P.E.X. Kapinga1 and E. Shayo2 (Mrs.)
1 Livestock Research Centre, P.O. Box 5016, Tanga, Tanzania
2 Buhuri Livestock Training Institute, P.O. Box 1483, Tanga, Tanzania
Abstract
Introduction
Smallholder dairy farming
Problems in the use of some technologies
Future research strategies
Acknowledgements
References
The paper reviews some forage research work conducted in the coastal area of Tanga District and discusses the relevancy of such research in the context of a small-scale dairy farmer. Studies showed that the natural forages produced 5 t DM/ha and were capable of supporting 1 AU per 2 to 3 ha. Improved forages gave above 10 t DM/ha when fertilized whereas fodder grasses and browse plants produced between 15 t and 20 t DM/ha respectively. Recommended fodder species to the farmers include Napier grass (Penissetum purpureum), giant and panic (Panicum maximum) and leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala). Fodder production and quality under the small-scale dairy farming systems is more variable than that reported at the research stations. Reasons for the variations and problems of forage utilisation have been discussed. However, milk production ranged from 5 kg/day, where only forages are used, to 10 kg/day, where forages are supplemented with concentrates. Forage supply throughout the year at the farmer's level is very much limited. Thus the future research strategies are orientated towards solving the problem of feed shortages during the dry season and looking for appropriate technologies for forage conservation at the small-scale dairy level.
Assessment of the grazing value and carrying capacity of the natural flora.
Improvement of the natural pastures
Grazing management and animal performance studies on natural pastures
Adaptability and compatibility of improved grasses and legumes
Limitations on the Use of Research Results
The Tanga District is situated in the northern part of the coastal belt of Tanzania. The area receives between 1200 to 1400 mm of rains per annum, falling in two seasons - the long rains (March to June) and the short rains (September to November). Mean temperatures are between 26° to 33°C with relative humidity ranging from 64 to 85%.
Three soil types are predominant in the district. The low fertile light sandy-loam soils occurring along the coast, the ledium-fertile red loam soils of the inland and the black soils hat occur along the valleys.
The vegetation cover is commonly known as "coastal forest, savanna mosaic" which varies from open grassland (mainly tall lyparrhenia spp) to dense high thicket. Large areas are occupied by wooded grasslands that also support vigorous growth of cum-lam (Hypaene tebaica) and gall acacia (Acacia canzibarica) (Lied and Morrison, 1974).
Research on forages had been conducted at two research stations, Mlingano Sisal Research Station (inland) and Tanga Livestock Research Centre (coastal area). Several forage trials have been conducted since 1959 (Hopkinson, 1970) and could be grouped under such subheadings as (i) assessment of grazing value and carrying capacity of natural flora (ii) improvement of the natural pastures through fertilizer application (iii) bush and weed control and the incorporation of improved legumes in the natural sward (iv) grazing management and animal performance studies on natural pastures and (iv) adaptability and compatability of improved grasses and legumes.
Ground surveys, supported by aerial photographs and aerial reconnaissance, were used to map grass-legume associations and assess their importance to livestock production (van Voorthuizen, 1970). The sandy-loam soils along the coastal plain supported important grasses such as Hyparrhenia rufa, H. dissolute, Setaria sphacelata and Andropogon schirensis. Associated grasses included Cynodon dactylon. Panicum infestum, Digitaria mombasana and Bothriochloa glabra. Several unpalatable legumes were noted to occur but their contribution to the livestock industry were questionable. Such an association was capable of supporting 1 AU per 3.2 ha and produced between 3.9 to 4.5 t DM/ha. The red loam soils were dominated by Panicum maximum with few grasses such as Cynodon Digitaria milanjiana and Hyparrhenia rufa. Van Voorthuizen (1970) noted that the latter grass cover were capable of supporting 1 AU per 2.4 ha and produced 11.8 e DM/ha when the grass-wooded areas was cleared. Generally, forage production fluctuated under grazing management and were lower than seldomly grazed areas but crude protein levels were reasonable almost throughout the year for both the grazed and ungrazed areas (Watkins, 1969) (Table 1).
Trials aimed at improving the natural pasture through fertilizer application, bush and weed control and the incorporation of improved legumes in the natural pastures had been attempted.
