cheaper and easier to maintain. Ultra low volume sprayers use herbicides efficiently. Skills: proper training is essential for the safe use of herbicides and equipment to protect operator health and environment. Cost: capital cost of knapsack sprayer is relatively expensive and herbicides are expensive. For ultra low volume sprayers there is also the capital cost of the spinning discs and the replacement cost of the batteries to power them. Roisk: equipment and herbicides handled incorrectly. Spray may drift onto the crop plants when using ultra low volume sprayers. Infrastructure: for the supply of equipment and herbicides. Publications and projects Kenyan farmers on the treadmill Equipment manufacturers Maquinas agricolas Jacto (Brazil): Knapsack sprayers Data base on Conservation agriculture technologies: list of sprayers worldwide manufacturers	Aakar export (India): knapsack sprayer Technical information Knapsack spray operations Institute of Agricultural Engineer \'s article: manual spraying can be done accurately Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",17);arrFiles[11]=new Array(15,"LSTP5_en.html","2006-07-26","Integrated pest management","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, intergrated pest management","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices","- Home Land preparation and cultivation - Features of integrated pest management - Advantages and Disadvantages Integrated pest management Pesticide application using a knapsack sprayer can be expensive and present negative health and safety and environmental impacts due to limited training, inappropriate use and storage and lack of protective clothing. Features of integrated pest management Development of an understanding of the ecology and life cycles of the main pest species and their predators, also known as beneficials. This identifies the periods when interventions would be effective in controlling pests and in introducing or attracting predators of the pests Intercrop lab lab in maize. © FAO/2003/Tanzania. Use of various agricultural practices such as: Crop rotations to break up the life cycle of pests and prevent their population growth Inter-row cropping with crop species which either repel pests or attract predators of the pest species. For example, napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) planted round the edge of a maize plot attracts stem borer moths away from maize while molasses grass (Melinis minutiflora), inter-cropped between the maize, discourages the maize borer and attracts a parasitic wasp that prey on stem borers. Manual pest collection. © FAO/1985/Philippines. Accurate monitoring of pest levels to determine when intervention is necessary. Setting pest traps and physically removing and destroying pests. Minimum use of pesticides to control pests. This is done as a last resort and only narrow spectrum insecticides are used. Advantages Disadvantages Livelihood strengthening: increase yields and reduce labour input per kilogram of production. Long-term sustainability of ecosystem improved. Livelihood diversification: opportunity to be eligible to sell organic produce at higher value than standard produce. Equipment: nil. Skills: try out on a small scale at first. Cost: reduce expenditure due to reduced pesticide inputs. Risk: small. Labour: significant inputs of time required to develop skills, monitor crops and set traps. Skills: extensive training and understanding of ecosystem required. Infrastructure: specialist trainer required in integrated pest management. Publications and projects Fundamental elements of a farm field school Mobilization and empowerment of rural communities in Cambodia thanks to IPM Farm Field School Institutions and projects Community Integrated Pest Management: The IPM Field Farmer School FAO global IPM facility FAO Plant Protection service, IPM group Kenya Research institute: cultivation and utilisation of nappier grass Forum IPM forum web site Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",15);arrFiles[12]=new Array(16,"LSTP6_en.html","2006-07-26","Draught animal power and implements","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, draught animal power, harnessing","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices","- Home Land preparation and cultivation - Features of harnessing - Features of implements - Advantages and Disadvantages Draught animal power and implements Oxen for animal draft. © FAO/2002/Tanzania. Cattle, particularly oxen are by far the most common source of draught animal power. Buffaloes, donkeys and camels are also used. Work rates for a pair of oxen are around 10 and 20 times greater than those for a single human in traditional full tillage systems (indicative only, due to the variability of ploughing depth, animals, local conditions and crops): Ploughing: 9 to 28 hours/ha/pair of oxen Planting: 15 hours/ha/pair of oxen Weeding: 7 hours/ha/pair of oxen The number of hours that draught animals can work per day depends mainly on animal species, climate, time of day, health and nutrient status and varies from around 3 - 6 hours per day.In many countries draught animals are mainly used for land preparation with little advantage taken of their high work rates for weeding.Hired draught animal power services is often paid for through reciprocal labour or other local services. For low draught operations, such as planting and weeding, the use of single animals with suitably designed harnesses effectively doubles the amount of draught animal power available for these operations. Wooden double shoulder yoke. © FAO/2002/Kenya. Features of harnessing Generally, yokes are used for bovines and collar harnesses with breast straps for equines. Using yokes on equines can seriously injure them. Either single yokes or collar harnesses can be used on single oxen. Forehead or head yokes are traditional in some areas, used on non-humped cattle and buffalo, but are not favoured for efficient use. The double shoulder yoke is easy and cheap to make but is inefficient and causes sores and injuries. Shaping the yoke to give a large contact area between the yoke, neck and shoulder with padding if necessary, minimises the localised pressure on the animal and enables it to exert more force without pain and improve the power output. Full- or split-collar harnesses can be used effectively with oxen, buffalo and donkeys. Using single animals for low draught operations with appropriately designed harnessing is not common but can effectively double the availability of DAP in a region for these tasks. Yokes are commonly made by farmers themselves and local manufacturers. Traditional wooden plough. © FAO/2004/Korea. Features of implements The most common traditional primary tillage implement is the Ard, a wooden plough with a steel share or tip, which operates like a chisel plough or ripper tine and does not invert the soil. Multiple passes at angles to each other are usually undertaken to prepare the land for seeding. Another common primary tillage implement is the steel mouldboard plough pulled by a chain, which inverts the soil and buries surface trash and weeds. A less common primary tillage implement in Sub-Saharan Africa is the ripper tine, used to break up plough plans. It is best used at the end of the cropping season when the draught animals are in peak condition and before the soil hardness increases during the dry season. The ripper is also used in reduced tillage systems for preparing the land for planting through a cover crop or mulch (see LSTP on Conservation Agriculture). The ripper tine can be fitted to the standard plough beam. Ripper tine.© FAO/2003/Zambia. The most common secondary tillage implements are harrows and cultivators. These take on many shapes and sizes but generally the latter have fewer tines than the former. Both are used for breaking down the clods left from ploughing to make a seedbed of a fine tilth, so as to improve the contact between seed, soil and soil moisture, and facilitate germination and plant development. Interrow cultivator.© FAO/2002/Kenya. Harrows and cultivators are also used as weeders (particularly duck-foot cultivators). Variable width cultivators are used for inter-row weeding. Other secondary tillage implements include ridgers and bed-makers. These are used to minimise soil compaction within the cultivated zone. They may also be used for specific crops, such as groundnuts, to facilitate their growth and harvesting. Ridger plough.© FAO/2003/Zambia. Other land forming implements include levelling planks or levelling blades, both used to improve the evenness of the soil to facilitate equitable moisture distribution and to improve tilth. Levelling blades are also used to level land for irrigation systems, together with dam-scoops for transferring soil over slightly longer distances. Dam-scoops are also used to construct soil conservation works, such as conservation contours and storm drains.br Advantages Disadvantages Advantages of using draught animals Labour saving: reduces drudgery and saves time of up between 5 - 20 times compared to using only manual labour. Livelihood diversification: off-farm earning potential through providing hire services. Livelihood strengthening: allows expansion of cultivated area, improved quality of operations and improved timeliness. Suitable for small plot sizes. Multipurpose function of animals including farm power, milk, meat and manure. Equipment: draught animal implements relatively easy to maintain and repair. Cost: value of animals often increases. Advantages of improving harnessing and using single animals Labour saving: using a single animal for low draught work where two are usually used, doubles the availability of draught animals for that task and reduces the demand for labour. Improving the design of yokes and harnesses makes a more efficient use of animals. Equipment: type of harness depends on tradition, animal species, type of implement, cropping system, material and money available. Easy to maintain and repair. Skills improvements should be introduced gradually in areas where draught animal power is common and traditional harnesses are already in use. Cost: low investment and minimal operating costs and hence low financial risks. Risk: minimal. Labour: energy and time inputs are much higher and power and draught force outputs much lower when compared with their tractor drawn equivalents. Potential increases in workloads for weeding if draught animals are used to increase cropped area. Animal: often in poor condition at start of cropping season when main traditional tillage operations are required. Require supplementary feeding as well as maintenance feeding when working. Equipment: need tillage and harnessing equipment. Inputs will be required to improve design and manufacture improved harnesses. Cost: significant investment and operating costs. Skills: operators and animals require extensive training. Owners need to be competent in animal husbandry. If switching to using single animals, animals will need to be trained to work alone. Attitude: there are a number of gender aspects associated with the use of draught animals, especially cattle, which may prevent women from using this resource. Risk: animals have low productivity due to poor feeding and ill health. Infrastructure: veterinary services and medicines, and infrastructure of equipment supply required. Publications and projects ATNESA publications on DAP - Empowering farmers with animal traction - Meeting the challenges of animal traction The donkey plough Draught animal power Draught animal power: an overview from the FAO engineering group of the AGST Technical information Tillage implements Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",23);arrFiles[13]=new Array(17,"LSTP7_en.html","2006-07-26","Draught Animal Power (DAP) planters and weeders","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, draught animal power, planter, seeder","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices","- Home Land preparation and cultivation - Features of DAP planter - Features of DAP weeder - Advantages and Disadvantages Draught Animal Power (DAP) planters and weeders Draught Animal power. © FAO/2003/Kenya. Traditional methods are: broadcast seed onto tilled soil and then harrow it using draught animals or livestock to trample the seed into the soil. dribble the seed into furrow behind the plough every third or fourth pass, depending on row spacing. DAP interrow cultivator. © FAO/2002/Zambia. Features of DAP planter Animal drawn implements for sowing and fertiliser distribution are less common than cultivation equipment. Planter is pulled by animals, working in rows and places seeds just below the soil surface. Machines are available to plant one, two or three rows at a time. Draught animal planter requires fewer animals than ploughing. Fertilising can be carried out at the same time as planting, taking care regarding the placement of the fertiliser in relation to the seed to prevent burning of the seed and to maximise its effectiveness (fertiliser should be placed around 4 cm to the side and 5 cm below the seed). DAP no-till planter.© FAO/2002/Zambia. The DAP planters and fertilisers used for conservation agriculture are similar to those used for conventional tillage, with the exception of the opening blade (a ripper tine suitable for penetration into dry untilled soil covered with stubble or trash). They can also be used for planting into conventionally ploughed soil. Features of DAP weeder The machine is pulled by draught animals, working between rows, and cuts the weeds just below the soil surface using a tine. The most cost common tines are duck-foot tines with horizontal blades on either side of the central tine. The conventional mouldboard plough is a very good weeder as it completely inverts the soil covering and killing most weeds. The mouldboard can also be removed from a mouldboard plough and the implement used as a non-inverting weeder to loosen the weeds and to allow them to be pulled out easily and left on the surface to die. Advantages Disadvantages Labour saving: work rate is over five times faster than planting by hand and requires few animals. If fertilising is carried out at the same time as planting, the work rate is around 10 times faster. Planters facilitate planting in rows which, in turn, enables inter-row planting and inter-row weeding with draught animals, thereby saving labour and time. Livelihood strengthening: enables timely planting and weeding. Fertiliser is placed accurately in relation to seed. Equipment: facilitates use of conservation agriculture systems because planter is able to plant into dry untilled soil covered with stubble or mulch. Weeders are relatively easy to manufacture if the equipment supply for other DAP equipment is already in place. Labour: potential increases in workloads for weeding if planter is used to increase the cropped area. Equipment: skilled local manufacture or importation required for planters because of the complex metering mechanism. Skills: skilled operators required and training of animals required. Cost: relatively expensive (US 500) compared to hand tools are a barrier to poor communities acquiring them if finance schemes are not in place. Risk: in regions where there are frequent crop failures due to lack of rain, farmers often minimise their financial risk by applying fertilisers only when it rains. A switch to fertilising at the same time as planting increases the financial risk they are exposed to. Animals have low productivity due to poor feeding and ill health, and are unable to complete the task effectively. Publications and projects Improving animal traction technology Mitigation of HIV/AIDS, impacts through agricultural and rural development. Equipment manufacturers Plantadeira de tracao animal Knapic (Brazil) Plantadeira de tracao animal Trition (Brazil) Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",16);arrFiles[14]=new Array(18,"LSTP8_en.html","2006-07-26","Single axle Tractors","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, improved hoes, single axle tractor","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices","- Home Land preparation and cultivation - Features - Advantages and Disadvantages Single axle Tractors Single axle tractor with bedplanter. © FAO/2003/Bangladesh. Features Single axle tractors are commonly used in Asia but not in Africa, due partly due to harsher conditions and less irrigated land in the latter. They range in power from around 1.5 - 15 kW, controlled by the operator walking behind them. The draught force they exert is low as it is dependent on the weight on the driving wheels and is usually less than the draught force from a good team of oxen. Single axle tractor.