Introduction
Description of the production systems
Constraint diagnosis
Project output
References:
Proposition de développement pastoral en République du Niger
Summary of discussion session 11.
Résumé des débats de la onzième séance
P.N. de Leeuw¹ and C. de Haan²
¹Ecologist, Arid Zones (Eastern and Southern Africa) Programme, ILCA, Kenya
²Deputy Director General, ILCA, Ethiopia
For several years there has been a growing tendency to consider a pastoral production system as one of the least rewarding targets for development. Although many pastoral development projects have been launched, they appear to have failed to come to grips with the intricate problems posed by this mode of production: the end results of such efforts have been frustrating and the final returns of input have been usually low or negative. Several analyses of the reasons behind the high failure rate of pastoral development projects have been published (Ferguson, 1976; Horowitch, 1979; Goldschmidt, 1980) and their conclusions need not be repeated here. However, some positive thinking to offset the negative balance sheet of ex post pastoral project appraisal may be worthwhile. Thus, it may be useful to focus on a defined area, e.g. the pastoral zone of the Niger Republic, for which a well thought-out development programme has been formulated and proposed for funding.
USAID-supported research and preliminary development work in the pastoral zone started in 1979. The first phase of the Niger Range and Livestock (NRL) Project will be completed in June 1983 and be followed by a development project termed the Niger Integrated Livestock Production (NILP) Project. The contract for the design and implementation of NILP was awarded to Tufts University as the prime contractor, with ILCA, North Carolina A & T University, New Mexico State University as subcontractors.
The design team (also called the joint enterprise group) assembled in Niamey in early January 1983 and submitted their first draft in early February. Several design sub-teams were created to write the various components for the project paper. C. de Haan (ILCA) and A. E. Sollod (Tufts School of Veterinary Medicine) were responsible for the animal production component, including animal nutrition and health, while P. N. de Leeuw (ILCA) and G. Greenwood were charged with ecology, range and water resources and their management, G. Greenwood was a consultant representing New Mexico State University.
This paper presents a summary of the design team's findings and proposals in the fields of range management and animal production. However, it should be realized that the development of these technical components are part of an integrated developmental strategy aimed at increased food production, income and security for-Niger herders. Thus the project will promote the participation of pastoralists in the development process by interweaving the activities of herders, herders' associations and the services provided by the Government. The primary objective of creating local "institutions" is that development should serve human needs and must therefore be defined in terms of human objectives. The goals in the technical sector are intermediary objectives, by which the primary objectives can be attained.
At the time of writing, the authors had not yet received the final project papers on the other components of the design (on "institution building)' and associated socio-economic research, human health and education and training). However, for an overview of the integrated approach that underlies the proposed development strategy, reference can be made to a draft discussion paper on strategy by Swift (1982), who is the coordinator of the socio-economic unit of the NRL phase, and to a summary of this paper (de Leeuw and Swift, 1983).
The authors wish to acknowledge the contributions of their colleagues A.E. Sollod and G. Greenwood without which this paper could not have been written and wish to thank J. Swift for providing the necessary background on the NRL project.
The target area is 80,000 km in size and lies within the pastoral zone of the Niger Republic. It has a population of some 170,000 pastoralists, the majority of which are Tuareg, the minority tribes being WbDaaBe and Arabs. The area supports about 330, 000 cattle, 930,000 sheep and goats and 100,000 camels (Table 4). Mean annual rainfall varies from 200 mm in the north to 400 mm in the south, most of which falls in the two- to three-month long rains between July and September. Inter-annual variations in total amount, distribution and length of the growing season are great (Table 1).
Table 1. Annual rainfall (mm) distribution over 60 years (1920 - 1881) for Agadez (16°40'N, 8°00'E) and Tahoua (14°40'N, 5°30'E).
|
Annual rainfall distribution (as % of 60 years) | ||||||
|
Region |
100 mm |
100-200 mm |
200-300 mm |
300-400 mm |
400-500 mm |
500 mm |
|
Agadez |
22 |
57 |
22 - |
- |
- |
- |
|
Tahoua |
- |
- |
17 |
37 |
34 |
12 |
Source: Milligan (1982a).
Range resources vary with annual rainfall and its distribution. End-of-season standing biomass ranges from 200 to 500 kg DM/ha in the north to 500 - 1 500 kg DM/ha in the south and consists mainly of short-lived annual grasses and herbs (Table 2). Woody cover is variable but on average is low (Milligan, 1982a). Herbage crude content rises to 10 - 15% in August, dropping to low values of 3 to 5% towards the end of the dry season. The greatest variation in herbage quality occurs during the transition period (from late May to early August, its duration varying between years), when there is a mixture of scattered new growth and old standing forage and litter. The same seasonal trends occur for herbage digestibility (Fig. 1).
