Posted October 2000

Socio-economic and gender analysis (SEAGA) training tools in support of Household Resources Management

Introduction

The Women in Development Service (SDWW) of the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) of the United Nations has developed a training entitled Socio-Economic and Gender Analysis. SEAGA, as the package is called in brief, enhances an understanding of the socio-economic patters that together constitute the context for development. Some elements of the material focus on sensitising policy makers to the approach. Most elements aim at building capacities of individuals at institutional and grassroots level to introduce SEAGA into their work.

The SEAGA package consists of global level handbooks, ready for adaptation to country specific situations. Furthermore the package is constantly being expanded with sector specific training manuals.

My presentation consists of two parts:

I. Part I - gives an overview of the concepts and definitions used in SEAGA, its analytical entry points and the different levels of the interventions; this is followed by
II. Part II - which gives an overview of the draft sector guide on Household Resources Management

PART I - SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND GENDER ANALYSIS SEAGA

Throughout the development of SEAGA, the work benefited from collaborations with various international organisations and donors: World Bank, ILO, USAID and the Governments of the Finland, Norway, the Netherlands and others. Of late, many National Governments in Africa, Latin America, Asia and Europe are closely collaborating with FAO in adapting the materials to their country specific needs and testing them.

The overall package consists of:

1. Framework and users Reference Guide
2. Macro level handbook
3. Intermediate level handbook, and the
4. Field handbook

Given the magnitude of this work, I will just give you with the following PowerPoint presentation a brief introduction on its basic principles and approaches.

PowerPoint presentation

So far the general principles of the SEAGA training package. We will now look into how this works out in a given sector, the strengthening of Household Resources Management, situated at -rural- household level.

PART II - HOUSEHOLD RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Introduction

The Women in Development Service (SDWW) of the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) of the United Nations has developed this `sector' guide in response to the growing need for community-based extension agents to deal with a multitude of challenges facing poor rural households. On Friday a special session will be held, providing examples from Poland and Cameroon on how selected projects have worked with similar material related to Household Resource Management.

Purpose of the guide

The main purpose of this guide is to inform extensionists and raise awareness about critical issues affecting poor rural households, as well as highlighting opportunities and constraints for their socio-economic advancement. In this context, the guide will:

• Describe the key issues at different levels in the society, that have an impact on the livelihood strategies of rural households;
• Introduce the conceptual framework and tools - derived from the Socio-Economic and Gender Analysis (SEAGA) framework- that facilitate an understanding of rural household dynamics and survival strategies of the poor;
• Provide tools and methods for extensionists to carry out gender-responsive and participatory needs identification and planning at the household and community level aimed at improving rural livelihoods;
• Present a checklist for the development and monitoring and evaluation of gender-responsive projects.

The guide is divided in four sections:

1. Concepts of household and household resource management and analytical frameworks to plan for the development of successful development policies.
2. Key issues influencing access, control and effective utilisation and management of household resources
3. Strategies for the improvement of household resource management
4. Tools and methods for gender-responsive and participatory analysis and planning for improved household resource management

1. Concepts of household and household resource management and analytical frameworks to plan for the development of successful development policies

One of the key concerns of development practitioners is the inefficient and ineffective utilisation and management of scarce resources at the household, intermediate and macro levels. In order to obtain a clear understanding of the issues influencing the livelihood strategies and resource management of rural households, it is necessary to define the concepts of household and household resource management.

A rural household is defined "as a social and economic unit on which its members depend for economic survival, maintenance and social advancement. (Gebremedhin, 1997). A rural household is characterised by four distinct but inter-related dimensions of social relationships that are important in the analysis of gender division of labour and management of household resources.

• Rules - how are things done? (norms, values, traditions, customary law);
• Activities - what is done? (routine practices that identify who does what? Who gets what? Who can claim what? And who benefits from what?);
• Resources - what is used? And what is produced? (resource mobilisation and distribution of resources based on responsibilities and rules);
• Power - who decides? Who controls? Who owns? And who benefits?
  (C. March, 1996)

Household resource management is the "process of making decisions about how to maximise the use of resources, such as land, water, labour, capital, inputs - whether purchased or produced on-farm -, cash, agricultural credit and agricultural extension" (Engberg, 1990). Each of these resources are accessed and managed by women and men differently, based on the gender division of responsibilities and management.