© FAO/2004/Kenya. Their engine power is most effectively used through a rotovator. The most suitable environment for using rotovators is under wetland or irrigated agriculture, where the soil moisture content can be controlled to suit the use of rotovators and where there is usually an adequate quantity of organic matter to incorporate into the soil to increase soil aggregation. Otherwise rotovators tend to pulverise the soil, particularly under dry soil conditions, destroying soilaggregates and leaving a high proportion of individual soil particles. This worsens soil structure and leads to a reduced water infiltration rate, higher erosion potential and compaction problems. Single axle tractor with rotary tiller. © FAO/2003/Bangladesh. Work rates for shallow secondary tillage, such as weeding, similar to draught animals. Advantages Disadvantages Labour saving: less drudgery and labour saving. Reasonably high work rates for tasks such as inter-row weeding. Livelihood strengthening: allows expansion of cultivated area, improved quality of operations and improved timeliness. Good quality work for seedbed preparation if used under correct moisture conditions. Small size makes them suitable for use on small plot holdings. Livelihood diversification: opportunity to earn income through hire services. Livelihood: potential damage to pulverise soil, particularly when used under dry soil conditions. Equipment: relatively complex, usually imported. Cost: high ownership costs compared to draught animals and hence high risks for owner. Skills: farmers require training in operation and maintenance. Risk: if viability is dependent on contractual services but farmers lack cash to pay for such services. Infrastructure: considerable established infrastructure support is required for their efficient operation although less than that required for four wheeled tractors. Equipment manufacturers List of worldwide wheel tractors sellers Rotovator: pictures and technical description Small tractor sellers \' list Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",14);arrFiles[15]=new Array(19,"LSTP9_en.html","2006-07-26","Raised beds","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, raised bed, crops","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices","- Home Land preparation and cultivation - Features of bed cultivation - Advantages and Disadvantages Raised beds Repeated tilling of the soil to the same depth, either by hand or draught animal, causes plough pans which result in poor plant growth. Lots of human and animal traffic on the cultivated fields causes soil compaction. Raised bed.© FAO/2002/Kenya. Features of bed cultivation Crops are grown in raised beds (1.20 m wide and about 20 cm deep) with 60 cm wide paths between them for human and animal traffic. The beds are constructed along the contour to minimise any water flow down the paths during high rainfall. If the land is uneven, the beds are constructed slightly off-contour to prevent possible ponding and overflow going across the beds and causing erosion. Before the beds are formed all perennial weeds are killed with a spray of Glyphosate (Roundup) with a carrier of ½ % urea. It may be necessary to rip the hard pan if the soil is compacted. The land is ploughed or dug and the tilth developed before the beds are made. Short beds are formed by hand and longer beds by draught animals (with ridgers) or tractor. Two or three rows of crop are sown per bed depending on the crop. The beds remain from season to season and require regular maintenance. Raised bed with mulch. © FAO/2003/Zambia. Once the beds are established and planted, they are either mulched or cover crops are grown to suppress the weeds and improve soil quality. The mulch has to be topped up regularly, normally after each planting, sometimes between plantings (up to four times per year). Care should be taken not to include weed seeds or diseases in this mulch. Subsequent crops are planted through the mulch or cover crop. Beds should be installed with full conservation works, including contours and grassed waterways due to the possible concentration of runoff in the rows between the beds. Advantages Disadvantages Labour saving: reduce labour requirements for cultivation and weed control once the beds are established and cover crop/mulch in place. Less bending over to tend the crop. Livelihood strengthening: the beds provide a medium for intensive crop production and improve yields per unit of labour input. Reduce soil compaction and build up of organic matter in the soil from mulches leads to improved soil structure (which in turn increases water infiltration, reduces soil erosion and improves soil fertility). Better disease control because beds can be isolated. Equipment: no special requirements. Draught animals and tractors may be used, if available, to help with bed construction. Risk: to minimise risk and gain from experience, farmers starting with raised beds should only put a part of their land under the system initially. Labour: high labour and work input in first year to landform and establish beds. Skills: training required in bed construction and maintenance. Technical limitations: not suitable for uneven land as paths concentrate rainfall in depressions and flood across the beds. Generally unsuitable for lands grazed during the winter periods as compaction will occur in the beds and they will have to be reformed each year. Dependent on mulch material to prevent beds from eroding away. Publications and projects The Raised-Bed System of Cultivation for Irrigated Production Conditions Raised beds and waru waru cultivation Technical information Specialized gardening techniques: wide row planting, square foot gardening and raised bed Ohio State University Extension Fact Sheet: raised bed gardening Build you own raised bed Mulching explanations Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",15);arrFiles[16]=new Array(20,"LSTP10_en.html","2006-07-26","Conservation agriculture (CA) - TECA","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, conservation agriculture","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices","- Home Land preparation and cultivation - Features of conservation agriculture - Features of conservation tillage - Features of cover crops - Advantages and Disadvantages Conservation agriculture (CA) CA scheme.© FAO/1997/Mexico. Features of conservation agriculture Conservation agriculture is the simultaneous practice of permanent soil cover, minimal soil disturbance and crop rotations. This is achieved by: maintenance of a permanent vegetative soil cover or mulch to protect the soil surface;	direct planting without seedbed preparation through the soil cover to minimise the	disturbance of the soil crop residue management and weed control, to stimulate soil structure formation,	improve soil fertility, and to control weeds (with dependence on herbicides) pest and disease control based on Integrated Pest Management, crop rotations and	inter-cropping Inputs include cover crops, the use of draught animal powered knife rollers or herbicides to crush or kill weeds and cover crops, and no-till planters. Farmers require extensive training and change in mindset to shift from traditional practices to conservation agriculture. No tillage practices are suited to areas with high rainfall ( 1000 mm to ensure high levels of biomass production and minimum competition from livestock for crop residues), long growing period (more than 6 - 7 months for biomass production), soils with more than 20% clay content (to reduce risk of soil compaction). Minimum tillage, rather than no-tillage, systems are considered to be more appropriate in semi-arid and arid regions with 300 - 800 mm annual rainfall. Conservation agriculture is suitable in areas where there is a capacity to grow cash crops (in order to purchase inputs), markets for a diverse range of crops (to support crop rotation), secure access to land and limited value on crop residues (as livestock fodder and firewood). It is possible to adopt components of conservation agriculture in a piecemeal manner: for example, inter-cropping cover crops or using conservation tillage equipment or herbicides. These components may act as entry points for moving towards full conservation agriculture Features of conservation tillage There is a range of tillage operations that reduces the losses of soil and water, in comparison to conventional tillage, including (in order of reduced soil disturbance): Reduced tillage : tilling the whole surface but eliminating one or more of the conventional tillage operations Semi-permanent planting basins : known as tassa in Mali, zai in Burkino Faso, demi-lune in Niger, potholing in Zambia, the Matengo pit system in Tanzania Ridge tillage : a system of annual or semi-permanent ridges and furrows, resulting in	some residue cover Tined tillage : land is prepared with implements which do not invert the soil and which cause little compaction, resulting in a good cover of residues on the surface in excess of 30%. Equipment used includes chisel plough, vibro-cultivator and draught animal powered ripper Strip tillage : strips 5 - 20 cm wide are prepared to receive the seed and the intervening bands are not disturbed Zero tillage (or no-tillage): planting the seed into the stubble of the previous crop without any tillage or soil disturbance. Weed control relies heavily on herbicides. This approach is broadly equivalent to conservation agriculture Maize residue cover.© FAO/2003/Korea. Sub-soiling may be necessary before switching to conservation agriculture to remove hardpans caused by years of hand hoeing or ploughing. Plough pans are broken up using use ripper tine with draught animals or tractors at the end of the cropping season when the draught animals are in peak condition and before soil hardness increases during the dry season. Alternatively, where time allows, cowpeas may be planted to break up the hard pans. Excessively uneven land that could lead to water logging (possibly resulting from previous poor ploughing practices) are corrected using damscoops or levellers with draught animals or tractors at the end of the cropping season before switching to conservation agriculture. Knife roller in action. © FAO/2004/Tanzania. Conservation tillage equipment includes: hand operated jab planter : plants through crop residues and crop cover with no tillage and removes the need to prepare the land for planting. Can also be used to apply fertilizer knife roller drawn by draught animals: bends over and crushes crop residues and cover crops prior to planting 5which then remain on field as soil cover), saves the removal of crop residues by hand and residues act as cover to suppress weeds draught animal powered ripper to make planting strips in reduced tillage systems by cutting furrows rather than inverting the soil. A planter attachment places seed directly in ripper furrow. Wings can be attached for ridging and weeding which reduces time by half because do both sides of row in one pass draught animal powered seeder/no till planter to plant directly through the cover crop: plant through crop residue and crop cover with no tillage and removes the need to prepare the land for planting. Dolicos lablab cover crop. © FAO/2004/Kenya. Features of cover crops A cover crop is any crop grown to provide soil cover, regardless of whether it is later incorporated into the soil. Cover crops and green manures can be annual, biennial or perennial herbaceous plants grown in a pure or mixed stand during all or part of the year. They are grown primarily to prevent soil erosion but they also reduce soil surface temperature and water losses, add organic matter to the soil, stimulate soil life, suppress weeds and some fix nitrogen. Examples include dolicos lablab and mucuna. Weed, disease and pest problems need to be addressed before switching to conservation agriculture. Advantages Disadvantages Labour saving: reduced labour inputs for land preparation and weeding once system becomes established, more even distribution of labour across the year, more timely operations and a reduction in drudgery. Changes in draught animal power systems from the mouldboard plough to shallow ripping saves labour. Livelihood strengthening: represents move towards more sustainable farming system with increased yields. Quality of environment is improved and previous degradation reversed. Livelihood diversification: more time available to undertake off-farm work and hire out services (for example, draught animals). Opportunity to move into growing organic produce with payment premiums. Cost: reduced requirement for herbicides and fertilisers once system established. Risk: change land over to conservation agriculture gradually (one plot at a time) in order to minimise risk of using a new farming system. Labour: additional labour inputs initially whilst establish system for application of lime, farmyard manure, weeding, breaking hand pans and constructing planting basins. Manual and draught animal powered minimum tillage systems (without cover crops) increase labour requirements for weeding because they do not bury weeds by inverting the soil during land preparation. Initial investment of time and energy to construct some of reduced tillage system. Attitude: other farmers may regard retention of cover crops and crop residues as a lazy form of farming. Equipment: more complex draught animal drawn equipment requires skilled local manufacture or import. Farmers require access to seeds of green manure/cover crops, herbicides, liming or farmyard manure to adjust soil acidity and fertilisers when crop residues left in field until new equilibrium reached. Cost: purchase of conservation tillage equipment and herbicides. Skills: farmers need extensive training and change in approach to conventional farming system. Risk: ability to grow cover crop compromised by strong demand for crop residues as forage for livestock and communal land tenure system limits right of land use to growing season. Higher levels of surface trash may result in higher plant disease and pest infestations, if not managed properly. System not suited to low precipitation, short growing season, sandy soils and soils at risk of water logging. Infrastructure: access to appropriate inputs and skilled extension service. Publications and projects Saving labour through Conservation Agriculture Labour Saving Technologies and Practices for Farming and Household Activities inEastern and Southern Africa Conservation agriculture Case studies in Latin America and Africa Institutions and organisations FAO Conservation Agriculture website African Conservation Tillage network European Conservation Agriculture Federation Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",23);arrFiles[17]=new Array(21,"LSTP13_en.html","2006-07-26","Improved hand tools for harvesting cereals","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, harvesting, hand tools, sickles, scythe, Reaping hooks","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices","- Home Harvesting - Feature of improved hand tools - Advantages and Disadvantages Improved hand tools for harvesting cereals Sickles.