Figure 1a. Range of crude protein content (% DM) in annual gross herbage
Figure 1b. Range of digestibility (% DM) in annual gross herbage.
Table 2. Total annual rainfall and maximum standing biomass on four sites in the pastoral zone of the Tiger Republic
|
Site |
Year |
Total annual rainfall (mm) |
Maximum standing (kg/ha) |
Ratio kg/ha/ mm |
|
Aderbissanat (15°40'N,7°50'E) |
1980 |
108 |
660 |
6.1 |
|
1981 |
153 |
500 |
3.3 |
|
|
1982 |
151 |
730 |
4.9 |
|
|
Gadabeji (15°N,17°10'E) |
1980 |
- |
- |
- |
|
1981 |
159 |
190 |
1.2 |
|
|
1982 |
150 |
1130 |
7.5 |
|
|
Ibeceten (15°20'N, 6°88'E) |
1980 |
192 |
970 |
5.1 |
|
1981 |
210 |
640 |
3.0 |
|
|
1982 |
160 |
590 |
3.7 |
|
|
Dakoro (11°30'N,6°40'E) |
1980 |
238 |
1 500 |
6.3 |
|
1981 |
236 |
750 |
3.2 |
|
|
1982 |
240 |
1 200 |
5.0 |
Source: Wylie et al (1982).
The question arises whether range resources within the area are adequate to sustain the 500,000 TLU (1 TLU = 250 kg) in particular during periods of drought. To answer this question, theoretical carrying capacity calculations have been made based on the assumed relationship that 1 mm rainfall produces 2.5 kg of dry matter. From Table 2, it is clear that this relationship is poor and actually ranges from 1.2 to 7.5 kg DM/mm rain, because of differences in rainfall distribution and intensity, and soil characteristics. Depending on rainfall, the estimated carrying capacity ranges from 400,000 to 700,000 TLU (Table 3), which demonstrates that in average years the existing population can be sustained, but a serious fodder shortage may develop when in the north the rains are below 100 mm and in the south below 300 mm, events that occur during one year out of five (Table 1).
Table 3. Carrying capacity (CC) estimates of the NRL zone in relation to rainfall and biomass production.
|
Northern part (40,000 km²) |
Southern part (40,000 km²) | ||||||
|
Rainfall (mm) |
Biomass (kg/ha) |
CC (ha/TLU) |
Total (TLU) |
Rainfall (mm) |
Biomass (kg/ha) |
CC (ha/TLU) |
Total (TLU) |
|
100 |
250 |
36 |
111 |
250 |
625 |
15 |
267 |
|
150 |
375 |
24 |
167 |
350 |
875 |
10 |
400 |
|
250 |
625 |
15 |
267 |
- 400 |
1 000 |
9 |
444 |
Source: Penning, Vries and Djiteye (1982).
Livestock density increases from north to south in line with range productivity, from about 4 TLU/km to 7.5 TLU/km (Table 5). During the rainy season there is an influx of cattle and camels into the northern part of the area, which return to the south from late September onwards (Table 4). Although the Tuareg have a much more diverse species mix (Wilson and Wagenaar, 1982), they appear less mobile than the cattle-owning WoDaaBe. The greater mobility of the latter is reflected in the much greater seasonal fluctuation in WoDaabe herds (Table 3). Within this general context of movement, differing goals and constraints lead to different production strategies which involve different breeds and species of animals maintained in herds, reliance on different types of dry-season water sources, attachments to particular dry-season geographic zones, and the use of different salt cure zones.
Table 4. Livestock populations in the NRL zone.
|
|
Livestock population (× 1000) |
|||||
|
May 1981 |
Sept 1982 |
Oct. 1982 |
Mean¹ |
TLU² |
(%) |
|
|
Cattle |
289 |
331 |
376 |
332 |
249 |
(50) |
|
Bororo |
(153) |
(192) |
(247) |
(198) |
(148) |
(30) |
|
Azawak |
(136) |
(1393 |
(130) |
(133) |
(101) |
(20) |
|
Smallstock |
780 |
831 |
1 148 |
930 |
140 |
(28) |
|
Camels |
70 |
156 |
89 |
98 |
99 |
(20) |
|
Donkeys |
13 |
23 |
20 |
18 |
9 |
(2) |
|
TOTAL TLU |
410 |
540 |
554 |
497 |
497 |
(100.0) |
¹Weighted annual mean.