The unequal division of household resources within households is one of the main causes of conflicts. We often see that when resources are controlled at one level, this may create constraints at another level.

This is why the guide provides extensionists with the appropriate SEAGA tools for analysing the situation of each household member - men, women, young and old - and provides tools for conflict identification and management within a community.

2. Key issues influencing access, control and effective utilisation and management of household resources

2.1 Contextual issues that impact household resource management

Without going into too much detail, I will mention here:

1. Feminisation of poverty

The economic crises of the 1970s and 1980s, Structural Adjustment Programmes, social and political dislocation, have affected women more than men. ". It is estimated that more than 70% of those living in absolute poverty are women. This led to what has been termed as the "feminisation of poverty". In many developing countries, male out-migration, armed conflicts and the breakdown of traditional family structures have increased the number of female-headed households. These factors have contributed to the expansion of women's activities in agriculture, hence the term "feminisation of agriculture". Depending, among others, on whether female-headed households receive remittances or not, these households are more likely to be in the poorer strata of society.

2. Structural Adjustment Programmes

Structural Adjustment Programmes were designed by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund to enable governments to reduce poverty after the economic crises of the seventies and the eighties. Such programmes have provoked positive and negative impacts on household resource management.

It should be noted that the globalisation and liberalisation of trade may bring more difficulties than returns for rural women and poor households in general because of the reduction of international aid and, correspondingly, diminishing national social budgets in the poorest countries of the world (ECOSOC, 1999). Extensionists and the communities involved should be able to analyse the impact of Structural Adjustment Programmes on household resource management. This information needs to be fed back to the planners to enable them to formulate and develop appropriate safety nets for the poorest rural households adversely affected.

3. HIV/AIDS

Both poor and affluent households are affected by HIV / AIDS. However, the plight of the poor is more visible due to the direct (medical and funeral expenses) and indirect (labour availability) loss of resources resulting from the disease. Women also have to bear the social cost of it in terms of daily care and willingness to accept more responsibilities. The loss of resources, especially money, knowledge and labour, have a tremendous effect on the households' human resources management and, in case of the death of the male spouse, may result in additional problems with regard to access to land, credit and extension services.

2.2 Intra-household issues that influence household resource management

Management is defined as the "process for planning and implementing the use of resources to meet demands/goals" (.Engberg, 1990). Household members participate in this process according to social norms and the gender division of responsibilities.

Decision-making is a critical area of household resource management and includes economic, social, technical, legal and political decisions. The involvement of women and men varies based on the types of and stages of the decision-making process, as well as the areas of decision-making. In order to enhance their possibilities of gaining access to, and control over resources, the disadvantaged household members, especially women, have to develop or strengthen their skills in decision-making, problem solving, negotiation and management.

Principal intra-household issues members will be facing are, access to and control over:

• Land - access to land through ownership or secure tenure is the basis of improving agricultural productivity. Without secure title to land, women are often denied membership in cooperatives and other rural organisations and the benefits coming from such membership.
• Credit - women and men farmers have different, yet complementary, responsibilities in agricultural production and food security; for this reason, both require access to credit for their specific needs.

• Income - related to credit is the question of cash income and how women and men differ in the use of such income for personal and household goals. Studies show that women contribute a larger share of their earnings than men to basic family maintenance; consequently, an increase in their income contributes significantly to the nutritional well-being of the household members and children in particular
• Labour-saving technology - due to women's numerous and laborious tasks, there is a need to develop and introduce appropriate labour-saving technology in food production, processing and storage, as well as in related areas such as water, sanitation, fuel and food preparation.
• Time - informal occupations provide the livelihood (paid or otherwise) of more than 80% of women in low-income countries and 40% of those in middle-income countries (Chen, 1999; Mehra and Gammage, 1999). However, this work remains largely unrecognised due to a narrow definition of what is considered "work".
• Indigenous knowledge and skills - women and men farmers, through their different agricultural activities, have developed different expertise and knowledge about the local environment, plant and animal species. The decision on what to produce and conserve depends on the knowledge of what is most useful to the household and community. Recognition of this sophisticated decision-making process is gradually leading breeders and researchers to realise that a community will adopt and select new and improved seeds for food crops and animal breeds if they have been tested and approved by its women and men farmers.
• Intra-household relations - many families in developing countries still maintain relationships with and depend on family and community support systems for financial aid, exchange of labour, contribution to family and community events and crisis situations. These play an important role in decisions regarding the management of their human resources.