© FAO/2001. Knives and sickles are the most common tools used for harvesting in Africa. Typical work rates for harvesting cereals are: Maize: 110 hours/tonne/person (approximately 20 work days per tonne) Sorghum/Millet:	210 hours/tonne/person (approximately 40 work days per tonne) Working with a sickle is very slow but for crops like rice where the grains fall off easily, its use can minimise losses. Harvesting work rates are increased and labour inputs reduced when crops are planted in rows and when the crop is free of weeds. Use of scythe.© ATS/1993 Feature of improved hand tools Scythes : harvesting wheat with a scythe rather than a sickle reduces the time required by a factor of three or four but requires considerable skill. Scythes can be fitted with a cradle attachment, allowing the cut crop to be collected at the end of each stroke and neatly stacked in rows, thereby reducing grain loss. Reaping hooks. © pricerunner.com Reaping hooks : a compromise between a sickle and a scythe and easier to use than the scythe. The hook is used in the crouching position but, unlike the sickle, the sharp blade cuts the stems of the crop without having to hold them. Frequently used in conjunction with hooked sticks to gather in the crop. Advantages Disadvantages Labour saving: quicker than traditional manual methods. Livelihood strengthening: suitable for small farmers and for small plot sizes. Quality of harvested crop is generally good and there are fewer losses compared to mechanised harvesting. Equipment: easy to harvest mature plants selectively when crops are not uniformly ripe. Skills: low skill level required, except with scythes. Cost: minimal additional cost of buying improved hand tools. Risk: nill Infrastructure: hand tools relatively easy to fabricate, maintain and repair. Labour: low work rates per labourer and high levels of drudgery. Skills: use of scythe requires skills and regular sharpening of the scythe blades by special tools. Publications and projects Guidelines for the technical specifications and procurement of agricultural hand tools Haymaking Equipment manufacturers List of worldwide hand tool sellers Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",14);arrFiles[18]=new Array(22,"LSTP14_en.html","2006-07-26","Motorised single-axle mowers and reapers for harvesting cereals","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, single-axle mowers, repears, harvesting","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices","- Home Harvesting - Features of motorised single-axle mowers and reapers - Advantages and Disadvantages Motorised single-axle mowers and reapers for harvesting cereals Cutter bar mower.© TFA/1992 Features of motorised single-axle mowers and reapers Single-axle mowers and reapers generally range in power from around 1.5 - 10 kW. The operator usually walks behind them, although some have a sulky style trailed seat on two wheels. Crops suitable for harvesting by these machines include rice, wheat and barley. Hay or grass mowers are available with cutter bars or rotary cutters. Reapers also have cutter bars and are generally designed for row crops and usually have mechanisms for stacking the crop. The work rates of mowers and reapers are substantially higher than hand reaping. For example a 2.2 kW reaper harvests rice at the rate of 2.4 hectare per day. Advantages Disadvantages Labour saving: high work rates compared to manual harvesting. Livelihood strengthening: suitable for small farmers and small plots. Livelihood diversification: opportunity to offer farm power hires services to others. Equipment: most mowers and reapers are based on power tiller units which make them very versatile implements when all the attachments are available. Labour: text Equipment: relatively complex. Cost and risk: high cost of purchasing and running machinery compared to manual harvesting tools, and risk associated with financial investment. Skills: required for efficient and safe operation of machinery. Risk: may fail if introduce hire services into an area where there is insufficient demand to pay for contractual services. Infrastructure: considerable infrastructure support required for their efficient operation. Equipment manufacturers Agria manufacturer website List of worldwide mower sellers Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",11);arrFiles[19]=new Array(23,"LSTP15_en.html","2006-07-26","Draught animal powered groundnut lifter - TECA","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, draught animal power, groundut lifter","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices","- Home Harvesting - Features of groundnut lifter - Advantages and Disadvantages Draught animal powered groundnut lifter Groundnut lifter with \'V \' sweep. © FARMESA/1997. Features of groundnut lifter The groundnut lifter is an extended ploughshare with steel rods replacing the mouldboard part of the plough and is fitted onto a standard plough beam. The share works at a depth of 10 to 15 cm, cutting the deep roots of the plants and lifting the plant and groundnuts over the steel rods, while the soil falls between the rods. Groundnut lifter with curved blade. © FARMESA/1997. The crop needs to be grown in rows. The lifter does not work well in very wet, very dry or heavy soils. Advantages Disadvantages Labour saving: much quicker than harvesting groundnuts by hand. Livelihood strengthening: reduces harvesting losses if lifter is properly adjusted. Equipment: lifter is attached to a standard plough beam. Relatively easy to manufacture if other draught animal equipment already manufactured. Skills: no additional skills to ploughing skills are required. Cost: minimal additional cost if already own plough beam. Cost: if draught animals are not already used, then the cost of animals and equipment and the skills required are high compared to hand tools. Risk: if the depth of the lifter is poorly adjusted the harvesting losses can be substantial. Infrastructure: use of draught animals requires effective veterinary and extension services. Publications and projects Groundnut processing Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",11);arrFiles[20]=new Array(24,"LSTP16_en.html","2006-07-26","Manually operated strippers and shellers - TECA","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, strippers, shellers, decorticator, groundnut, maize sheller","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices","- Home Post-harvest operations - Features of manually operated strippers and shellers - Advantages and Disadvantages Manually operated strippers and shellers Groundnuts are usually removed from the plant by hand. Maize is commonly shelled by hand or by placing the cobs in jute bags and beating them with stocks to separate the kernels from the cob. Any kernels left on the cob after the beatings are removed by hand. Groundnut stripper.© FARMESA/1997. Features of manually operated strippers and shellers Groundnut strippers separate the pods from the plant: rectangular frame on legs onto which vertical pegs are attached, such as nails partly hammered into the frame. The groundnuts are dragged through the pegs, separating them from the plant old steel drum cut in half and plants banged against the edge of the drum until the pods fall into the drum. Groundnut decorticator.© FARMESA/1997. Groundnut shellers or decorticators are made of a curved screen in the base of an open tank mounted on a frame, with a rasp bar operated in a reciprocating semi-circular motion. The rasp bar scrapes the groundnuts against the screen, breaking the shells and allowing the nuts and shells to fall through the screen, after which they are winnowed. Maize sheller.© ATS/1993. Maize shellers remove the kernels from the cob: a cylinder with rows of internal teeth: the cob is inserted into the cylinder which is rotated with a handle (very simple) a cast iron rotating disk with protrusions on it: cobs are pushed against the disk and the kernels are knocked off (more common) medium sized maize shellers have an output ranging from 30 kg per hour to 120 kg per hour when operated manually (and up to 800 kg per hour when powered by a small 0.5 kW electric motor) Advantages Disadvantages Labour saving: high work rates compared to manual harvesting. Livelihood strengthening: suitable for small farmers and small plots. Livelihood diversification: opportunity to offer farm power hiring services to others. Equipment: most mowers and reapers are based on power tiller units which make them very versatile implements when all the attachments are available. Equipment: relatively complex. Cost and risk: high cost of purchasing and running machinery compared to manual harvesting tools, and risk associated with financial investment. Skills: required for efficient and safe operation of machinery. Risk: may fail if introduce hire services into an area where there is insufficient demand to pay for contractual services. Infrastructure: considerable infrastructure support required for their efficient operation. Publications and projects Groundnut stripper and sheller project Equipment manufacturers List of worldwide strippers sellers List of worldwide maize sheller sellers Technical information INPhO Equipment research home page Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",16);arrFiles[21]=new Array(25,"LSTP17_en.html","2006-07-26","Manual and motorised threshers -TECA ","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, thresher","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices","- Home Post-harvest operations - Features of mechanised threshing for small grain crops - Advantages and Disadvantages Manual and motorised threshers Threshing involves three distinct operations: separating the grain from the ear or panicle (the most energy intensive operation); sorting the grain from the straw; and winnowing the chaff from the grain. Manual separation methods: the crop is usually beaten on the ground with a flail, or a handful of straws and ears are beaten against a wooden frame or the edge of a container. Output per person is around 20 to 40 kg per hour. Separation methods using cattle: the crop is either trampled on the ground by the cattle or a heavy rolled implement being pulled behind them to increase the work rate. Without the pulled implement the output is roughly the same as the manual method; although it reduces the drudgery it can lead to increased impurities and damage to the grain. Features of mechanised threshing for small grain crops Hand-fed mechanised threshing : used when whole, undamaged straw is valuable for basket or mat weaving. The simplest are treadle-operated peg-drum threshers; motorised versions are also available. They are mainly used for rice but can also be used for sorghum and other crops. Outputs for the manually powered machines vary from 100 - 150 kg per hour. Combine harvester. © FAO/2002/Tanzania. Through-flow threshers : the whole crop is forced between a rotating drum and a concave surface, which separates the grain from the straw. Consequently they require much more power. Outputs for the motorised machines range from 500 - 2000 kg per hour and this usually includes both the separating and the winnowing operations. There are two types of through-flow threshers, tangential and axial flow machines. The latter are generally more efficient at separating the grain from the straw, especially at high loading. Straw walkers are frequently used after the threshing drums to separate the remaining grain from the straw. For hand-fed machines where the feeding rate is not constant, straw walkers are usually more efficient at separating the grain from the straw than relying on this being done by the drum and concave. Large motorised threshers have relatively high cost and maintenance requirements and are more suitable for contractor/community operations than individual farmers. Advantages Disadvantages Labour saving: reduces labour bottlenecks at peak periods, particularly motorised equipment. Livelihood diversification: income generating opportunities if motorised equipment operated by community group or contractor. Equipment: manually operated equipment is robust and relatively easy to fabricate, maintain and repair. Skills: manually operated equipment is simple to operate. Labour: the modest increase in work rates with manually operated equipment may not justify cost of equipment. Livelihood: grains damaged during shelling or threshing at more risk of diseases or pest attack during storage, and fetch lower prices when sold. Equipment: some motorised threshing equipment may be required for only a short period during the year and lies idle for most of the year. Cost and risk: relatively high cost for private ownership and hence relatively high financial risk. Skills: motorised equipment requires some specialist skills in use and maintenance of machine. Risk: may fail if hire services are introduced into an area where there is insufficient demand to pay for contractual and community-owned services. Infrastructure: motorised equipment requires adequate supporting infrastructure. Equipment manufacturers List of worldwide thresher sellers Technical information INPhO Equipment research home page Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",14);arrFiles[22]=new Array(26,"LSTP18_en.html","2006-07-26","Manual and motorised cleaning of grains and pulses - TECA","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, cleaning, grain, pulses","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices","- Home Post-harvest operations - Features of cleaning grains and pulses - Advantages and Disadvantages Manual and motorised cleaning of grains and pulses Woman threshing.