²Cattle = 0.75, smallstock 0.15, camel 1.0, donkeys = 0.50, TLU (250 kg LW).
Compiled from Milligan 1982a, 1982b.
Table 5. Seasonal livestock densities (no/km² ) in the NRL zone (1981-82).
|
Livestock density (no/km² ) | ||||||
|
|
cattle |
smallstock |
camels |
donkeys |
Total TLU |
ha/TLU |
|
Northern part | ||||||
|
Wet season |
1.5 |
6.5 |
2.5 |
0.4 |
4.8 |
20 |
|
Dry season |
1.1 |
6.7 |
1.2 |
0.2 |
3.2 |
31 |
|
Southern part | ||||||
|
Wet season |
6.4 |
10.2 |
0.6 |
0.3 |
7.1 |
14 |
|
Dry season |
5.5 |
13.6 |
1.3 |
0.4 |
7.7 |
13 |
Source: Milligan (1982a).
Range resources
The single major constraint to which all producers within the zone are subject is that of a unimodal range resource base. This implies that the productivity of the system hinges on a two- to four-month rainy season during which nutrient supply is sufficient for maintenance and production in terms of incremental herd growth (liveweight gain plus reproduction). Once the growing season is over, the range resource may remain adequate in quantity but it deteriorates gradually in quality over the nine-month long dry season. This situation is in contrast to many other West African production systems that are capable of breaking the deteriorating fodder situation through short or long-distance movement to perennial floodplain grasslands (e.g. the inner delta of the Niger River, the shores of Lake Tchad, the floodplains of Benin or Nigeria), to crop residue resources or to burned savanna woodlands. None of these options are available to the WoDaaBe and Tuareg pastoralists in the ILP zone, at least not for those with cattle herds, while for small flocks and camels, the options are somewhat greater through the exploitation of browse.
Animal nutrition
Protein
It appears that protein deficiency is the most limiting dry-season factor in grazing animals (cattle and sheep). Early in the rainy season the protein level (nitrogen) of grasses is at its highest (8 12% digestible protein). As the rainy season ends and the dry season progresses, this level drops steadily until the end of the dry season when it averages 1% (Louis, 1982). Selective grazing may result in an actual intake slightly higher than this, but the protein intake would still be well below maintenance requirements for cattle and sheep. In cases of severe protein deficiency subcutaneous edema (bottle jaw) develops due to hypo-proteinemia; this has been observed in sheep in the project zone (Glazier' pers. comm.).
Microminerals, vitamin A and phosphorus
Research completed late in the NRL project has demonstrated the soil to be severely deficient in cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), and selenium (Se). Critical points of soil mineral concentrations where deficiency starts in pastured ruminants are four times that found in the NRL soil for Co, 22 times that for Cu. and ten times the critical soil concentration for Se. Local salts from Bilma and Tigguidan Tessoum do not contain adequate concentrations of these elements to be useful as supplemental sources. Striking clinical features of these deficiencies have been observed in animals in the zone. The deficiencies appear to be significant constraints to animal production and health, but the production responses to supplementation must still be tested since the zone's slow-growing animals may respond only minimally; however, as general nutrition is improved through other project interventions, the animals' requirements for microminerals will increase.
Empirical observations of clinical signs and responses to treatment, both in the project zone and elsewhere in the Sahel, have demonstrated severe vitamin A deficiencies at the end of the dry season; therefore, dry season vitamin A supplementation wile' be one of the first large-scale interventions in the ILP project.
Forage analysis for phosphorus is presently unreported, but it is anticipated that some deficiencies do exist.
Water points
Uneven water point distribution may result in underutilisation of some areas while there is overgrazing in other areas which have an abundance of water points. Dry-season water points with very high output, such as bore holes, may attract more herds than the localised biomass might be expected to support; however, the degree to -which these negative effects may occur in the project zone has not been adequately quantified. In an intensive study on a single WoDaaBe herd, Glazier (1983) found evidence that the time required to draw water from a well detracted from the potential foraging time for the herd, and it may have adversely affected the animals' feed intake.
Water quality varies considerably throughout the zone.
Herders appreciate the value of clean, fresh water, and they will go to great lengths to obtain it. They are quite aware of the human and animal health problems that are associated with some forms of water points, such as ponds and some types of cement troughs (Sollod, 1981; Knigbt, 1981; Loutan, 1982). Herders are also quite concerned with the mineral quality of :the available water (Maliki, 1982). They commonly seek water sources which are believed to have a positive effect on human and animal health, and :they avoid other water points which are known to have undesirable qualities.