Application of deficient nutrients to the natural sward had produced variable results but generally the response was very low. The light sandy soils are deficient in many important nutrients. The application of N. P. K, Mg, Cu and Co had produced only 4.23 t DM/ha which was a 100% increase over the unfertilized sward (Schmidt and Watkins, 1968). Noticeable changes in the botanical composition of the pasture were the increased legume component wherever P and K were applied (Anderson, 1969; Hendy, 1975).
Table 1. Dry matter (DM) yields and chemical composition of herbage cut from seldomly grazed and heavily grazed areas.
|
Treatment
|
Seldon grazed |
Heavily grazed |
||||||||||
|
DM |
DM |
CP |
CF |
Ca |
P |
DM |
DM |
CP |
CF |
Ca |
P |
|
|
|
Kg/ha - % |
Kg/ha - % |
||||||||||
|
2 week cuts |
1.5 |
28.6 |
9.9 |
34.4 |
0.27 |
0.085 |
0.7 |
28.0 |
8.8 |
31.6 |
0.25 |
0.056 |
|
1 month |
2.1 |
30.7 |
8.6 |
35.3 |
0.28 |
0.083 |
0.9 |
29.5 |
8.7 |
33.8 |
0.22 |
0.074 |
|
2 months |
3.1 |
39.8 |
7.0 |
36.5 |
0.38 |
0.083 |
0.9 |
42.8 |
6.3 |
35.6 |
0.25 |
0.064 |
|
3 months |
3.9 |
40.5 |
7.0 |
35.7 |
0.38 |
0.059 |
1.0 |
32.4 |
7.8 |
36.5 |
0.35 |
0.089 |
|
6 months |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
2.0 |
36.0 |
7.3 |
36.4 |
0.32 |
0.089 |
Source: Watkins (1969).
Table 2. Stocking rates and weight gains (kg) by Sahiwal cross bulls grazing natural pastures
|
|
1969 |
1970 | ||
|
Stocking rate Ha/bull |
Gain/bull |
Gain/ha |
Gain/bull |
Gain/ha |
|
1.8 |
170.4b |
94.7c |
210.7c |
67.1c |
|
1.2 |
188.6a |
157.2b |
128.4a |
107.0b |
|
0.6 |
172.7b |
287.7a |
92.7b |
154.5a |
Figures bearing different superscripts on the same column are different (P<0.05).
Source: Broatch (1970).
The problem of bush and weed encroachment in the grazing lands had received the greatest attention as most of the cleared or grazing lands tend to revert into bushland. So far most of the technologies tested have not produced tangible results (Hendy, 1975). It was noted that slashing alone was ineffective in bush and weed control but where slashing was combined with herbicide application (Tordon 101) to the regenerated bushes a 90% kill was achieved (Hendy, 1973a). Burning at the end of the dry season produced partial control of trees and shrubs (Hendy, 1975).
Oversowing improved legumes into the natural sward had to some extent been tried. Hendy (1973b) oversowed several legumes onto the natural pastures after slashing the native vegetation down to 10 cm. The only legume established was siratro (Macroptilium atropurpureum) but gradually disappeared from the sward. The cheapest method of introducing legumes into the natural pastures was the strip ploughing of land and sowing the legumes in the ploughed strips (Carrodus, 1975). Legumes failed to establish when sowed into furrows and ash seed-bed which received triple superphosphate fertilizers.
The major problem encountered in the use of the natural pastures is that most of the valuable grass species disappear under grazing and are replaced by low producing, less palatable grasses, weeds and bushes (Broatch, 1970; Hendy, 1973c). This occurred even when grazing was practiced at low grazing pressures (Hendy, 1975). Broatch (1970) noted disappearance of Brachiaria spp. at all the stocking rates tried whereas Hyparrhenia sp. disappeared only under heavy grazing (1.2 and 0.6 ha/beast). Animal performance tended to vary with stocking rates (Table 2) and the season of the year. During the rainy period, 1.2 ha/beast gave the highest gain per beast, but all stocking rates suffered similar weight losses in the dry season. In investigating the effects of rotational grazing, slashing and fertilizer application on the growth and botanical composition of the natural pastures and animal performance, Hendy (1973c) noted that the natural pastures were insensitive to the changes in the grazing management imposed over a short period i.e. the botanical composition appeared fairly stable over the entire experiments so far carried out along the coastal area of Tanga Hendy (1975) concluded that the desirable stocking rate and management techniques that can maintain the natural pastures at a reasonable level of production are not yet known.
