Traditional Plant Foods of canadian indigenous peoples, Nutrition, Botany and Use

CHAPTER 6
Nutrient Values of Traditional Plant Foods

Tables of nutrient composition of foods are useful for (a) the calculation of nutrients in the diets of individuals or groups, (b) the planning of food resources for populations, (c) the planning of individual special dietary recommendations and (d) for teaching and research. Food composition tables are difficult and tedious to prepare, and are one of the weak links in field studies of dietary status, since computed dietary intakes can be no more reliable than the composition tables from which they are computed.

Problems common to the preparation of food composition tables relate to compilation of data from diverse sources, often when different methods of analysis are used and sample sizes are small (Southgate, 1974). Notwithstanding these problems, tables of nutrient composition of foods are essential tools in understanding the quality of human food intake. Some data, however limited they may be, are better than no data at all.

A compilation of published nutrient values for traditional plant foods of Indigenous Peoples of Canada is given in this chapter to provide further understanding of the nutritional properties of subsistence diets provided from the natural environment. A search of the peer-reviewed literature was conducted over several years. The list of plant foods in Chapter 5 was submitted by genus and species to computer searchers on three data bases: Agricola, Chemistry Abstracts and Biosis. References were compiled and data were systematically tabulated from them. Information on each species and part of the plant used was kept separately. Data tabulated included botanical name, common name, geographic origin, sampling site, number of samples, state of samples and the method of nutrient analyses. Published data were included from species taken in geographic areas outside Canada as long as the species were identified as also present in Canada. A resource was not used if there was no documentation of a reliable method of nutrient analysis. When needed, data were converted to a fresh weight basis using reported moisture values, and data were compiled to average values when more than one citation was located. A resource was not used if nutrients were given on a zero-moisture basis without moisture values. Of more than 1,000 plant foods searched, approximately 550 or 50% had no nutrient data available. The tables included in this chapter include only those species where some data were available, since it would have been pointless to list the species without any data at all. The literature searches are as complete as possible, and up to date within about five years.

It needs to be stated that a great deal of judgement goes into selecting which published data to use. First of all, it was essential to screen the peer-review nature of the journals cited, and to use only data where the methods of analysis were reported and which were reasonably current and reliable. Sources that gave unpublished data were usually not used, unless contact with the author ensured they had been peer-reviewed and/or were in press at the time. Exceptions to this were the USDA Agricultural Research Service tables, the National Canadian nutrient tables and FAO sponsored tables. All data are given using conventional styles of reporting significant figures.

The ranges and/or standard deviations of values for particular species were not compiled due to space limitations as well as to limited available data. Since the reference sources of the nutrient data are given for each plant species and part used, the reader can refer to the original research reports for further clarification, if needed.

In general, published research on nutrient composition of indigenous plant food resources is sparse, and research questions on nutrient composition are not always easily answered to the satisfaction of laboratory-based scientists. Difficulties include accurate field identification of wild plant foods by knowledgeable Indigenous People, and then confirmation of taxonomic identifications by a botanist. Collection of samples for analysis in remote regions requires careful handling and transportation. It is routinely difficult to get a substantial number of independent samples, but it is usually the case for plant samples to combine multiple numbers of plants or plant parts into a single sample of 500 grams, or more, for analysis. A sample of 500 grams or more is needed for a battery of analyses, and this quantity may require tedious field work with the cooperation of indigenous consultants. Another hazard is that once a sample is collected and prepared to be edible, it is all too tempting for the sample to be eaten, and thus, it never gets to the laboratory (Kuhnlein, 1986).

In the tables given in this chapter, only single species items are reported where possible, and no multi-ingredient reciped items are included. If samples were reported "cooked," data were used only if the cooking was simply done (roasting, baking, boiling in water) without added ingredients.

The tables are divided into two major sections for presentation of the data. The A Tables (1A to 7A) present data for energy, proximate composition and vitamins. The B Tables (1B to 7B) present data on mineral contents for the identical species of the A Tables. The tables are further divided by plant parts as noted:

	number of pages
1 A/B. bark, cambium, sap, juice	2
2 A/B. flowers	4
3 A/B. roots	10
4 A/B. stems, leaves, shoots	58
5 A/B. seeds, nuts, grains, legumes	20
6 A/B. fruits	28
7 A/B. other parts	2

Within each table, listings are given in alphabetical order by genus and species with family name, common name, part used and reference citations.