Infectious diseases
In the past, the single most important infectious disease hindering increases in animal production was rinderpest. The JP-15 rinderpest campaign conducted in the 1960s failed to eradicate this disease but greatly reduced its incidence, and today it continues to be controlled by widespread vaccination. However, knowledge of other important animal diseases prevalent in the region is limited and, except for contagious bovine pleuropneumonia, no: efforts have been undertaken to systematically control them.
The NRL project conducted two forms of animal health research. A veterinary consultant made several trips into the project zone and through extensive interviews, herd examinations, and necropsies was able to assess the animal health status of the herds and to formulate a tentative list of disease constraints based on their relative economic importance (Sollod, 1981).
Field research on animal health was also done by some members of the socio-economic team. Their work emphasised herder perceptions of diseases, specific causes, approaches to treatment and control, and their relative economic importance. It was found that the herders had a fairly sophisticated understanding of diseases and epidemiological relationships (Maliki, 1982).
Production indices
Sahelian pastoral systems generally utilise their range resources as efficiently as other production systems in similar arid environments; however, because of the constraints described above, production is very slow as reflected in low growth, maturation and reproductive rates. There are also high young stock mortality rates and low offtake rates which reflect both the selective use of milk for human consumption and uncontrolled infectious diseases. Table 6 gives the main production parameters of the existing systems.
Table 6. Estimates of important production parameters in the zone.
|
Species |
Net animal animal reproduction rate (%) |
Mortality |
|||
|
birth to weaning |
weaning to first parturition |
adults (%) |
Age at first parturition (years) |
||
|
Cattle |
50 |
25 |
4 |
5 |
4 |
|
Sheep |
100 |
30 |
8 |
8 |
1.25 |
|
Goats |
110 |
35 |
7 |
7 |
1.25 |
|
Camels |
20 |
7 |
4 |
5 |
|
|
Donkeys |
40 |
20 |
10 |
4 |
- 3 |
Source Wilson and Wagenaar (1982).
Testing and extension of range management strategies
The programme involves three phases:
- the technical and economic evaluation of proposed strategies under controlled conditions;- on-herd trials of strategies shown to be effective under controlled conditions (contingent upon the removal of watering constraints and the formation of experimental herding units);
- the extension of proven strategies through the herders' association (HA) network through trained HA range management auxiliaries chosen on the basis of their traditional range skills.
Deferred dry-season grazing
Deferred dry-season use trials will be conducted at two ranches during the 1982-83 and 1983-84 dry seasons. Every day and every other day watering regimes will be investigated, in part to simulate local conditions. The animal performance will be followed after the end of the experiments until the end of the following rainy season to investigate compensatory gain.
Centripetal grazing
Experimental work on the Ekrafane ranch has shown that centripetal herd management can reduce weight losses in immature steers (Klein, 1981). Centripetal grazing is in fact a more elaborate system of deferred dry-season use, coupled to a variable watering regime. The advantages of the outside-in system are thought to be 1. maintenance of higher quality feed through deferred use, 2. reduction of animal energy expenditures in walking at the moment of greatest stress, and 3. higher intake and digestibility due to more frequent late dry-season watering. As with deferred dry-season use, this technique could result in better animal condition and lower calf mortality in the late dry season.
Under the project it is proposed that :
1. A modelling exercise be performed in order to estimate the effect of centripetal grazing on cattle.2. One on-ranch trial of the centripetal system be established during the dry season 1983-84. The trial will include two stocking rates plus a control herd with a total of 60 cattle. Daily and alternate day watering during the hot season will be superimposed on the stocking rates.
The question of watering frequency and the allocation of labour to animal herding versus watering is considerably more complex. According to the only animal behaviour survey conducted by NRL (Glazier, pers. comm.), such a system may be precluded by a lack of labour to simultaneously water the animals and herd them away from forage that is to be conserved for later use. Furthermore, given the present watering technology, the imposition of daily watering would so reduce the time available to the animals for grazing that herd productivity would fall rapidly.
Thus, the feasibility of applying centripetal grazing in the project depends on:
- a reasonable degree of control of a water point;
- the allocation of a certain amount of additional labour to herding the animals to the desired ranges;
- a reduction in the time spent watering the animals;
- the effects of increased water frequency on animal performance, on the rate of forage disappearance, and on the stocking and movement strategies of the herder.