© FAO/2002/Tanzania. Traditional threshing methods often leave a lot of trash mixed with the grains and pulses. Separating the trash can be very labour intensive. Traditional cleaning is carried out by winnowing or sieving and sometimes a combination of the two: winnowing: in windy areas the threshed crop is tossed up into the air, using forks, spades or baskets and the grain and pulses fall vertically while the less dense chaff and straw are blown to one side. Hand sieving of grain. © FAO/2002/Tanzania. sieving: further cleaning is carried out using sieves, made of open-weave baskets or a wire mesh, to remove soil, stones and any metal objects (such as nails and screws). The removal of the latter is important, particularly when mechanised milling is to be undertaken, as they can damage the milling screens. Features of cleaning grains and pulses Simple wooden or steel enclosed fan mills using sieves and screens makes more efficient use of manual power, operated either by hand or pedal power. Output ranges from around 150 - 300 kg per hour. Motorised threshers often include the winnowing and cleaning process. Locally made air cleaner. © FAO/1993/Bangladesh. Specialised motorised cleaners range from the simple to the complex; some also grade the seed at the same time. Many are mobile and can be used by contractors. Quoted outputs range from 1 - 4 tonne per hour for motors of around 3 kW. Advantages Disadvantages Labour saving: reduces labour bottlenecks at peak periods, particularly motorised equipment. Livelihood strengthening: clean, undamaged and pest and disease free produce at the correct moisture content fetch higher prices when sold or assists with preparing the seed for storage or planting. Grading of grain or pulses is required for sale and for selecting appropriate seed plates for mechanised planting. Livelihood diversification: income generating opportunities if motorised equipment operated by community group or contractor. Equipment: manually operated equipment is robust and relatively easy to fabricate, maintain and repair. Skills: manually operated equipment is simple to operate. Labour: the modest increase in work rates with manually operated equipment may not justify cost of equipment. Livelihood: text Equipment: some cleaning equipment may be required for only a short period during the year and lies idle for most of the year. Cost and risk: relatively high cost for private ownership and hence relatively high financial risk. Skills: motorised equipment requires some specialist skills in use and maintenance of machine. Risk: may fail if hire services are introduced into an area where there is insufficient demand to pay for contractual and community-owned services. Infrastructure: motorised equipment requires adequate supporting infrastructure. Equipment manufacturers List of world wide grain cleaners manufacturers List of worldwide fan manufacturers Technical information Functioning and construction of simple winnowers: - Hand operated winnower - Small electric winnower INPhO Equipment research home page Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",16);arrFiles[23]=new Array(27,"LSTP19_en.html","2006-07-26","Solar Drying Equipment - TECA","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, solar drying, equipment","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices","- Home Post-harvest operations - Features of solar drying - Advantages and Disadvantages Solar drying equipment Prosopis pods drying. © FAO/1985/Cap Verde. Many perishable fruits and vegetables, such as raisins, prunes and yams, are preserved by solar drying, as are speciality foods such as sun-dried tomatoes. The crop is laid out in the sun at the start of the dry period on the ground, sheets of material or simple racks raised off the ground. When the crop is laid on bare ground, it can be damaged by pests and contaminated with soil which later has to be removed. Grains and pulses need to be dried to below 15% moisture content to minimise losses during storage and also to ensure their suitability for sale. Drying of the crop starts before harvest and frequently continues after harvest and before shelling or threshing, for example by storing maize in drying cribs, and is continued after that if necessary. The importance, difficulty and amount of labour involved with drying increases in humid countries where there is a short period between the two rainy seasons. Features of solar drying Simple equipment for solar drying, such as the use of black polyethylene covers and chimneys to draw the air over the grain, substantially increase the drying rate and protect the crop. More sophisticated systems use shallow rectangular boxes or trays with perforated bottom plates. The crop is placed on the plate and air is blown up through the crop from a lower chamber. The air could be solar heated, by drawing it from under black painted corrugated iron or polyethylene sheets, and using the chimney effect to draw it through the crop. Faster mechanised systems of the above batch drying system commonly have a power requirement of 1.5 kW for a 1 tonne capacity dryer. The air may be heated by burning rice hulls, maize cobs, or a non-renewable fuel such as electricity, fuel oil or gas. A diesel or electrically operated fan is commonly used. Typical drying rates are of 1% of moisture removed per hour. Access to moisture meters is important so that farmers can use them regularly to verify their own accuracy at determining moisture content. Advantages Disadvantages Labour saving: simple technologies improve the rate of drying over traditional methods. Livelihood strengthening: drying to the correct moisture levels reduces losses during storage and increases the value of final output. Selling crops at the correct moisture level increases their value. Equipment: relatively simple. Skills: text Cost: solar drying systems are generally cheap to install and have minimal maintenance costs. Equipment: solar drying systems are slow unless the heat-gathering surface is large and the air draught is fan-assisted. Cost: mechanised systems using non-renewable fuel sources are expensive to run. Skills: although the solar heaters are simple, the technology behind them needs to be carefully explained so that they are constructed to operate efficiently Risk: may be operated ineffectively. Infrastructure: local manufacture or importation of mechanised equipment required. Publications and projects Solar drying equipment Equipment manufacturers List of dryer equipment suppliers List of worldwide grain dryers (continuous flow, batch and mobile) manufacturers Technical information List of solar, diesel, biomass and electric dryers equipment Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",15);arrFiles[24]=new Array(28,"LSTP20_en.html","2006-07-26","Improved storage facilities - TECA","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, improved storage, stores","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices","- Home Post-harvest operations - Features of improved stores - Advantages and Disadvantages Improved storage facilities Traditional stores are commonly made of mud and split bamboo/reeds/straw. These generally are not fumigated and result in significant losses. Ventilated maize crib© FAO/1988. Features of improved stores Many improved stores use traditional building materials but with improved designs to reduce losses in the cheapest way possible. Other improved stores are made from metal (such as oil drums or fabricated corrugated iron bins), burnt bricks plastered with cement, ferro-cement (wire mesh and cement mortar), high-density polythene and wood. Building materials should be rodent proof and collars placed on the stands of the store to prevent rodents climbing past them. Improved stores are 0.5 - 1.0 m in height, with capacities ranging from 500 - 1000 kg. Circular bins are easy and economical to fabricate and square ones are useful for the corners of buildings. Where grains are not sufficiently dry for long-term storage, ventilation is provided and crops dusted with insecticides or alternative organic compounds to reduce pest infestation. Where grains are at the correct moisture content, the stores can be airtight and are frequently fumigated prior to closure. Advantages Disadvantages Labour saving: reduced losses and improved quality increase the value of output per unit of labour input. Livelihood strengthening: adequate levels of improved storage which reduce losses (by keeping stored grains dry and free from fungal attack, and also free from insect pest and rodent attack) are an essential component of food security. The capacity to store crops for long periods also enables farmers to sell their crops at peak prices rather than soon after harvest when prices are generally at their lowest. Livelihood diversification: group could build stores for others as income generating activity. Equipment: use local materials with improved design. Skills: modest training in store design and usage required. Cost: minimal additional cost when designs are based on local traditions and use local materials. Risk: minimal. Infrastructure: nil. Cost: initial capital cost expensive if improved stores require new materials but offset by reduced losses and longer life of store. Publications and projects Improved grain storage National Resources Institute \'s projects Equipment manufacturers List of the worldwide grain silos, hoppers and bins manufacturers List of the worldwide vegetable and root crop storage equipment Technical information Technical manual for the construction of small metal silos Grain storage techniques Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",14);arrFiles[25]=new Array(29,"LSTP21_en.html","2006-07-26","Manual Crop Processing -TECA","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, manual crop processing, grain milling, oil extraction, rice hulling, cassava processing, coffee processing","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices","- Home Post-harvest operations - Features of grain milling - Features of oil extraction - Features of rice hulling - Features of cassava processing - Features of coffee processing - Advantages and Disadvantages Manual crop processing Grinding stones.© FAO/??/??. Features of grain milling Traditionally carried out by: Pounding with a pestle and mortar, made from a large pole and the hollowed out section of a tree trunk. Also used for hulling in which case the product is often placed in a bag. Very low outputs of about 0.5 kg per hour. Reciprocating grinding between two flat stones, such as volcanic basalt, granite or sandstone. Low outputs of around 1 kg per hour. Grinding stones.© FAO/??/??. Rotational grinding using a Quern (two round flat stones): grain is poured through a hole in the upper stone as it rotates over the lower stone; the milled grain comes out at the edges. Low outputs of around 1 kg per hour. Output per person using a Quern can be increased substantially by using larger stones with a good axis and by using several people or draught animals to rotate the stones. Skill is required in shaping the stones and channelling their faces in order to grind the grain efficiently and obtain the right fineness of flour. Shea nut press.© ATS/1993. Features of oil extraction Few traditional methods exist except for palm oil which is based on boiling pans, large pounding sticks and lever presses. Screw or hydraulic presses can be used on several oil seeds (including palm oil, sheanuts, groundnuts, soya and sunflower) and on cassava dough. The press is made from a frame and pressing table with a large diameter piston in a pressing chamber made of perforated steel plate. The piston is either forced down with a manually operated screw or hydraulic press. These machines process around 5 kg per hour of cassava dough or 1 kg per hour of ground sheanuts. The Bielenberg Ram Press can be used on several oil seeds (including groundnuts, soya and sunflower). A ram is operated by a lever to force the seed into a steel conical cage, extruding the oil through the gaps in the cage. It is effective but has a very low work rate. Features of rice hulling Small hand operated hullers use a ribbed horizontal cast iron rotor within a cast housing with a slotted plate in the base to allow the rice and hulls to fall through. Outputs up to 14 kg per hour. A huller that can be operated by two people claims outputs over ten times this figure. Cassava grinder.© ATS/1993. Features of cassava processing Traditionally the tubers are hand peeled, washed, hand grated or pounded with pestle and mortar and then fermented in bags or jars. After two to three days the water is expelled by heavy stones or lever presses, and the tubers are dried and pre-cooked. Manually operated root cutters and cassava graters reduce the labour input. Features of coffee processing Hand operated coffee pulpers are usually based on vertical disks with protrusions that force the coffee cherry against blades to strip the flesh off the coffee hull. These are then separated from the pulp. Adequate water is required to wash away the flesh. Outputs up to 300 kg per hour. Coffee hullers: The beans are removed from their hulls using small hullers with a ribbed horizontal cast iron rotor within a cast housing, with wire mesh on the underside. Outputs of around 20 - 36 kg per hour. The beans, hulls and dust are separated by sieves and winnowing. Advantages Disadvantages Labour saving: higher work rates than traditional methods. Livelihood strengthening: crop processing improves the nutritious value of crops. Livelihood diversification: opportunity for households to engage in small market sales of processed crops. Some may establish crop processing business and hire services to community. Equipment: robust and simple to operate. Infrastructure: equipment relatively easy to fabricate, maintain and repair. Equipment: prior to processing the product should ideally be clean and free of moulds, fungal infections and pests. Cost : for manually operated equipment the moderate increase in work rates for some items may not justify the cost of the equipment. Cost and risk : relatively high cost of equipment for private ownership and hence relatively high financial risk. Risk: may fail if introduce hire services into an area where there is insufficient demand to pay for contractual or community-owned services. Publications and projects Small-scale coffee processing Root and tubers processing toolkit Technical information List of manual crop processing equipment - Grain milling equipment - Oilseed presses and expellers - Rice and other grain hullers The Bielenberg Ram Press Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",19);arrFiles[26]=new Array(30,"LSTP22_en.html","2006-07-26","Draught Animal Powered and Motorised Crop Processing -TECA","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, draught animal power, motorised crop processing, grain milling, oil extraction, rice hulling, cassava processing, coffee processing","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices","- Home Post-harvest operations - Features of draught animal-driven equipment - Features of motorised grain milling - Features of motorised oil extraction - Features of motorised cassava processing - Features of motorised rice hulling - Features of coffee processing - Advantages and Disadvantages Draught Animal Powered and motorised crop processing Features of draught animal-driven equipment Draught animals are occasionally used to drive crop processing machinery such as drive presses and crushers (such as sugar cane crushers) or a Quern (grain milling). Their slow rotational movement around an axis is geared up to provide the much higher rotational speed required to operate machinery. This is either done by converting their motion into rotational motion by pulling a wheel with a driven axle, or through a gearbox on a central pivot. If the latter, shear pins should be incorporated into the system to prevent breakage by the high torque that this system can produce. Features of motorised grain milling Plate mills : Based on the Quern with two vertical or horizontal iron plates on an axis, one of which rotates. The grain is fed through the central axis and is ground between them. The pressure between the two plates governs the fineness of the product. Used to grind dry or wetted products, such as wetted maize, tomatoes, peppers and spices. Output around 270 kg per hour from a 5 kW motor. Roller mills : Grain is crushed rather than ground for feeding to ruminants. Output around 400 kg per hour from a 4 kW motor. Hammer mill.