2.3 Linkages between contextual (macro and intermediate) and intra-household (micro) development constraints and opportunities

As mentioned before, the SEAGA provides extension agents and planners tools to understand and strengthen linkages between the macro level (policies, legislation and strategic plans), intermediate level (Institutions such as Credit and Extension organisations to implement policy and strategic plans) and field level (Intra-household dynamics and impact of policy and plans on the livelihood strategies of the poor households). This is critical, for development planning, programme implementation, monitoring and evaluation.

3. Strategies for the improvement of household resource management

3.1. Savings and micro-enterprise development

The Guide provides guidelines on how to promote micro-enterprise development. Extension agents can support this by:

• promoting of savings mobilisation,
• assisting in the selection of the appropriate type of enterprise,
• aiming at developing essential business skills,
• promoting membership in farmers' organisations and cooperatives, and
• providing training in monitoring and evaluation of enterprise performance.

3.2. Reorientation of agricultural extension services

A study undertaken by FAO, in 1995, in Nigeria, Thailand, Syria and Trinidad, on how to improve extension work with rural women, clearly demonstrated that male extension agents do not consider the dual role of women farmers by scheduling meetings and demonstrations at times and places inconvenient or inaccessible to women farmers. Furthermore extension services have a tendency to target farmers who own land and have access to credit to purchase inputs and technology, which is expected to facilitate the implementation of their extension messages. Extension services need to take gender based time and resource constraints into account, if they want to expand the scope of their service delivery.

Insufficient availability of female extension workers is often used as an excuse in reaching female farmers. Many developing countries, however, have women's extension systems, or home economics extension personnel, who are under-utilised.

Overall, the reorientation of agricultural extension services in many developing countries presents exceptional opportunities for the socio-economic advancement of rural women. A new vision seems to be emerging, reorienting extension services that include women as contact groups, to conduct gender specific research and to broaden the support provided.

3.3. Agricultural research

Agricultural research has historically ignored small crops and livestock production systems as well as women's post harvest activities. Researchers have now realised that neglecting women as agricultural producers and resource managers has weakened every link in the chain of sustainable agricultural production. Thus, one of the priorities to improve and support sustainable food security in the developing countries is to put food crops cultivated and consumed by women and their families in the developing world high on the research agenda.

These are critical issues that require agricultural extensionists and researchers to collaborate, basing their interventions on the demands of the farming systems of the resource-poor farmers. Examples of research constraints and possible solutions follow:

3.4. Decentralisation

The decentralisation process of agricultural extension services brings advantages for some farmers and disadvantages for others (Malvicini, et al., 1996; Rivera, 1996). National budgets face difficulties in maintaining a public-sector extension service. This makes that the decentralisation of extension services is occurring at a time that increasing emphasis is placed on the development of the private sector. This and increasing recognition for the importance of farmer participation has led to a wider scope for private sector provision as well as NGOs. (Smith, L.D.1997.)

It is important to recognise that privatisation of extension services is undoubtedly most appropriate where farmers have the financial resources to purchase the services and advanced technologies. However, in many developing countries the rural poor, the landless, female heads of households and women farmers do not have access to credit to pay for these private services. "This is especially true for those who depend on subsistence agriculture as a means of survival. Yet they are the very population most in need of public financed extension". (FAO, 1996. Sustainable Rural Development: Progress and Challenges. Rome, Italy).

The Household Resource Management Guide provides some of the main features of demand-driven agricultural services relevant to agricultural extension services as gleaned various FAO implemented projects and programmes as well as International Consultations on this subject.

Having illustrated the key issues affecting household resource management of poor rural households, the next step is to plan, in collaboration with them, the appropriate gender-responsive interventions. Hereto, the GUIDE provides check lists for gender responsive and participatory analyse, planning as well as monitoring and evaluation activities and gives specific tools that can be used for gender responsive participatory planning. This will be the focus of the last section of my presentation.