Watering technology studies
That the provision of water during the dry season is an important component in the production system ha-, been recognized early during the NRL phase. Several studies have been conducted but have not been, or have been only partially, published. Data from the waterpoint survey are currently being analysed, while labour inputs on a household basis are incorporated in socio-economic studies, the report on which is in preparation.
For the quantification of the effects of current watering technology on herd and labour productivity, the sample used is the same as for the animal production studies (see below) and is stratified to distinguish between Tuareg and WoDaaBe and between households with low and high ratios of animals to people.
Particular attention will be paid to the relationship between the amount of time spent watering, the quantity of water consumed per head, the time and resources available for grazing, and herd productivity. With this information, a better predict) a can be made of the effects of changing the watering regimes in the project zone.
This project consists of a follow-up to the NRL water point survey (Knight, 1981) that aimed to carry out the following within selected HA areas:
- the preparation of accurate water point maps;- the delineation of water deficit and surplus zones through measuring water point outputs and requirements by season; and
- labour inputs and efficiency for water extraction.
During the survey, the constraints and limitations of existing technology will become evident, while more efficient innovations and techniques will be identified. Potential innovations include:
- well mouth reinforcement (already tested by NRL);- better harnesses for draft animals;
- installation of concrete screens in the aquifer to prevent slumping of aquifer material, to increase the volume of water present at any moment and to facilitate recharge;
- development of well covers to permit temporary closure of wells;
- methods of directing water into traditional watering basins without detaching the tire d'eau; and
- development of water-trapping structures in sandy areas.
Animal production and health
Introduction
Objectives. The objectives of the animal production and health component of the ILP project will be:
1. to identify economically feasible and socially acceptable production increases in the cattle, sheep, camel and goat production systems of the pastoral zone through:- improvements in per animal productivity by increasing milk production and by reducing mortality with strategic feeding practices;- improvements in production efficiency with herd health programmes.
2. to develop, with the assistance of the government of Niger, animal production and health input delivery systems to the herders' associations and Veterinary centres through:
- the training and continuing education of one veterinary auxiliary for each herders' association;- support to the annual livestock service vaccination campaigns;
- the construction of veterinary posts at pastoral centres and the provision of animal restraint facilities in the zone; and
- introduction of a process approach to field research in the livestock service.
It is expected that the ILP project will have its greatest impact on animal production by introducing strategic inputs of protein and animal health commodities.
Institutional framework
Animal production and health activities will be undertaken within the institutional framework of the HA and the government livestock service with the support of private markets and the national veterinary pharmacy. In an effort to extend animal health care to a grass roots level, training of veterinary auxiliaries was initiated by the livestock service and the NRL project in 1981.
The animal health study of NRL (Sollod, 1981) pointed out that herders were often not using the optimal combination of commodities in animal care. Under ILP it is anticipated that a more cost-effective population approach to animal health may be carried out by utilising a better selection of animal care commodities and by working through veterinary auxiliaries who are members of the HA. Animal production inputs, mainly protein supplements and nutritional counselling will also be introduced through the system of auxiliaries.
The ILP project will begin to develop a process approach, or an "evolutionary operational programme", to field research whereby the results of research are rapidly tested through field trials and socio-economic evaluation, and they are then extended and monitored under the supervision of the researchers themselves. It will be a major objective of the ILP project to introduce and begin to institutionalise the evolutionary operational programme in the livestock service.
Output
The project will produce three major outputs, all of which will focus on improving per animal production in the production systems of the zone. Emphasis will be placed on solving the most severe, and the most easily addressed of the constraints described in the previous section, namely, seasonal protein deficiency, vitamin/mineral deficiencies and infectious diseases. Improvements will also be made in environmental hygiene (such as water point decontamination) and animal reproduction (through early pregnancy diagnosis and the identification and treatment of causes of infertility in cattle and goats.
The first output, the evolutionary operational programme, is a management system in which new technology is gradually introduced through a logical sequence of research and implementation activities. New inputs are carefully evaluated for their technical, economic and social impact before being extended on a broader scale.
The evolutionary operational programme has five stages which will carry the project activities through a logical sequence. These stages include field research, field trials, socio-economic evaluation (under partial implementation), full implementation and monitoring..
Field research. Interdisciplinary research will be carried out to provide base-line data on herd productivity, animal nutrition, habitat utilisation, epidemiology and reproduction. The frequency of data collection, which can be accomplished by single visits to each herd, will be limited to four times per year in order to reduce costs and to minimize disruption to herders and their livestock. Visits will coincide with the key seasons which modulate pastoral production, that is early wet, full wet, early dry and late dry.