© ATS/1993. Hammer mills : The hammers rotate at around 3000 rpm in a circular chamber with a perforated screen at the base. The peripheral speed of the hammer tips and their clearance from the bars and screen are critical design parameters. The size of the holes determines the fineness of the flour. Larger sizes are used for animal feed. Output around 240 kg per hour from a 5 kW motor. Features of motorised oil extraction Screw-auger press : This is the most efficient small-scale press for seeds. The tapered screw-auger rotates in a perforated tapered cylinder through which the oil is expelled. The taper of the screw and the distance of the flights from the cylinder allow adjustment for increased pressure. This and the pre-treatment of the seeds by appropriate heat treatment an important effect on the efficient operation of the press. Cage presses : Motorised operation of the screw or hydraulic press, can be used with several oil seeds, including palm oil, sheanuts, groundnuts, soya and sunflower and on cassava dough. Centrifugal cracker for palm oil : Breaks the shell from around the palm oil kernel, followed by screening, winnowing and then the screw press. Features of motorised cassava processing A range of motorised root cutters and cassava graters are available Abrasive disc huller.© FAO/??/??. Features of motorised rice hulling Engleberg type : A ribbed or bladed horizontal cast iron cylinder rotates within a cast housing with a slotted plate in the base. Rice is fed in one end and circulates along the rotor towards the other end where it emerges hulled. Outputs of around 400 kg per hour with a 11 kW motor. Rubber roller-huller : The hull is sheared between a pair of rubber rollers rotating in opposite directions. Disc huller : Similar to the plate mills described above. Rice polishers : They remove the bran after hulling, for example by spinning the rice by means of rotor blades to which are attached leather straps. Some Engleberg hullers have integral polishers and are suitable for small-scale operations. Features of coffee processing Coffee pulpers : Motorised versions have a roughened drum that rotates to rasp the coffee cherry against a cast iron breast to strip the flesh off the coffee hull. These are then separated from the pulp. Adequate water is required to wash away the flesh. Outputs of around 2200 kg per hour with a motor of 2 kW. Coffee hullers : The beans are extracted from their hulls using small hullers of the Engleberg type. Outputs of around 180 kg per hour with a motor of 4 kW. The beans, hulls and dust are then separated by sieves and by winnowing. Advantages Disadvantages Labour saving: higher work rates than traditional methods. Livelihood strengthening: crop processing improves the nutritious value of crops. Livelihood diversification: opportunity for households to engage in small market sales of processed crops. Some may establish crop processing business and hire services to community. Equipment: robust and simple to operate. Infrastructure: Equipment relatively easy to fabricate, maintain and repair. Risk: financial risks minimised through contractual arrangements. Equipment: prior to processing the product should ideally be clean and free of moulds, fungal infections and pests. Cost: high capital cost of equipment, particular of the motorised power sources, and high operational costs in terms of fuel and maintenance. For much of this processing equipment, the cost of the power source is greater than the cost of the equipment (particularly true for diesel or petrol engines as opposed to electric motors). Risk: relatively high financial risk. May fail if introduce hire services into an area where there is insufficient demand to pay for contractual or community-owned services. Infrastructure: substantial infrastructure required for the supply, maintenance and servicing of the equipment, particularly the power sources. Publications and projects Principles of oil extraction Small scale palm oil processing in Africa Women in post harvest operations, reducing the drudgery Equipment manufacturers Coffee pulpers (Alvan Blanch manufacturer) Coffee hullers (Alvan Blanch manufacturer) Technical information Milling equipment Oil extraction List of DAP and motorized crop processing equipment - Grain milling equipment - Oilseed presses and expellers - Rice and other grain hullers Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",20);arrFiles[27]=new Array(31,"LSTP26_en.html","2006-07-26","Fuel-efficient stoves","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, efficient stove, fireless cooker, insulated basket","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices","- Home Household tasks - Features of wood burning fuel-efficient stove - Features of insulated basket/box - Advantages and Disadvantages Fuel-efficient stoves Open fire.© FAO/2002/Tanzania. Open fires (usually based on three stones) used in the kitchen require a lot of wood. Indoor pollution from smoke contributes to health problems, such as cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, cancers and eye diseases. There are risks of burns from unstable cooking pots. Features of wood burning fuel-efficient stove High combustion efficiency: the higher the combustion efficiency the greater the amount of heat produced and the less smoke produced from the same amount of wood. By controlling the type of fuel used, burn intensity, air and flame mix it is possible to achieve efficiencies of over 90%. Reduction in wood consumption: efficient stoves use 40 - 60% less wood. Two pot stoves reduce the cooking time and fuel consumption compared to single pot stoves. Improved stoves.© FAO/2002/Tanzania. Good transference of the heat from the fire to the pot: improved by insulating the heat from the outside of the stove, shortening the fire flow path, and reducing the distance between the flame and pot. Minimal smoke emission: high combustion efficiency and drawing the smoke through a chimney and venting it to the outside of the home or away from the operator may achieve almost 100% reduction in emissions. The opening to the chimney needs to be designed to draw the smoke up it but at the same time to constrict the flow so that too much heat is not lost up the chimney. Ergonomics and structural stability. Stove layout must be user friendly and enable pots to be moved around. The stoves must stable and the pots must be stable when they are on the stove to prevent them tipping over and causing burns. Materials: Stoves are made from a wide range of materials including pottery-lined mud, metal or ceramic-lined metal. Fireless cooker.© FAO/2002/Kenya. Features of insulated basket/box After initial cooking of food by traditional methods, food is transferred to an insulated basket or box and cooking is completed using the retained heat. Insulation materials include old clothing materials, newspapers or hay. When cooking in insulated basket/box food has to be cooked thoroughly before being placed in the basket/box Food Normal cooking time on fire Cooking time on fire saved Maize/beans 2 hours 1.5 hours Green grams 1 hour 30 minutes Sweet potatoes 30 – 40 minutes 20 – 30 minutes Cassava 20 minutes 10 minutes Rice 25 minutes 20 minutes Chicken stew fry + 1 hour 45 minutes Food Cooking time with insulated basket Cooking time on fire Time in insulated basket Maize/beans 35 minutes 3 hours Green grams 30 minutes 1.5 hours Sweet potatoes 10 minutes 30 minutes Cassava 10 minutes 30 minutes Rice 5 minutes 30 minutes Chicken stew fry + 15 minutes 1 hour Advantages Disadvantages Labour saving: by making more efficient use of firewood, less time is spent collecting firewood. Livelihood strengthening: improvements in health and safety in the home; less firewood collection reduces the rate of deforestation and environmental degradation. Livelihood diversification: the local manufacture of fuel-efficient stoves for sale is an income generating opportunity. Equipment: low cost and possible to make locally (especially insulated basket/box). Skills: minor training required in the safe use of the stoves. Cost and risk: equipment is relatively low cost. Infrastructure requirements: local manufacture of stoves. Cost: although the cost is low it is more expensive than an open fire. Skills: incorrect use can damage the stoves (for example, if water is used to put out the fire, the clay liner cracks). Training required in safe cooking practices with insulated basket/box. Attitude: changes in traditional beliefs and attitudes may be required, particularly regarding the use of chimneys. For example, some like the smell of smoke and believe that it adds to the flavour of food. Smoke naturally repels insects, animals and termites. Non-portable stoves restrict cooking to one location. Publications and projects Success without Subsidy. Fuel-efficient smokeless stoves project of the Escorts Foundation. Weighing Up the Cost of Smoke Alleviation. HERA-Household energy for a sustainable development TDG East Africa Energy Programme Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",51);arrFiles[28]=new Array(32,"LSTP27_en.html","2006-07-26","Woodlots, agro-forestry and improved fallow","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, woodlots, agro-forestry, fallow","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices","- Home Household tasks - Features of woodlots - Features of agro-forestry - Features of improved fallow - Advantages and Disadvantages Woodlots, agro-forestry and improved fallow Wood is often collected from communally-owned resources and, if they are not maintained, the task of fetching wood becomes more time consuming as people have to venture further afield. Pressure on communal wood resources results in deforestation, leading to environmental degradation including reduced water infiltration, poor recharge of aquifers, flash floods, soil erosion, reduction of agricultural output, siltation of dams and the loss of habitat for wildlife. To cope with shortages in firewood supply, cattle dung and crop residues are used leading to a further reduction in soil productivity and reduced crop productivity. Village woodlots and windbreaks. © FAO/1983/Burkina Faso. Features of woodlots Woodlots are grown primarily for poles for construction or firewood. They are usually planted in areas not suitable for crop production. There is a long time delay between planting and harvesting: 5 - 7 years for firewood, 12 - 25 years for timber. Eucalyptus is frequently grown as a woodlot tree because of its rapid growth and, for some varieties, its straight trunk. However, few plants grow in its shadow and the tree uses a lot of water and can lower the water table considerably. It should be planted some distance from crops and wells. Care should be taken not to dry out swamp areas. Village wood fuel market. © FAO/1990/Niger. Features of agro-forestry Trees are integrated into the farming system by planting along field boundaries, live fences and conservation contours, and inter-cropped using alley cropping techniques. In alley cropping, trees are chosen for their leaf fodder, mulching, firewood and fertilising characteristics. Care is required to select trees that will be compatible with crops and not have adverse effects (for example, through water use and shade). Trees may be pollarded or coppiced. Fruit trees are planted within the boundary. Features of improved fallow Trees and shrubs planted on fallow land provide a source of fodder and firewood in proximity of the household. They also improve soil fertility and food production. Products are harvested after two to eight years depending on the species planted. Trees are traditionally regarded as an indicator of tenure and their presence on fallow land can help secure tenure. Advantages Disadvantages Labour saving: save time fetching firewood by increasing supplies and by moving the source of firewood closer to home. Agro-forestry improves the efficiency of labour through positive interaction between trees and farm enterprises. Livelihood strengthening: the presence of trees often increases security of land tenure. Planting trees reduces environmental degradation. By-products include food, fruit, firewood and fodder. Livelihood diversification: once demand for wood in the community has been satisfied, poles and firewood may be developed as a source of income. Inputs: some farmers may already raise their own seedlings. Skills and knowledge: farmers are already familiar with local tree species. Cost: minimal cost. Infrastructure: nill. Labour: additional labour is required initially to establish the woodlot, plant and maintain the trees. There is some delay before the benefits are reaped. Inputs: establish nurseries for multiplication of seeds and seedlings. Skills: Farmers need to be aware of relative benefits and disadvantages of local and exotic tree species and their characteristics (height, tolerance of being coppiced or pollarded, water and soil requirements). Farmers may require training in nurseries, tree management and agro-forestry. Risk: initial investment of time but several years before gain benefits. Risk of tree failure due to lack of care. Publications and projects Integrating woodfuel production into agroforestry extension programmes in South Asia Social forestry in northern Ethiopia Agroforestry in Africa Institutions and organisations World Agroforestry center FAO forestry department Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",16);arrFiles[29]=new Array(33,"LSTP28_en.html","2006-07-26","Renewable energy resources","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, reneable energy sources, biomass energy, soalr energy, hydropower energy,wind energy","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices","- Home Household tasks - Biomass energy - Solar energy - Hydropower energy - Wind energy - Advantages and Disadvantages Renewable energy resources Biomass energy Wood used in cooking stoves is renewable if used from sustainable sources such as woodlots. Crop residues and sawdust may be made into briquettes for burning in stoves. Animal waste is used dried and used as fuel. Animal waste is converted in digesters into methane gas, for use in gas stoves for cooking and lighting. The solid remainder is used as fertiliser. Solar heater.