4. Tools and methods for gender-responsive and participatory analysis and planning for improved household resource management

The aim of this section is to assist extension agents in identifying whether the issues raised in the previous sections are relevant to the situation of the rural communities they work with. The tools presented here (the majority of which are taken from the SEAGA Field-level Handbook) are categorised as follows:

• Development Context (tools 1-5)
• Rural household analysis (tools 6-9)
• Stakeholder analysis and priority setting (tools 10-13)
• Participatory monitoring and evaluation (tool 14)

4.1 Development context toolkit

Some of the questions to be raised when reviewing the development contextual issues affecting household resource management are:

1. What are the socio-economic and cultural patterns in a village and a household that influence the way resources are allocated between households and within the household?
2. What are the linkages between macro, intermediate and micro level in terms of resource allocation meant to benefit rural households?
3. What are the key factors that support or limit equitable rural household resource management within the community or households?
4. What is improving and what is deteriorating?

The relevant tools used for analysing contextual issues at the micro-level include:

I will give you an example of :

• Village resources map (OHS - Himachal Pradesh, India) - is a tool that enables us to learn about a community and its resource-base. The tool also facilitates understanding people's perceptions of resources. Furthermore, it can also be used to indicate what they would like to see in their village that is currently not on the map - in other words to draw a picture of what they would like the future to look like.
• Village social map (OHS - Ola Illman Galgalo Guyo, Ethiopia) - enables us to learn about the social structure of a community and how differences among households are defined. Given that this type of map shows all the household types in a community and their locations, it ensures that people from all the different socio-economic groups are reached during the rural appraisal. It is particularly useful for learning about local definitions of "poor" and "rich".

  Observations:
  - 14 out of 43 households are headed by a woman
  - of the 4 medium rich households 3 are headed by a men
  - the one rich household is male headed

• Venn Diagram (OHS - El Zapote, Honduras) - The Venn Diagram is a tool that helps us to learn about the importance of local groups and institutions. This can be useful for clarifying decision-making roles and identifying potential conflicts between different socio-economic groups. It is also helpful for identifying linkages between local institutions and those at the intermediate- and macro-levels, as well as the potential roles that each can play in the implementation of development interventions.

  Observations:
  - the school lunch committee only figures among women's perceptions,
  - both men and women mention the Parents association, but women give it a larger importance,
  - both mention the `Council of Community Development', but men's appreciation is larger.
  - there is an equal appreciation for the church.

4.2 Rural Household Analysis

The Rural Household Analysis tool enables us to learn about how rural people, as individuals, households and communities, develop their means of livelihood, with which resources and how.

The questions that should be answered in this case are:

• How do rural households make their living? How do the livelihood systems of women and men differ?
• Are there individuals / households unable to meet their basic needs? Why?
• What are the patterns for use and control over resources in households?
• What are the most important sources of income and expenditure?

The following tools are available in this guide for undertaking a livelihood analysis:

I will give you an example of the:

• Activity Profile - (OHS from "Gender Analysis and Forestry, International Training package, FAO") is used to analyse gender-based divisions of labour - i.e., who does what, where and when. It identifies the activities of women and men, boys, girls and the aged and the time it takes to carry out such activities. It illustrates the types of tasks carried out by women and men. This profile could be supplemented with the Farming Systems Diagram from the SEAGA Field-level Handbook in order to obtain a complete picture of the rural household livelihood system (i.e., on-farm, off-farm and non-farm activities).
  Observations - this example from the "Gender Analysis and Forestry, International Training package, FAO" concerns a generic case from a community involved in forestry activities. It shows:

  - the different tasks carried by women, men or women and men together,
  - the time spent on these activities, whether daily, seasonal or occasionally, and
  - the location of the activities.

• Access to and Control over Resources and Benefits Profile - (OHS from "Gender Analysis and Forestry, International Training package, FAO") this tool enables us to learn about the gender-based use and control over resources within a household. It also shows the variation amongst different socio-economic groups.
  Observations - this example from the "Gender Analysis and Forestry, International Training package, FAO" concerns a generic case from a community involved in forestry activities. It shows:

  - that women collect more different "benefits' from the forest than men, though theirs - wood- may give higher returns;
  - in this case the forest is controlled neither by the women nor the men, but by the government;
  - land bullocks, seeds and fertiliser are used by both men and women, but are solely controlled by men;
  - Only men receive credit and extension training.