Herd productivity. Except for a retrospective survey (Wilson and Wagenaar, 1982) no animal production data are available from the traditional systems of the project zone. The project will therefore implement a data collection system for the two production systems: WoDaaBe and Tuareg. The following parameters will be collected:
1. herd/flock composition, covering the main categories by species, age, and sex. Through interviews, information will be collected on animal births, deaths, sales, gifts and transfers;2. milk offtake per individual animal;
3. calf growth (Long bone growth and body weight) up to approximately 50 kg liveweight and small ruminants up to approximately one year of age;
4. condition of all cattle in the herd, through the establishment of a simple system of condition scoring.
Animal nutrition. The methodology in determining feed quality will be to select from one herd in each of the sub-samples two to four matched sentinel animals and observe at regular intervals the composition of vegetation being eaten. Samples will be collected for food analysis. This method of grab sampling or simulated grazing has given good representative results of the quality of ingested feed (Dicko et al, 1981).
Habitat utilisation. Habitat utilisation by sample households and their herds will be monitored in a seasonal time-frame through periodic recall enquiries on herd movement, grazing and watering strategies and labour force. Behaviour recording will be done on the same sub-sample as mentioned in animal nutrition to determine the 24-hour activity profiles and grazing conditions of the diurnal eyelet These habitat utilisation observations and measurements will be made within the same sample framework as the productivity and nutrition studies described above.
Epidemiological studies. Rigorous epidemiological data collection and analysis system will be integrated with the studies described above and will therefore have an ecological perspective which takes full cognisance of environmental and socio-economic factors as determinants of disease. Animal health monitoring will be done on:
1. the herd productivity groups;2. geographically selected samples throughout the project zone - retrospective studies will combine animal production data and case-control methodology;
3. site-specific investigative field epidemiology where problems occur, including water point and environmental contamination.
Livestock reproduction. Research will be directed to identify and determine the relative significance of factors which cause such high infertility and reproductive failure. Particular emphasis will be on the non-nutritional causes of lowered reproductivity. By utilizing retrospective herd studies and prospective cohort studies, a detailed herd reproductive history will be obtained in an ongoing manner with the present and continuing herd reproductive status being assessed. This data base will be used to determine reproductive indicators. Determination of the infectious causes of infertility and reproductive failure will also be done. This will be accomplished largely by the epidemiological disease determination surveys.
The application of the techniques of early pregnancy diagnosis will be examined in cattle, camels, sheep and goats. Internal palpation and external ballotment will be performed on the various species. This knowledge may be used to assist herders to make more informed decisions concerning the sale and/or selective feed supplementation of their animals.
Field trials. These trials will be carried out in simple with/without comparisons of matched padres of animals of similar characteristics in order to reduce numbers and costs. They will be conducted in the same production units as the field research, with the control animals providing the data for the parameters of the existing system. Field trials on individual vitamin or mineral inputs and certain combinations will be carried out on 10 to 20 pairs of animals for each input. Two classes of sheep and cattle (newborn animals and reproductive females) will be tested for two years.
The ILP project will gradually test the technical and economic feasibility, and the social acceptability, of limited concentrated feeding (1 kg of cottonseed or 0.5 kg of groundnut cake) to one or two lactating cows from each of 10 herds for two months in the late dry/early wet season. Their performance will be compared to 10 to 20 control animals of similar characteristics through biweekly milk recording (offtake) and measurements of calf growth; the technical and economic coefficients will be estimated.
The ILP project will also establish the feasibility of calf supplementation using locally produced groundnut cake/maizemeal and a vitamin/mineral mixture. On the basis of differences in calf mortality and daily gain, a cost-benefit ratio will be calculated in order to make a decision on possible extension.
Socio-economic evaluation
Results from the field trials will be evaluated to determine whether full implementation is warranted. Evaluations will be made of costs and benefits, feasibility, sustainability, social acceptability and environmental impact. Pilot interventions will be carried out at the level of the total production unit and will comprise two categories:
1. Those interventions which need to be tested on a herding unit (e.g. grazing management, protection from flies in the late rainy season, vaccinations against contagious diseases), and are not yet sufficiently tested to establish economic viability.2. Those interventions which have already proven their economic viability, but for which it is necessary to establish their social acceptability. In such cases, consumer demand for products those paid for by the herders themselves - will be the basis of evaluation.
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Horowitz, M.N. 1979. The sociology of pastoralism and African livestock projects. AID, Program Evaluation Discussion Paper 6, Washington.
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Louis, S. 1982. Rapport technique sur la production animale dans la zone pastorale du Niger-proposition d'amelioration. USAID/ NRL, Niamey.