Forage plant introductions particularly legumes, started in the early 1960s with the objective of smothering weeds and improving soil status in the sisal estates (Hopkinson, 1970). But with falling prices of sisal in the world markets, the sisal company integrated sisal production with other crops and livestock production. Grasses were added to the legume collections and plant evaluation was directed towards getting adaptive and productive forage plants. Forage species proved promising under the light sandy-loam soils. These included Panicum maximum (local ecotype), Andropogon gayanus, Chloris gayana, Macroptilium atropurpureum cv. Siratro, Stylosanthes guianensis and Pueraria phaseoloides (Hendy and Carrodus, 1974). Adaptive forages on red loam soils were Brachiaria ruziziensis, Cenchrus ciliaris, Chloris gayana, Cynodon dactylon, Melinis minutiflora, Panicum coloratum, P. duestum, P. maximum, Pennisetum purpureum, Setaria anceps and S. splendida. Legumes included Centrosema pubescens, Neonotonia wightii, Macroptilium atropurpureum cv. Siratro and Calopogonium mucunoides (Hopkinson, 1970).
Responses to fertilizer application varied with species, but generally all responded to the fertilizer application (Table 3). P. purpureum gave the highest yields under both fertility levels but the lowest response to the applied fertilizers came from P. maximum.
Yields of C. gayana went up to 19 t DM/ha when nitrogen fertilizers were applied together with P and K fertilizers at the rates of 90, 90 and 120 kg N1, P2 05 and K20/ha, respectively (Hendy and Carrodus, 1974). Compatibility of grasses with legumes had been difficult to achieve along the sandy coastal soils (Hendy and Carrodus, 1974) but several grasses had shown to associate well with legumes on the red loam soils (Hopkinson, 1970). P. coloratum and M. minutiflora were the most compatible grasses with all the legumes tried but the legume suffered severely under B. ruziziensis, C. dactylon and P. maximum competition. It was also noted that where grass competition was more severe, S. guianensis survived the best whereas where the competition was less severe, P. phaseoloides thrived the best.
Table 3. Dry matter (DM) yield, crude protein (CP) and phosphorus (P) levels of some grasses at two levels of fertility.
|
Grass |
No. of No fertilizers |
P+K fertilizers* |
|||||
|
cuts |
DM |
CP |
P |
DM |
CP |
P |
|
|
Panicum coloratum |
7 |
6.55 |
11.2 |
0.155 |
13.9 |
10.2 |
0.178 |
|
Setaria anceps |
6 |
9.35 |
10.1 |
0.104 |
14.3 |
9.3 |
0.158 |
|
Panicum maximum |
9 |
13.21 |
9.8 |
0.13 |
15.9 |
11.2 |
0.173 |
|
Brachiaria ruziziensis |
7 |
9.22 |
9.8 |
0.093 |
15.5 |
7.8 |
0.161 |
|
Cenchrus ciliaris (Coastal) |
7 |
9.54 |
8.9 |
0.108 |
16.9 |
9.5 |
0.184 |
|
Chloris gayana (Mbarara) |
5 |
9.14 |
9.8 |
0.089 |
15.9 |
9.0 |
0.125 |
|
Pennisetum purpureum |
6 |
14.35 |
11.1 |
0.117 |
27.0 |
8.6 |
0.121 |
|
Cynodon dactylon |
5 |
9.23 |
9.0 |
0.163 |
15.8 |
10.4 |
0.221 |
|
Melinis minutiflora |
4 |
5.09 |
9.5 |
0.109 |
11.7 |
9.0 |
0.148 |
|
Chloris gayana (Mpwapwa) |
7 |
10.98 |
9.3 |
0.090 |
14.2 |
8.3 |
0.157 |
Source: Hopkinson (1970)
*Rate:
P as 200 kg/ha double superphosphate
K as 250 kg/ha muriate of potash.