4.3 Priority setting and planning (stakeholder analysis)

Stakeholders are defined as "all different people and institutions, both inside and outside [the household], who stand to lose or gain given a particular development activity". The stakeholder analysis tools enables development agents to learn about the priority actions and development opportunities for addressing the identified problems.

The key questions are:

• What are the priority problems for men and women in household resource management?
• What activities are being proposed for development and how do they relate to improved household resource management? Who are the stakeholders?
• Is there a conflict between the stakeholders? What are the issues causing the conflict and amongst whom?
• Identify which priority activities could be realistically implemented?

The selected stakeholders' analysis tools are:

I will give you an example of the:

• Stakeholder Conflict and Partnership Analysis - (OHS - Northern Thailand) is a tool that helps to understand where there is conflict and where there is partnership between different stakeholders, and whether the extent of conflict or partnership is small or large in nature.

  Conflicts are a fact of life and arise due to competition for use or control of resources or because of differences in goals. The participatory planning process itself, by allowing all to share information and air their views, often creates a supportive environment for resolving conflicts and reaching consensus. Partnerships too often exist between different stakeholders. Existing networks of groups of individuals or institutions that share a common interest may be strengthened in the development process. Both need to be identified as partnerships can promote development activities and careful (pre-)conflict management may reduce their impact.

  The matrix on Conflicts and Partnerships between stakeholders in Tree Resources in Northern Thailand shows for example:

  - a large conflict between the `local people' and the Government,
  - an important partnership between the `local people' and NGOs,
  - another important partnership between the wood based industries and the absent landowners, and
  - a minor conflict between the Government Departments and the NGOs operating in the area.

• Best Bets Action Plan - (OHS Women's Group Best bets, Ethiopia) is a tool that enables us to formulate concrete and realistic plans for the implementation of priority development activities. It is the final tool in the participatory planning process. It focuses on the development activities most likely to succeed, as a result of consensus reached and availability of resources. The purpose of this tool is to refine and finalise the ideas generated by rural households based upon the analysis of the problems they want to address, incorporating the lessons learned from the stakeholder analysis. The idea is to produce plans that are as realistic and detailed as possible.

  This example shows:

  - three problems that the group wants to address: food shortage, lack of water and animal diseases;
  - the selected solutions;
  - what will be done AND who will do it ;
  - the costs involved and when it can start.

4.4. Participatory monitoring and evaluation

Tool 14 - STRENGTH, WEAKNESSES, OPPORTUNITIES, THREATS OR LIMITATIONS (SWOT / L)

Purpose

This tool can be used to undertake an analysis of any given situation, including monitoring and evaluation, by reviewing key questions on strength, weaknesses, opportunities and limitations or threats in implementing a given development activity or evaluating the performance of a service delivery institution. It can monitor progress on group savings and project activities, or it can provide information on the provision of services from agencies and institutions set up to serve them. The principle words that guide the analysis, monitoring and evaluation are:

• Strength - activities/actions that have worked; best aspects of any given situation
• Weaknesses - activities/actions that have not worked
• Opportunities - any possibilities for promoting positive change
• Threats or Limitations - all those factors that stop us from taking advantage of opportunities.

5. Conclusion and invitation

So far the presentation on the SEAGA training package and its draft sector Guide on Human Resources Management. We have seen the different interventions levels SEAGA targets: Macro (Inter-National, Regional & National), Intermediate (Institutional and sub-National) and Field (community and household) levels. We have elaborated on the impact of socio-economic AND gender issues on development activities and we have seen the need for a multi-sectoral approach.

The Household Resources Management sector guide of the SEAGA package provides rich training material for extension agents AND Institutions involved in re-orienting extension services and providing training hereto.

FAO is pleased to invite any of you interested in collaborating in its further field testing and ensures you that such collaboration will be mentioned in the final version of the Technical Guide.

If your Institution is interested in such collaboration, I suggest you make this known to the Women and Development Service of FAO:

by e-mail at SEAGA@fao.org
by fax : +39.06.570 52004, or
by mail: Women and Development Service, SEAGA Unit
Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations
Viale delle Terme di Caracalla 00100 Roma Italy

Thank you for your attention

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