Loutan, L. 1982. Health and nutrition in a group of WoDaaBe (Bororo) herders in central Niger. USAID/NRL, Niamey.
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Milligan, K. 1982a. Aerial survey of human, livestock and environmental conditions in a central region of the pastoral zone of Niger. Final Report, USAID, Niamey.
Milligan, K. 1982b. Wet-season aerial survey of the human and livestock populations and environmental conditions in a central region of the pastoral zone in Niger. Final report, USAID, Niamey.
Sollod, A.E. 1981. Patterns of disease in sylvopastoral herds of central Niger. USAID/NRL, Niamey.
Swift, J. 1982. NRL final report, first discussion draft. NRL rep., USAID, Niamey.
Wilson, R.T. and Wagenaar 1982. An introduction survey of livestock population demography and reproductive performance in the area of the Niger Range and Livestock Project. USAID/NRL, Niamey.
Wylie, B., Senock, R., Snyder, L., Roettgen, R. and Porter, B. 1982. Range research and results. USAID/NRL, Niamey.
Résumé
La région-cible qui s'étend dans la zone pastorale de la République du Niger a une superficie de 80 000 km . Sa population est de quelque 170 000 éleveurs composés pour la majorité de Touaregs et d'autres ethnies minoritaires, à savoir les Wodaabes et les Arabes. On trouve dans la zone environ 330 000 bovins, 930 000 ovins et caprins et 100 000 camélidés. La pluviométrie annuelle varie de 200 mm dans le nord à 400 mm dans le sud et la plupart des précipitations se produisent lors des deux à trois mois de saison des pluies entre juillet et septembre.
La contrainte essentielle à laquelle les producteurs de la zone ont à faire face a trait au caractère unimodal de la base des ressources pastorales. Cela implique que la productivité du système est tributaire des deux à quatre mois de saisons des pluies au cours desquelles la production d'éléments nutritifs est suffisante pour l'entretien de la production en termes de croissance du troupeau. Il apparaît que le manque de protéines soit le facteur limitant de saison sèche le plus important pour les ruminants. La recherche a démontré que le sol est très pauvre en cobalt, en cuivre et en sélénium. La distribution inadéquate des points d'eau peut se traduire par une sous-utilisation de certaines zones et par le surpâturage d'autres zones où l'eau est abondante. La qualité de l'eau varie considérablement à l'intérieur de la zone. Dans le passé, la maladie infectieuse qui constituait l'obstacle le plus sérieux à la production animale était la peste bovine. Toutefois, on ne dispose que de connaissances limitées sur d'autres maladies animales graves dans la région et peu d'efforts ont été déployés pour lutter systématiquement contre celles-ci. A cause de ces contraintes, la production est insuffisante. Cette situation se reflète dans la faiblesse des taux de croissance et de reproduction ou dans le caractère tardif de la maturité.
La phase d'expérimentation et de vulgarisation du projet proposé fait appel à l'évaluation technique et économique de stratégies proposées dans des situations contrôlées, à des essais au niveau du troupeau, à des stratégies dont l'efficacité a été prouvée dans des situations contrôlées, et à la vulgarisation de stratégies confirmées au niveau de l'association des éleveurs.
Au cours de l'exécution du projet proposé, les contraintes et les limites relatives aux techniques disponibles de mise en valeur des ressources en eau deviendront plus évidentes, alors que des innovations plus efficaces seront identifiées.
Les innovations potentielles portent notamment sur :
- le renforcement de la margelle des puits;- l'amélioration des harnais des animaux de trait;
- l'installation de panneaux de béton dans la couche aquifère pour éviter l'effondrement de portions de celle-ci en vue d'accroître le volume d'eau disponible à n'importe quel moment et de faciliter la reconstitution de la nappe;
- la construction de couvercles de puits pour permettre la fermeture temporaire des puits;
- la mise au point de méthodes de canalisation de l'eau en direction de bassins d'abreuvement traditionnels sans réduire le tirant d'eau;
- la mise au point de procédés de captage des eaux dans les zones sableuses.
Les objectifs de la composante production et santé animales sont les suivants:
- identification d'accroissements économiquement réalisables et socialement acceptables de la production de bovins, d'ovins, de camélidés et de caprins dans les systèmes de la zone pastorale, par le biais de l'amélioration de la productivité par animal et de l'efficacité de la production grâce à des programmes vétérinaires destinés au troupeau;- développement avec l'aide du Gouvernement du Niger des systèmes de production et de santé animales, des associations d'éleveurs et de centres vétérinaires notamment Par:
- la formation suivie d'un auxiliaire vétérinaire pour chaque association d'éleveurs;
- l'appui aux campagnes de vaccination annuelle ´du service de l'élevage;
- la construction de postes vétérinaires dans les zones pastorales et l'installation de matériel de contention dans la zone;
- l'introduction d'une approche à la recherche de terrain dans le service de l'élevage.