Table 4. Land use under three smallholder systems.
|
Land use |
1 |
2 |
4 |
|
|
|
|
ha |
||
|
Cropping:
|
Natural pastures |
2.12 |
- |
- |
|
Napier |
- |
0.58 |
0.58 |
|
|
Luecaena |
0.27 |
0.28 |
0.37 |
|
|
Cassava |
0.56 |
- |
0.44 |
|
|
Banana |
0.32 |
0.86 |
0.54 |
|
|
Sorghum |
- |
- |
0.63 |
|
|
Total crop area |
3.85 |
1.82 |
0.58 |
|
|
Homestead + animal shed |
0.18 |
0.26 |
0.12 |
|
|
Total farm area |
4.03 |
2.08 |
2.68 |
|
Two main features can be noted from the reviewed work:
1. Duration of the research: Most of the research work reviewed could not last more than two years. Such a short period could not provide enough information on the trend of the results. For example, the experience gained with cultivated forages shows that the plants could hardly persist more than a year under grazing management along the coastal belt of Tanga Region and that legumes had failed to persist more than one growing season in mixed swards.2. Inconclusive information: In reviewing research work on grazing management, Hendy (1975) pinpointed that most of the stocking rates tried and the grazing management imposed could not provide sufficient information on the management of the forages at reasonable productive levels. This shows that some of the research results do not provide a ready-to-use technology that can be transferred to the farmers or extension personnels.
Considering these two general features it is unrealistic to blame for a weak research extension/trainer-farmer linkage. Nevertheless, many research findings from outside the district and from other countries with similar ecological conditions have penetrated to some farmers through the extension personnels and farmers' training institutions. This has been the case for the smallholder dairy farmers in Tanga District.
Types of the smallholder systems
Feed supply and utilisation in the three smallholder systems
The smallholder dairy farming is jointly coordinated between the Regional Extension Office and the Farmers' Training Sector in the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development and supported by the Dutch Government through the Smallholder's Dairy Extension Programme (SDEP). The programme is responsible for training farmers in all aspects of dairy husbandry, distribution of heifers to eligible farmers and the monitoring of farmers' activities. The major objective is to improve dairy enterprises on smallholder farms.
The programme started with the identification of the smallholder farming systems and the training of the farmers. Upon completion of the training, the farmers were eligible to the acquisition of one heifer per hectare of planted fodder crops.
This paper will only discuss the efforts taken by Buhuri Livestock Training Institute in transferring some of the forage production and utilisation technologies to the smallholder dairy farmers in Tanga District.
In performing such a task, the institute in collaboration with the district extension office have identified three major types of smallholder dairy farming systems which in turn have led to the construction of three representative smallholder dairy models. The modes are used to demonstrate the keeping of dairy cows at small-scale levels under the village conditions; to monitor any improved technology before introducing to the farmers themselves and to collect useful information and data for teaching and advisory purposes.
During training, the farmers spent most of the time in models (known as units) in order to acquaint themselves with the techniques of establishing and managing small-scale dairy farms.
Each system or unit is maintained by a single family and keeps two lactating cows and two followers (mainly calves).
System 1: The animals are tethered on natural pastures which are dominated by locally growing Guinea grass (P. maximum). The system has constructed a multipurpose structure which aids during milking, spraying acaricide against ticks and other managerial practices. The farmer grows leucaena (L. leucocephala), cassava (Manihot esculenta) and bananas (Muse sapiens) for supplementing the natural pastures. The farmer aims at meeting all animal feed requirements from his farm.
System 2: Practices zero-grazing (stall-feeding). Grows Napier grass (P. purpureum), leucaena and bananas. The farmer purchases some feed stuffs especially energy and protein concentrates. The farmer has constructed a good animal shed capable of housing the milking cows and the followers plus a feed store.
System 3: Practice zero grazing. Grows Napier grass, bananas, cassava, leucaena and sorghum. The farmer has to meet feed requirements from his farm and practices silage making. Animal shed is made from locally available building materials (thatched shed).
Many recommended forage species were screened for yield and persistence before their introduction to the farmers. The hairless Napier grass and leucaena were the most productive fodder crops and were highly recommended for use by the smallholder dairy farmers. A dwarf variety of bananas (locally known as Malindi) was also recommended as a fodder crop because it was popularly grown by the farmers along the coastal area and does not dry up in the dry season. Likewise cassava was recommended as an energy supplementary feed for the animals. The average production of each crop is shown in Table 5.