© FAO/1988. Solar energy Used directly for drying of crops, cooking in solar ovens and for heating water. Converted through photovoltaic panels into electricity for powering small water pumps, lights, refrigerators for medical use, telecommunications, small power tools, etc., and rechargeable batteries for continuity of supply. Costs of photovoltaic panels are decreasing as new manufacturing techniques are developed. Hydropower energy Usually used to generate electricity for use with community lighting, telecommunications, mechanical workshops or crop processing equipment. Depending on head and flow, high power outputs can be obtained. Used for directly driving machinery such as grain mills. Used for pumping water, such as ram pumps. Simple maintenance, long life before replacement parts needed and very low running costs. Pumping scheme for a windmill. © ATS/1993 Wind energy Generally only suitable for use in regions where the average wind speed is over 3 metres per second. Widely used for water pumps to fill storage reservoirs for livestock in remote areas. Small windmills also used for generating electricity for recharging batteries. Large wind turbines can be used for community power supplies. Advantages Disadvantages Labour saving: provide reliable power at very low power levels with minimal human intervention. Livelihood strengthening: minimal or zero environmental pollution and quiet operation. Livelihood diversification: the power source may be used for income generating activities such as workshops and crop processing. Cost: negligible running costs, with most renewable sources having no fuel or consumables requirements. Technical: inflexible in terms of meeting variations in power demand (unless batteries or other means for storing power are used). Relatively high costs in relation to their energy rating and power output. Equipment: relatively complex. Cost: high capital costs in relation to the power they give. Skills and knowledge: generally unfamiliar technology and people unaware of different systems. Training required in efficient use of the equipment. Risk: expensive and householders have limited financial capacity to pay for service. Infrastructure: reasonably complex for the supply and maintenance of equipment. Publications and projects The Power Guide. An international catalogue of small-scale energy equipment United Nation Industrial Development Organisation \'s Initiative on Rural Energy for Productive Use Energy for Sustainable Development. United Nation Development Programme. Improved stoves and household energy Practical Action website (links for further readings) - Solar power - Wind power - Micro-hydro power Equipment manufacturers List of the worldwide wind, water, solar and biogas power equipment Institutions and organisations FAO Sustainable development department Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",17);arrFiles[30]=new Array(34,"LSTP29_en.html","2006-07-26","Roofwater harvesting - TECA","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, roofwater harvesting, runoff collection","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices","- Home Household tasks - Features of roofwater systems - Features of runoff collection - Features of simple water filters - Advantages and Disadvantages Roofwater harvesting Many different means are used to collect rainwater, ranging from suspending plastic sheeting between poles or placing the sheet on the ground and collecting the water under a hole in the centre, to placing containers under the tips of banana leaves, trees and the eaves of roofs. Features of roofwater systems Basic requirements: a roof (preferably rectangular), gutters, down pipe, cement base and storage system. Corrugated iron or tiled roof preferable, but closely packed thatching also works (do not use asbestos). Low cost guttering systems can be made from, for example, split bamboo. Storage systems range from earthenware jars to large tanks of 30,000 litres. Reinforced mortar tank.© FAO/1988. Concrete ring tank.© FAO/1988. Below ground storage systems: generally cheaper to construct because of the support of the side walls but they require a pump to lift the water and are more difficult to clean. Partial below ground systems: a circular hole is dug into the ground and lined with polyethylene or concrete plastering. It is covered with a roof (from thatch or iron sheets) to protect the water from sunlight, birds and animals. Above ground storage: constructed from curved galvanised sheets, ferro-cement or bricks to form a round tank. This system does not require a pump, cleaning is easier and leaks can be detected easily. A concrete base is desirable. Storage systems should prevent mosquitoes entering and breeding in the water, and prevent sunlight that stimulates algae growth. Easy access to all storage systems is necessary for periodic cleaning. A first flush system can be incorporated to flush away the first rainwater which has dislodged leaves and dirt after a long dry spell. Amount of water collected: for example, a house with a 7m x 7m roof catches 500 litres of water from 10 mm of rainfall. In an area with an annual rainfall of 750 mm and 75% efficiency on a well designed and constructed system, yields 28,000 litres per year. If an average family consumes 100 litres per day then that is enough water for 280 days (assuming there is sufficient storage). Rainwater is clean and can usually be used for drinking and domestic purposes without filtering, depending on the cleanliness of the roof and storage system. Features of runoff collection Runoff may be collected from impermeable surfaces such as granite or rocky outcrops, stored in a tank and possibly piped downhill to the community. Runoff may also be collected during heavy rains from any suitable land that would not lead to contaminated water being collected. The runoff is directed to a pond or subsurface area from where the water is collected. Chlorination pot for household well. © ATS/1993. Features of simple water filters Simple water filters can be made in large containers filled with graded sands and charcoal, with an outlet at the base. They improve water purity and reduce water borne diseases. Use of water filters is highly desirable for all drinking water. Advantages Disadvantages Labour saving: saves time by moving the source of water closer to home. Livelihood strengthening: cleaner water improves the health of family members. Less runoff and soil erosion. Livelihood diversification: if a large amount of runoff water is collected, it can be used for irrigating vegetable gardens near the house. If roofwater water is stored in a cistern roughly 1.5 m above the area to be irrigated, this water can feed directly into a low cost drip irrigation system. Opportunities for earning income by constructing storage tanks. Equipment: for roofwater harvesting, need adequate roof area (clean), gutters and storage tank which may exclude poorer households. Cost: low cost designs are available but they have limited storage capacity (around US 100 for 1500 litres). Larger storage systems are expensive. Skills: training required in construction, maintenance and use of tank. Publications and projects Rainwater Harvesting. Practical Answers to Poverty. Domestic Roofwater Harvesting. Rainwater harvesting. Equator initiative Technical information Rainwater harvesting The Kisii Water Filter Institutions and organisations International Rainwater Catchment Systems Association Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",18);arrFiles[31]=new Array(35,"LSTP30_en.html","2006-07-26","Manual carrying, wheelbarrows, hand carts and bicycles - TECA","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, manual carrying, wheelbarrows, hand carts, bicycles","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices","- Home Transport - Features of carrying aids for head, shoulder and back - Features of wheelbarrows and handcarts - Features of bicycles and trailers - Advantages and Disadvantages Manual carrying, wheelbarrows, hand carts and bicycles Human porterage.© FAO/2002/Tanzania. Human porterage (either on the head, shoulders or back) is common in many rural areas, particularly where access roads are in a poor condition. Features of carrying aids for head, shoulder and back Shoulder pole: Loads such as fodder are suspended directly from a bamboo pole or placed in two baskets at either end of the pole. Alternatively one laden pole is carried between the shoulders of two people. Back frame: Simple frame made from woven grass and wood and similar to open rucksack. Features of wheelbarrows and handcarts Wheelbarrows: Mainly used for transport of small loads (up to 100 kg) over short distances (up to 1 km). A reasonably large diameter wheel (over 30 cm) reduces rolling resistance compared to a smaller diameter. Sturdy axles and bush assemblies that are well connected to the frame are important, as these components are a frequent cause of breakdowns. Wooden wheelbarrow. © FAO/2002/Tanzania. Wheelbarrow.© FARMESA/1997. Handcarts: Mainly used for transport of larger loads (up to 200 kg) over longer distances (up to 10 km). Use 2, 3 or 4 wheels to support the load. When using 2-wheel carts, the cart design should ensure the centre of gravity of the load is nearly over the axle of the wheels to minimise the load on the arms. Large diameter wheels with ball bearings minimise rolling resistance (bicycle wheels are commonly used). Handcart.© ATS/1993. Handcarts for use with water pots or jerry cans: They usually have a large diameter single wheel with ball bearings or two wheels fairly close together, so that they can be used on footpaths. Low slung cages hang on either side of the centre of the cart in which jerry cans or water pots are placed; they have a low centre of gravity for stability. Poultry transportation. © FAO/2002/Tanzania. Features of bicycles and trailers Bicycles are a very important means of transport in rural Africa, both for personal transport and for the transport of light goods. The speed of travel is much higher than walking and they can be used on fairly poor surfaces, such as access roads, tracks and footpaths. Carrier racks above the rear wheel are used for people and goods. Heavy loads can be transported (such as sacks of grain or bananas) in which case the bicycles are often pushed over the more difficult terrain. Bicycle taxis, such as the Boda Bodas of Uganda, play a very important role in transport in and around villages. Trailers: they similar to 2-wheeled hand carts and are towed behind the bicycle. They are usually made using bicycle wheels and are mainly suitable for fairly flat terrain. Advantages Disadvantages Labour saving: significant labour savings compared with carrying items unaided. Livelihood strengthening: transport bottlenecks reduced and so delays reduced. Livelihood diversification: opportunities to earn income by providing rural transport to others. Equipment: easy to fabricate, maintain and repair. Skills: low skill level required. Maintenance skills likely to be available in community. Cost and risk: low investment and operating costs; hence minimal financial risks. Infrastructure: only slight improvement to road infrastructure required for their use. Labour: Limited impact on labour saving, low carrying capacity and low speed compared to animal and motorised power sources. Infrastructure: paths need to be reasonably smooth and flat for the use of wide carts. Publications and projects Bicycles: a general overview of possible modifications to standard bicycles Bicycle trailers: the benefits of bicycle trailers and how to make them Equipment manufacturers Wheelbarrow China manufacturers Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",18);arrFiles[32]=new Array(36,"LSTP31_en.html","2006-07-26","Pack animals and animal drawn carts - TECA","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, pack animals, harnessing, carts","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices","- Home Transport - Features of using pack animals - Features of harnessing - Features of carts - Advantages and Disadvantages Pack animals and animal drawn carts Human porterage (either on the head, shoulders or back) is common in many rural areas, particularly where access roads are in a poor condition. Donkey.© FAO/2002/Tanzania. Features of using pack animals Donkeys are used for transporting produce, firewood and water. Simple frames: shaped and padded so that they comfortably fit onto the backs of donkeys are commonly used to carry loads. Often used by women because donkeys have relatively low status. Usually not eaten and not slaughtered at funerals. Features of harnessing Bovines (oxen): Yokes are used for bovines. Occasionally collar harnesses are also used when they are used singly and not in a pair. Yokes should be shaped or padded to fit the neck or hump of the ox, to minimise injuries and maximise pull. Yokes are connected to the front end of a central drawbar. Cart pulled by single donkey. © FAO/1990/Bolivia. Equines (horses): Collar harnesses with breast straps for equines. Using yokes can seriously injure equines. Carts for single animals use a drawbar	on either side of the animal. When equines are used in pairs, a central drawbar is used and is	connected at its front end to the collar to control direction. The pull from the collars is connected by ropes to swingle trees, which are then	connected to an evener, which is then connected to the base of the drawbar. If this system is not used with collars then all the strain of pulling the cart may go onto only one of the animals. Animal drawn carts.