Chairman: Dr Samson Chema (Kenya)
Discussion led by Dr Rhissa (Niger)
In response to a question by Dr Wilson on the importance of Vitamin A, Dr de Haan said that Vit. A had been identified by the pastoralists 'as a major constraint to night grazing in the late dry season This was subsequently confirmed by a consultant veterinarian who identified between 10 and 20% of the herd in question with night-blindness. The main cause was the very low proportion of browse trees in the region, especially following drought. When asked by Dr Wilson why donkeys had not been included in the studies described, Dr de Haan said that donkeys were not an obvious constraint- in the system, and therefore did not command a high priority at the stage. Dr Akilu commented that there were also problems of Vitamin deficiency which had been diagnosed and described by herdsmen and vers. As regards camels, discussions were taking place with IEMVT to identify constraints, the most important being parasites (helminthesises) and Salmonella diseases.
Dr Suleiman observed that the discussion had concentrated on animal management - why were not range monitoring studies, such as biomass production, composition changes and vigour, not incorporated into the plan for trend analysis described by Dr de Leeuw? Dr de Leeuw explained that such parameters would indeed be monitored in Niger Ground-truth would be collected on species composition, biomass growth during the rainy-season and during the dry season in-specific areas the zone. These areas would be repeatedly visited during each ground survey. This was part of an integrated space (satellite) aircraft and ground inventory of grazing resources in time and space for the zone.
Dr Diakite stressed the importance of quantity and-quality of water, and felt it was important to continue with the chemical and bacteriological analysis of water. A problem was that of tapping deep water resources without spending too much money. Yet no development was possible in these areas of Niger without water.
Président: Dr Samson Chema (Kenya)
Débats diriges par le Dr Rhissa (Niger)
En réponse à la question de M. Wilson sur l'importance de la vitamine A, M. de Haan a déclaré que la vitamine A avait été identifiée par les éleveurs comme la contrainte essentielle au pâturage de nuit à la fin de la saison sèche. Cela avait été par la suite confirmée par un vétérinaire consultant qui a identifié entre 10 et 20% des animaux du troupeau en question frappés de cécité nocturne. La cause essentielle en était la très faible proportion de ligneux dans la région en particulier après la sécheresse. Lorsque M. Wilson a demandé pourquoi les ânes n'avaient pas été inclus dans les études décrites, M. de Haan a déclaré que les ânes ne constituaient pas une contrainte évidente dans le système et que par conséquent on ne leur avait pas accordé un rang élevé de priorité à ce niveau.
M. Aklilu a déclaré qu'il y avait également d'autres problèmes de carence de vitamine A qui avaient été démontrés et décrits par les éleveurs et par les vétérinaires. En ce qui concerne les chameaux, des discussions étaient en cours avec l'IEMVT pour identifier les contraintes, les plus importantes de celles-ci étant les maladies parasitaires (l'helminthiase et la salmonellose).
M. Suleiman a fait remarquer que les débats avaient été axés sur la gestion des animaux et s'est posé la question de savoir pourquoi les études de suivi continu sur des thèmes tels que la production, la composition, l'évolution et la vigueur de la biomasse des terrains de parcours n'avaient pas été incorporées dans le plan utilisé pour l'analyse de l'évolution décrite par M. de Leeuw. M. de Leeuw a expliqué que de tels paramètres seraient étudiés au Niger. Des données seraient recueillies au Sol sur la composition des espèces et la croissance de la biomasse pendant les saisons pluvieuse et sèche dans des zones spécifiques de la région. Ces zones feraient l'objet de plusieurs visites pendant chaque enquête au sol. Ces activités s'inscrivaient dans le cadre d'un recensement aérien (par satellite et par avion) et terrestre des pâturages de la zone échelonné dans le temps et dans l'espace.
Le Dr Diakité a souligné l'importance de l'eau aux plans qualitatif et quantitatif et a déclaré qu'il était important de poursuivre son analyse chimique et bactériologique. L'un des problèmes à résoudre était celui de l'exploitation des eaux souterraines sans dépenser trop d'argent. Et pourtant, aucun type de développement n'était possible dans ces régions du Niger sans l'eau.