Production figures for the natural pastures, Napier grass and sorghum are within the reported averages but leucaena and cassava produced lower yields (van Voorthuzein, 1970; Hopkinson, 1970; Skerman, 1977; Acland, 1973). Considering that each farm has to maintain 2.9 LUs, the total feed supply from the farms seemed to be above the estimated animal requirement (2.9 LU × 8.75 kgDM/LU/d × 365d = 9262 kg DM/yr). But the actual feed consumption recorded, when hay was used instead of banana pseudostems/leaves and sorghum silage, were 10530, 10815 and 9773 kg DM/yr for the farms 1, 2 and 3, respectively (Table 6).
Table 5. Average feed production in the three smallholder farms.
|
|
|
|
|
Farms | ||
|
Crop |
Fresh |
wt |
DM |
1 |
2 |
3 |
|
|
kg/ha |
% |
kg/ha |
kg/ha | ||
|
Natural pastures |
18000 |
25.0 |
4500 |
9540 |
- |
- |
|
Napier |
73329 |
22.5 |
16500 |
- |
9570 |
9570 |
|
Leucaena |
22100 |
30.0 |
6630 |
1790 |
1856 |
2453 |
|
Cassava |
3603 |
28.0 |
1009 |
565 |
- |
444 |
|
Bananas |
53794 |
19.0 |
10221 |
3271 |
8790 |
5520 |
|
Sorghum |
16917 |
26.6 |
4500 |
- |
- |
2835 |
|
Total |
|
|
|
15166 |
20216 |
20822 |
Table 6. Seasonal feed supply and utilization in three smallholder farms.
Table 7. Daily feed intake by animals in farms 2 and 3
|
|
Maize bran |
Leucaena |
Banana stem/leaf |
Napier |
Total |
|
|
kg | ||||
|
Fresh weight |
4 |
10 |
50 |
140 |
208 |
|
Dry matter |
3.5 |
3.0 |
6.0 |
17.5 |
30.0 |
Feeding the animals depended upon feed availability. It was noted that when feed supply was abundant, the animals in farms 2 and 3 were fed on the ration shown in Table 7.
Although the dry matter requirements by the animals were met at certain periods of the year, the overall quality of the feedstuffs remained much to be desired.
Forage utilisation
Availability of inputs
Lack of specialisation
Efficient use of the forages produced has been one of the problems noted with the smallholder dairy farmers. The farmers follow recommended spacing in growing the fodder crops but it has been difficult to follow recommended cutting regimes. The farmers are advised to cut the Napier grass within 0.75 -1.00 m height but often they are forced to cut below those heights when feed supply is limited. Likewise, when forage production is at peak the farmers cannot harvest the herbage within the specified height because consumption is below production. It is during this period that fodder conservation could take place (see Table 6 for April - July period).
Some reports show that fodder production from leucaena harvested at one metre height is greater than harvested at the ground level (Pound and Cairo, n.d). Simple trials at Buhuri Training Institute indicated no difference in production between the two cutting heights and the farmers have adopted cutting the fodder at the ground level due to lower harvesting losses and this method is more convenient.
The farmers are encouraged to apply farm yard manure in the fields after each harvest in order to boost forage production. The use of chemical fertilizers is very limited due to the high cost. Lack of machinery for cultivation, harvesting and chopping makes the job more cumbersome.
Although the farmers are identified as smallholder dairy farmers, actually they produce a variety of crops for home use and sale. They grow maize, cassava, groundnuts and coconuts. All these other crops have to use the same family labour, land and time. This diversification has led to low forage and milk production. Milk production under the smallholder dairy farming in the rural areas get between 3 to 6 litres per cow per day. Dairy farmers near towns get between 10 and 15 litres per cow per day due to the use of high proportions of concentrate feedstuffs.
It has been realised that the major problem faced by the smallholder farmers is the inadequacy of feed supply throughout the year. With this in mind, the future research strategies have:
1. Continued to look for adaptive forage plants that are drought tolerant and can maintain growth in the dry season.2. Continued to develop cropping systems (crops + forage) for the optimum food/feed production and land use.
3. Been developing proper technology of fodder conservation (hay, silage, etc.) appropriate to the smallholder dairy farmer.
4. Been designing simple tools or machinery which can improve the efficiency of forage production, management and utilisation.
5. Continued to improve feed supply in order to meet the nutrient requirements of the improved dairy animals.
The authors are greatly indebted to Dr. M. Shayo, the Principal, Buhuri Training Institute for reporting some of the forage innovations which are being advanced to the smallholder dairy farmers in Tanga District and for the use of the data collected from the various smallholder farms.
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