© FARMESA/1997. Features of carts Typical carrying capacities and size: Cart pulled by single donkey: 500 kg carrying capacity, load area around 1 m by 1.2 m. Cart pulled by single ox: 1000 kg Cart pulled by pair of oxen: 1500 kg carrying capacity, load area around 2 m by 1.5 m. The cart should be designed so that the centre of gravity of the load is placed over the axle. When the cart is fully loaded, including the driver sitting on the cart, the weight transferred to the neck of the animals should not exceed 20 kg and should never pull upwards on the throat. Carts are usually made of wood and sometimes of sheet metal. A strong but lightweight structure is desirable. The bearings, axle and wheels are the most critical components of carts and the ones that break down most frequently. Pneumatic wheels and well-designed axles with roller bearings reduce breakdowns. An increasing range of low-cost but reliable designs has become available over the last decade. Advantages Disadvantages Labour saving: substantially reduce drudgery and much higher loads can be transported using draught animals compared with manual methods. Livelihood strengthening: improved transport capability improves business development potential (such as timely marketing of farm produce) and reduces transport bottlenecks and delays. Livelihood diversification: opportunities for off-farm earning potential through providing rural transport services. Equipment: relatively easy to manufacture if other draught animal equipment already manufactured. Skills: if household already has draught or pack animals, few additional skills required. Equipment: carts require local manufacture. Cost and risk: significant investment and operating costs compared to manual methods; hence moderate financial risk. Skills: requirements high since need extensive knowledge and skills in animal husbandry and working with draught animals; skilled operators; and trained animals. Infrastructure: effective presence of veterinary services, repairs and maintenance services to enable prompt repairs, moderate road structure to use carts. Publications and projects List of publications on animal based-transport Animal drawn cart in Sudan Research for Development of Animal Traction in West Africa The development of low-cost animal-drawn carts Institutions and organisations Local transport solutions for rural development Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",17);arrFiles[33]=new Array(37,"LSTP32_en.html","2006-07-26","Small-scale motorised transport - TECA","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, single-axle tractors, transport, three-wheeled motorised vehicles","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices","- Home Transport - Features of single-axle tractors - Features of small three-wheeled motorised vehicles - Advantages and Disadvantages Small-scale motorised transport Features of single-axle tractors Single-axle tractors can be used for a wide range of crop cultivation, harvesting and transport activities under limited conditions. They range in power from around 1.5 - 15 kW, usually around 4 kW. They are controlled by the operator sitting on the trailer when used for transport. Typical carrying capacity: 1200 kg at up to 10 km per hour. The weight that they can transport is roughly the same that as that from a cart with a pair of oxen (1500 kg) but the speed is three times as fast. The versatility and relatively low cost of single-axle tractors is a significant advantage in suitable cropping systems, especially irrigated or wetland agriculture. They can be used with a rotovator for land preparation and weeding under irrigated conditions, with a front attachment for harvesting, and with a trailer for transport. A three-wheeled vehicle. © FAO/2002/Tanzania. Features of small three-wheeled motorised vehicles A range of small vehicles is available and they operate with varying degrees of success. Motorised tricycles have been used as taxis for many years and are also used in rural areas for carrying light loads (around 400 kg) and travel up to 50 km/h. They use the same components as small motorcycles. Advantages Disadvantages Labour saving: substantially reduces drudgery and the speed with which goods can be transported is much higher than with draught animals. Livelihood strengthening: improved transport capability improves business development potential (such as timely marketing of farm produce) and reduces transport bottlenecks and delays. Livelihood diversification: opportunities for off-farm earning potential through providing rural transport services. Equipment: text Cost: relatively low cost compared with standard trucks; hence lower risk than standard trucks. Livelihood diversification: lack of cash by farmers to pay for hiring services. Equipment: relatively complex with engines requiring servicing and technical expertise. Cost and risk: high ownership costs compared to draught animals and hence higher financial risks. Significant cash and foreign exchange requirements. Skills and knowledge: operator training and skilled mechanics for repair and maintenance. Infrastructure: considerable infrastructure support is required for their efficient operation (although less than that required for four wheeled tractors) including skilled repair and maintenance services, access to spare parts, roads in reasonable condition and financial services to assist farmers with initial purchase. Publications and projects Electric and Improved Cycle Rickshaw as a Sustainable Transport System for India Equipment manufacturers List of worldwide wheel tractors sellers Technical information Rotovator: pictures and technical description Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",14);arrFiles[34]=new Array(38,"LSTP1_en.html","2006-07-26","Improved use of hoes for land preparation, planting and weeding","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, improved hoes","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices","- Home Land preparation and cultivation - Improved hoes - Advantages and Disadvantages Improved use of hoes for land preparation, planting and weeding Digging hoe in use.© FAO/2002/Tanzania. In many countries in Africa, 90% of primary cultivation is carried out using digging hoes. Traditional digging hoes are usually heavy (1.2 - 2.2 kg) with short handles and are commonly used for all primary and secondary cultivation operations. Work rates for hoes on traditional full tillage systems (indicative only, due to the variability of hoes, local conditions and crops) are: Land preparation:	300 hours/ha/person Planting:	80 hours/ha/person Weeding:	140 hours/ha/person, down to 65 hrs/ha/person for 3rd weeding. Worn down digging hoes with short handles, are commonly used as weeding or planting hoes or by women and children for primary and secondary cultivation. Push type weeder.© FAO/2002/Kenya. Improved hoes Properly maintained hoes with correctly sharpened blades facilitate cultivation to the appropriate depth and make the task easier. Require files for sharpening blades. Improved hoes specifically designed for weeding, such as long handled light hoes (0.7 to 1.1 kg),	push/pull hoes, tined hoes, or wheeled hoes can enable substantial savings in time and energy to be achieved. Chaka hoe.© FAO/2003/Zambia. Work rates with weeding hoes are greatly increased when crops are planted in rows so that weeding can be carried out in uniform inter-row lanes. Row planting is essential for the use of push/pull hoes and wheeled hoes. Advantages Disadvantages Labour saving: Tasks are made easier by using well maintained tools with appropriate length handles. Specially designed weeding hoes, such as long handled light hoes, push/pull hoes, tined hoes, or wheeled hoes, used with row cropping, reduce work times by at least half. Livelihood strengthening: suitable for small plot sizes. Equipment: tools relatively easy to fabricate, maintain and repair. Skills: no additional skills required but may require change of attitude towards different working postures. Emphasis needs to be placed on the improved working rate and promoting acceptability. Cost: low investment and operating costs and hence minimal financial risks. Infrastructure: minimal additional demands on system. Labour: Reduction in labour with improved hoes still very low compared to draught animal or motorised power. Overall low work rates per labourer and high levels of drudgery. Livelihood: Poor quality of primary tillage work and poor timeliness. Equipment: Push/pull hoes and wheeled hoes can normally only be used with emergent weeds and not established weeds. Risk: there are a number of cultural and gender aspects associated with the use of hoes and local attitudes relating to these will need to be assessed and addressed (for example, the upright working position used with correctly designed weeding hoes is considered by some to suggest that the person is not working hard). Publications and projects Soil cultivation and tillage Agricultural implements used by women farmers in Africa Mitigation of HIV/AIDS, impacts through agricultural and rural development. Working group on agricultural technologies: hand hoes farmers Equipment manufacturers Mealie brand hoes (Zimbabwe) List of worldwide hand tools sellers Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",16);arrFiles[35]=new Array(39,"index_en.html","2006-07-26","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices - TECA","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, draught animal power, groundut lifter","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices - TECA","- TECA Decision Support Tools Land preparation and cultivation Harvesting Post-harvest operations Household tasks Rural Transport Labor Saving Technologies This catalogue aims to enable rural communities to identify and assess labour saving technologies and practices which can reduce or spread the workloads and improve their livelihoods. Introduction to Labour saving Technologies and Practices (LSTP) Purpose, Audience, Structure of this catalogue Key Resources Land preparation and cultivation The task of land preparation and weeding can be made less labour demanding through improved hoes, row planting, draught animal powered rippers, harrows and planters. Single axle tractor equipment is a specific option that could fit if service-infrastructure and farmer capacities are dealt with. Weed wipes and knapsack sprayer technology with herbicides can eliminate the task of weeding to a large extend if applied in the context of reduced or minimum tillage systems such as raised beds and conservation agriculture. Harvesting Harvesting is highly labour intensive and any delay results in losing some of the crop. The technologies described enable households to save time harvesting cereal crops by making the task easier. Post-harvest operations The losses resulting from poor handling and storage can be substantial. There are many processes and equipments that make the task easier by saving energy and the time required. They also reduce post-harvest losses, increase the productivity of labour and consequently increase the value of the crop. Household tasks The technologies described save time by making the job either smaller (for example, fuel-efficient stoves require less wood) or easier (by planting trees closer to home or harvesting roofwater at home). Alternative energy is another approach to reduce the burden of household tasks. Rural Transport Transporting tools, inputs and products, carrying water and wood, and transport to schools, medical and administrative centres, place a large demand on rural households. The technologies described save time by making the task easier as each journey becomes less physically demanding. The size of the task is also reduced by increasing the amount carried per day. This tools has been developed by The Agricultural Support Systems Division Credits... Search Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",14);arrFiles[36]=new Array(40,"module1_en.html","2006-07-26","Land preparation and cultivation - TECA TOOLS","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, draught animal power, groundut lifter","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices - TECA","- Home Harvesting Post-harvest operations Household tasks Rural Transport Land preparation and cultivation The task of land preparation and weeding can be made less labour demanding through improved hoes, row planting, draught animal powered rippers, harrows and planters. Single axle tractor equipment is a specific option that could fit if service-infrastructure and farmer capacities are dealt with. Weed wipes and knapsack sprayer technology with herbicides can eliminate the task of weeding to a large extend if applied in the context of reduced or minimum tillage systems such as raised beds and conservation agriculture. Improved use of hoes for land preparation, planting and weeding Row planting, hand seeders and planters Seeds and crops Weed wipes and knapsack sprayers Integrated pest management Draught animal power and implements Draught Animal Power (DAP) planters and weeders Single axle Tractors Raised beds Conservation agriculture (CA) This tools has been developed by The Agricultural Support Systems Division Credits... Groundnut processing -- Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",11);arrFiles[37]=new Array(41,"module2_en.html","2006-07-26","Land preparation and cultivation - TECA TOOLS","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, draught animal power, groundut lifter","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices - TECA","- Home Land preparation and cultivation Post-harvest operations Household tasks Rural Transport Harvesting Harvesting is highly labour intensive and any delay results in losing some of the crop. The technologies described enable households to save time harvesting cereal crops by making the task easier. Improved hand tools for harvesting cereals Motorised single-axle mowers and reapers for harvesting cereals Draught animal powered groundnut lifter This tools has been developed by The Agricultural Support Systems Division Credits... Groundnut processing -- Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",10);arrFiles[38]=new Array(42,"module3_en.html","2006-07-26","Post-harvest Operations - TECA TOOLS","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, draught animal power, groundut lifter","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices - TECA","- Home Land preparation and cultivation Harvesting Household tasks Rural Transport Post-harvest Operations The losses resulting from poor handling and storage can be substantial. There are many processes and equipments that make the task easier by saving energy and the time required. They also reduce post-harvest losses, increase the productivity of labour and consequently increase the value of the crop. Manually operated strippers and shellers Manual and motorised threshers Manual and motorised cleaning of grains and pulses Solar drying equipment Improved storage facilities Manual crop processing Draught Animal Powered and motorised crop processing This tools has been developed by The Agricultural Support Systems Division Credits... Groundnut processing -- Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",11);arrFiles[39]=new Array(43,"module4_en.html","2006-07-26","Household Tasks - TECA TOOLS","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, draught animal power, groundut lifter","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices - TECA","- Home Land Preparation and Cultivation Harvesting Post-Harvesting Operations Rural Transport Household Tasks The technologies described save time by making the job either smaller (for example, fuel-efficient stoves require less wood) or easier (by planting trees closer to home or harvesting roofwater at home). Alternative energy is another approach to reduce the burden of household tasks. Fuel-efficient stoves Woodlots, agro-forestry and improved fallow Renewable energy resources Roofwater harvesting This tools has been developed by The Agricultural Support Systems Division Credits... Groundnut processing -- Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",10);arrFiles[40]=new Array(44,"module5_en.html","2006-07-26","Rural Transport - TECA TOOLS","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, draught animal power, groundut lifter","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices - TECA","- Home Land Preparation and Cultivation Harvesting Post-Harvesting Operations Household tasks Rural Transport Transporting tools, inputs and products, carrying water and wood, and transport to schools, medical and administrative centres, place a large demand on rural households. The technologies described save time by making the task easier as each journey becomes less physically demanding. The size of the task is also reduced by increasing the amount carried per day. Manual carrying, wheelbarrows, hand carts and bicycles Pack animals and animal drawn carts Small-scale motorised transport This tools has been developed by The Agricultural Support Systems Division Credits... Groundnut processing -- Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",10);arrFiles[41]=new Array(45,"help_en.html","2006-07-26","Purpose, Audience, Structure of this tool - TECA TOOLS","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, idea catalogue, presentation, explanation","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices","- Home - Purpose - Audience - Structure Purpose, Audience, Structure of this tool Tanzanian family.© FAO/2002/Tanzania. Purpose of the ideas catalogue The Labour Saving Technologies and Practices (LSTP)ideas catalogue aims to enable rural communities to identify and assess labour saving technologies and practices which can reduce or spread the workloads and improve their livelihoods. It will be of particular relevance to communities where a shortage of labour or other sources of power is undermining household food and nutrition security, and the sustainability of rural livelihoods. Audience The idea catalogue has been written for use by people and organizations working in rural communities such as: staff from government local administration and NGOs members of community-based organizations (including village development groups, farmer groups, income generating activity groups and other self-help groups) others involved in field diagnostic studies Children with hoes.© FAO/2002/Tanzania. Structure of the catalogue The ideas catalogue focuses on addressing the main labour constraints typically found in rural communities:	Land preparation and cultivation	Harvesting	Post-harvest operations	Household tasks	Rural transport Each section starts with a brief description of the labour constraint and then presents LSTP options to make the task either smaller or easier. The features of each LSTP are described, noting its advantages and disadvantages and infrastructure requirements. The LSTPs presented in the catalogue only cover a small proportion of the total possible solutions to the constraints identified. Indeed, many of the most appropriate solutions may already be in use by innovative farmers in the community who have adapted them to suit local conditions. Further ideas may be found in the reading materials noted in each module. Traditional methods used in the field are exposed and brief description of the labour constraint is given. Features of the labour saving technology proposed are developed in one or several paragraphs. Traditional methods	An assessment of the LSTP is made: advantages and disadvantages in terms of contribution to livelihood and requirements are given. (Cf. Box 1) Box 1: Eight key questions in term of advantages and disadvantages of the LSTP: Labour saving : to what extent will the LSTP save time and/or energy through reducing drudgery, increasing output or reducing the size of the task? Livelihood strengthening : as a result of using the LSTP, will the existing livelihood system be made more secure by contributing to food and nutrition security through, for example, improving timeliness of operations, increasing yields, reducing losses or reducing environmental degradation? Livelihood diversification : as a result of using the LSTP, will there be any opportunities to develop and diversify into new livelihood activities through, for example, offering equipment hire services to others, diversifying into new markets, manufacturing the equipment, or developing repair and maintenance services? Equipment : will the inputs required be readily available and easy to operate? Skills : will additional skills and knowledge be required to use the LSTP? Cost : how expensive is the LSTP, in terms of initial investment and operating costs? Risk : what are the possible risks associated with using the LSTP? Infrastructure : what are the infrastructure requirements of the LSTP to ensure effective and sustained use? A detailed cost benefit ratio will need to be worked out for each potential LSTP using local prices. The calculation will examine specific components of the old technologies and practices used in relation to different components of the chosen LSTP, the costs of adaptation and delivery, and changes in benefits arising from using the LSTP. Further information is available in the form of website links, and concern:	- Publications and projects on the technology studied	- Institutions and organizations specialized in the technology described	- Equipment manufacturers	- Technical information (on the equipment described, etc) Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",13);arrFiles[42]=new Array(46,"img/Abrasivedischuller.jpg","2006-06-28","Abrasivedischuller.jpg","","","",10);arrFiles[43]=new Array(47,"img/Animaldrawncarts.jpg","2006-07-19","Animaldrawncarts.jpg","","","",24);arrFiles[44]=new Array(48,"img/Ard.jpg","2006-06-23","Ard.jpg","","","",10);arrFiles[45]=new Array(49,"img/back_ban.gif","2006-06-15","back_ban.gif","","","",1);arrFiles[46]=new Array(51,"img/banner_en.gif","2006-07-14","banner_en.gif","","","",26);arrFiles[47]=new Array(52,"img/bas_mdroit.gif","2006-06-19","bas_mdroit.gif","","","",1);arrFiles[48]=new Array(53,"img/bicycle.jpg","2006-06-16","bicycle.jpg","","","",129);arrFiles[49]=new Array(54,"img/boomsprayer.jpg","2006-06-20","boomsprayer.jpg","","","",19);arrFiles[50]=new Array(55,"img/cassavacrop.jpg","2006-06-20","cassavacrop.jpg","","","",19);arrFiles[51]=new Array(56,"img/cassavagrinder.jpg","2006-07-14","cassavagrinder.jpg","","","",24);arrFiles[52]=new Array(57,"img/cat.jpg","2006-07-04","cat.jpg","","","",4);arrFiles[53]=new Array(58,"img/catalogue1.jpg","2006-06-30","catalogue1.jpg","","","",14);arrFiles[54]=new Array(59,"img/catalogue2.jpg","2006-06-30","catalogue2.jpg","","","",16);arrFiles[55]=new Array(60,"img/chakahoe.jpg","2006-06-20","chakahoe.jpg","","","",34);arrFiles[56]=new Array(61,"img/Chlorinationpotforhouseholdwells.jpg","2006-07-20","Chlorinationpotforhouseholdwells.jpg","","","",9);arrFiles[57]=new Array(62,"img/combineharvester.jpg","2006-07-25","combineharvester.jpg","","","",8);arrFiles[58]=new Array(63,"img/Concreteringtank.jpg","2006-07-14","Concreteringtank.jpg","","","",15);arrFiles[59]=new Array(64,"img/DAP.JPG","2006-06-21","DAP.JPG","","","",20);arrFiles[60]=new Array(65,"img/DAPinterrowcultivator.jpg","2006-06-21","DAPinterrowcultivator.jpg","","","",31);arrFiles[61]=new Array(66,"img/DAPseeder.jpg","2006-06-21","DAPseeder.jpg","","","",20);arrFiles[62]=new Array(67,"img/DAPuse.jpg","2006-06-23","DAPuse.jpg","","","",14);arrFiles[63]=new Array(68,"img/DAPweeder.jpg","2006-06-21","DAPweeder.jpg","","","",10);arrFiles[64]=new Array(69,"img/dolicoslablabcovercrop.jpg","2006-06-23","dolicoslablabcovercrop.jpg","","","",18);arrFiles[65]=new Array(70,"img/donkey.jpg","2006-06-29","donkey.jpg","","","",14);arrFiles[66]=new Array(71,"img/donkeydrawncart.jpg","2006-06-29","donkeydrawncart.jpg","","","",18);arrFiles[67]=new Array(72,"img/doubleyoke.jpg","2006-06-23","doubleyoke.jpg","","","",13);arrFiles[68]=new Array(73,"img/espaceur_1.gif","2006-06-19","espaceur_1.gif","","","",1);arrFiles[69]=new Array(74,"img/fao_logo.gif","2006-06-15","fao_logo.gif","","","",1);arrFiles[70]=new Array(75,"img/farmstructures.jpg","2006-07-03","farmstructures.jpg","","","",14);arrFiles[71]=new Array(76,"img/firelesscooker.jpg","2006-06-29","firelesscooker.jpg","","","",17);arrFiles[72]=new Array(77,"img/frise.gif","2006-06-19","frise.gif","","","",1);arrFiles[73]=new Array(78,"img/grinding1.jpg","2006-06-28","grinding1.jpg","","","",16);arrFiles[74]=new Array(79,"img/grinding2.jpg","2006-06-28","grinding2.jpg","","","",11);arrFiles[75]=new Array(80,"img/Groundnutdecorticator.jpg","2006-07-25","Groundnutdecorticator.jpg","","","",14);arrFiles[76]=new Array(82,"img/GroundnutlifterwithVsweep.jpg","2006-07-19","GroundnutlifterwithVsweep.jpg","","","",6);arrFiles[77]=new Array(83,"img/Groundnutstripper.jpg","2006-07-19","Groundnutstripper.jpg","","","",9);arrFiles[78]=new Array(84,"img/hammermill.jpg","2006-07-25","hammermill.jpg","","","",8);arrFiles[79]=new Array(85,"img/Handcart.jpg","2006-07-19","Handcart.jpg","","","",8);arrFiles[80]=new Array(86,"img/HandRidgerRowmarker.jpg","2006-06-20","HandRidgerRowmarker.jpg","","","",20);arrFiles[81]=new Array(87,"img/Handsievingofgrain.jpg","2006-06-27","Handsievingofgrain.jpg","","","",19);arrFiles[82]=new Array(88,"img/harness.jpg","2006-05-11","harness.jpg","","","",129);arrFiles[83]=new Array(89,"img/Hoeseller.jpg","2006-05-10","Hoeseller.jpg","","","",127);arrFiles[84]=new Array(90,"img/humanporterage.jpg","2006-06-29","humanporterage.jpg","","","",16);arrFiles[85]=new Array(91,"img/improvedstove.jpg","2006-06-29","improvedstove.jpg","","","",16);arrFiles[86]=new Array(92,"img/intercroplablabmaize.jpg","2006-07-05","intercroplablabmaize.jpg","","","",30);arrFiles[87]=new Array(93,"img/interrowcultivator.jpg","2006-06-23","interrowcultivator.jpg","","","",30);arrFiles[88]=new Array(94,"img/jabplanter.jpg","2006-06-20","jabplanter.jpg","","","",30);arrFiles[89]=new Array(95,"img/knapsackinuse.jpg","2006-06-20","knapsackinuse.jpg","","","",17);arrFiles[90]=new Array(96,"img/knapsacksprayerinuse.jpg","2006-06-20","knapsacksprayerinuse.jpg","","","",14);arrFiles[91]=new Array(97,"img/kniferollerinaction.jpg","2006-06-22","kniferollerinaction.jpg","","","",17);arrFiles[92]=new Array(98,"img/link.gif","2006-06-19","link.gif","","","",1);arrFiles[93]=new Array(99,"img/logoblue.jpg","2006-07-03","logoblue.jpg","","","",3);arrFiles[94]=new Array(100,"img/logoinpho.jpg","2006-07-05","logoinpho.jpg","","","",2);arrFiles[95]=new Array(101,"img/Maizesheller.jpg","2006-07-19","Maizesheller.jpg","","","",8);arrFiles[96]=new Array(102,"img/manhoeing.jpg","2006-06-20","manhoeing.jpg","","","",26);arrFiles[97]=new Array(103,"img/marketscene.jpg","2006-06-20","marketscene.jpg","","","",14);arrFiles[98]=new Array(104,"img/Mower.jpg","2006-07-25","Mower.jpg","","","",5);arrFiles[99]=new Array(105,"img/openfire.jpg","2006-06-29","openfire.jpg","","","",15);arrFiles[100]=new Array(106,"img/pestcollection.jpg","2006-07-05","pestcollection.jpg","","","",8);arrFiles[101]=new Array(108,"img/practicalaction.jpg","2006-07-03","practicalaction.jpg","","","",5);arrFiles[102]=new Array(109,"img/presentation1.jpg","2006-06-30","presentation1.jpg","","","",25);arrFiles[103]=new Array(110,"img/puce.gif","2006-06-19","puce.gif","","","",1);arrFiles[104]=new Array(111,"img/Pumpingscheme.jpg","2006-07-19","Pumpingscheme.jpg","","","",8);arrFiles[105]=new Array(112,"img/PushTypeWeeder.jpg","2006-06-20","PushTypeWeeder.jpg","","","",22);arrFiles[106]=new Array(113,"img/raisedbed.jpg","2006-06-21","raisedbed.jpg","","","",18);arrFiles[107]=new Array(114,"img/raisedbedwithmulch.jpg","2006-06-21","raisedbedwithmulch.jpg","","","",20);arrFiles[108]=new Array(115,"img/reapinghooks.jpg","2006-06-26","reapinghooks.jpg","","","",3);arrFiles[109]=new Array(116,"img/Reinforcedmortartank.jpg","2006-07-19","Reinforcedmortartank.jpg","","","",8);arrFiles[110]=new Array(117,"img/Residuecover.jpg","2006-07-26","Residuecover.jpg","","","",35);arrFiles[111]=new Array(118,"img/ripper.JPG","2006-06-23","ripper.JPG","","","",14);arrFiles[112]=new Array(119,"img/rowplanting.jpg","2006-06-20","rowplanting.jpg","","","",13);arrFiles[113]=new Array(120,"img/seedcleaning.jpg","2006-06-27","seedcleaning.jpg","","","",13);arrFiles[114]=new Array(121,"img/seeds.jpg","2006-06-20","seeds.jpg","","","",13);arrFiles[115]=new Array(122,"img/seeds2.jpg","2006-06-20","seeds2.jpg","","","",17);arrFiles[116]=new Array(123,"img/Sheanutpress.jpg","2006-07-19","Sheanutpress.jpg","","","",19);arrFiles[117]=new Array(124,"img/sickles.jpg","2006-07-19","sickles.jpg","","","",6);arrFiles[118]=new Array(125,"img/singleaxletractor2.jpg","2006-06-21","singleaxletractor2.jpg","","","",12);arrFiles[119]=new Array(126,"img/singleaxletractorwithbedplanter.jpg","2006-06-21","singleaxletractorwithbedplanter.jpg","","","",16);arrFiles[120]=new Array(127,"img/singleaxletractorwithrotarytiller.jpg","2006-06-21","singleaxletractorwithrotarytiller.jpg","","","",20);arrFiles[121]=new Array(128,"img/solardrying.jpg","2006-06-27","solardrying.jpg","","","",13);arrFiles[122]=new Array(129,"img/solarheater.jpg","2006-07-20","solarheater.jpg","","","",14);arrFiles[123]=new Array(130,"img/sourcbook.jpg","2006-07-03","sourcbook.jpg","","","",30);arrFiles[124]=new Array(131,"img/threewheeledvehicleinfarmuse.jpg","2006-07-20","threewheeledvehicleinfarmuse.jpg","","","",8);arrFiles[125]=new Array(133,"img/Useofscythe.jpg","2006-07-25","Useofscythe.jpg","","","",8);arrFiles[126]=new Array(134,"img/Ventilatedmaizecrib.jpg","2006-07-20","Ventilatedmaizecrib.jpg","","","",15);arrFiles[127]=new Array(135,"img/villagewoodfuelmarket.JPG","2006-06-29","villagewoodfuelmarket.JPG","","","",11);arrFiles[128]=new Array(136,"img/weedwiper.jpg","2006-06-20","weedwiper.jpg","","","",33);arrFiles[129]=new Array(137,"img/Wheelbarrow.jpg","2006-07-20","Wheelbarrow.jpg","","","",6);arrFiles[130]=new Array(138,"img/womanjabplanter.jpg","2006-07-04","womanjabplanter.jpg","","","",28);arrFiles[131]=new Array(139,"img/Womanthreshing.jpg","2006-06-27","Womanthreshing.jpg","","","",16);arrFiles[132]=new Array(140,"img/woodenwheelbarrow.jpg","2006-06-29","woodenwheelbarrow.jpg","","","",17);arrFiles[133]=new Array(141,"img/woodlotsandwindbreak.JPG","2006-06-29","woodlotsandwindbreak.JPG","","","",11);arrFiles[134]=new Array(144,"img/banner_en.jpg","2006-07-18","banner_en.jpg","","","",30);arrFiles[135]=new Array(145,"img/puce_v.gif","2006-07-14","puce_v.gif","","","",1);arrFiles[136]=new Array(146,"img/groundnutlifterwithcurvedbalde.jpg","2006-07-19","groundnutlifterwithcurvedbalde.jpg","","","",5);arrFiles[137]=new Array(148,"img/harvestingcollage.jpg","2006-07-25","harvestingcollage.jpg","","","",135);arrFiles[138]=new Array(149,"img/landcollage.jpg","2006-07-25","landcollage.jpg","","","",267);arrFiles[139]=new Array(150,"img/title_directory_en.gif","2006-07-25","title_directory_en.gif","","","",1);arrFiles[140]=new Array(151,"img/postharvestingcollage.jpg","2006-07-25","postharvestingcollage.jpg","","","",101);arrFiles[141]=new Array(152,"img/householdcollage.jpg","2006-07-25","householdcollage.jpg","","","",99);arrFiles[142]=new Array(153,"img/transportcollage.jpg","2006-07-25","transportcollage.jpg","","","",124);arrFiles[143]=new Array(197,"search_old.html","2006-07-25","Search Engine Builder Standard -- Search this site","","","",1);arrFiles[144]=new Array(198,"search.html","2006-07-26","The Labour Saving Technologies - TECA TOOLS - SEARCH","Technologies, labour saving, FAO technology, idea catalogue, presentation, explanation","Labour Saving Technologies and Practices","- Home Search Labour Saving Technologies | teca-editor AT fao.org © FAO, 2006 Top | Legal note | Credits | Help | Contact",7);arrFiles[145]=new Array(199,"lst.ico","2006-07-26","lst.ico","","","",8);arrFiles[146]=new Array(200,"img/botonland.jpg","2006-07-25","botonland.jpg","","","",11);arrFiles[147]=new Array(201,"img/harvesting.jpg","2006-07-25","harvesting.jpg","","","",12);arrFiles[148]=new Array(202,"img/household.jpg","2006-07-25","household.jpg","","","",11);arrFiles[149]=new Array(203,"img/postharvesting.jpg","2006-07-25","postharvesting.jpg","","","",11);arrFiles[150]=new Array(204,"img/transport.jpg","2006-07-25","transport.jpg","","","",11);arrFiles[151]=new Array(205,"img/title_credit_en.gif","2006-07-25","title_credit_en.gif","","","",1);arrFiles[152]=new Array(206,"img/title_resources_en.gif","2006-07-25","title_resources_en.gif","","","",1);arrFiles[153]=new Array(207,"img/CAscheme.jpg","2006-07-26","CAscheme.jpg","","","",32);