As stated, the published data were used to report nutrients per 100 grams fresh weight (ie: non-dessicated) of the plant food. Occasionally, when plant foods were preserved by drying by indigenous groups, fresh and dried samples are reported. This style of reporting facilitates computation with dietary records.

When available, multiple data sources were taken into consideration for reporting a particular value. However when energy content and complete proximate composition (water, protein, fat, ash, carbohydrate) were given in a literature source, these were reported as an intact group in the A tables, because these values are usually intercomputed to provide carbohydrate-by-difference and energy. Vitamin A values reported in the literature were assumed to be as B-carotene and were converted as such to retinol equivalents (RE), usually from International Units of vitamin A. Mineral data, as reported in the B tables were the most universally available data; this is understandable because plant tissues are easily dried in the field without loss of these nutrients, and are therefore a less problematical subject of research.

For further information and understanding of nutrient contents of the species reported here, the reader is referred to three other sources of information:

(1) Duke and Atchley (1986) present a compilation of proximate composition of higher plants that has been published in twenty-two references, including several international tables of food composition. There is a particular emphasis on seeds in this resource, and it covers species known in all parts of the world.

(2) Medical Services Branch of Health and Welfare Canada (1985) have published a handbook which includes composition of several nutrients for many traditional foods of Canadian Indigenous People. The handbook relies primarily on American and Canadian National food nutrient tables, but also includes other published and unpublished values.

(3) The new USDA nutrient composition handbooks (8-2, 8-8, 8-9, 8-11, 8-12, 8-16) present the most comprehensive list of nutrients in plant foods commercially available in North American markets. The foods included in the USDA tables which are parallel to indigenous species reported in this book are shown in Table 6-1. The values presented in these tables have been added where appropriate.

Table 6-1. Commercial Species of Plant Foods Which are Similar to Traditional Species Reported in the USDA Handbook 8 Series, and the National Canadian Nutrient Table
FRUITS
Blackberries	Rubus spp.
Blueberries	Vaccinium spp.
Boysenberry	Rubus ursinus
Crabapples	Malus spp.
Cranberry	Vaccinium macrocarpon
Currants, black	Ribes spp.
Currants, red and white	Ribes spp.
Currants, zante (grape)	Vitis vinifera
Elderberries	Sambucus spp.
Gooseberries	Ribes spp.
Grapes	Vitis spp.
Ground cherries	Physalis spp.
Loganberry	Rubus ursinus
Mulberries	Morus spp.
Prickly pear cactus	Opuntia spp.
Raspberries	Rubus spp.
Strawberries	Fragaria spp.
VEGETABLES
Amaranths	Amaranthus spp.
Arrowhead or wapato	Sagittaria latifolia
Beans, navy	Phaseolus vulgaris
Burdock root	Arctium lappa
Butterbur (coltsfoot)	Petasites japonicus
Com (maize)	Zea mays
Dandelion greens	Taraxacum officinale
Docks	Rumex spp.
Fiddlehead ferns	(not given)
Jerusalem artichoke	Helianthus tuberosus
Kale	Brassica oleracea
Lambsquarters	Chenopodium album
Mustard greens	Brassica juncea
Mustard spinach	Brassica rapa
Pumpkin flowers	Cucurbita spp.
Pumpkin leaves	Cucurbita spp.
Purslane	Portulaca oleracea
Seaweed	Porphyra laciniata
Seaweed (kelp)	Laminaria spp.
Squash	Curcurbita maxima
Watercress	Nasturtium officinale
NUTS AND SEEDS
Acorns	Quercus spp.
Beechnuts	Fagus spp.
Black walnut	Juglans nigra
Butternut	Juglans cinerea
Chestnut	Castanea sativa
Hazelnuts	Corylus spp.
Hickory nuts	Carya spp.
Oat	Avena sativa
Pine nut	Pitms edulis
Simflower seed	Helianthus annuus
Wild-rice	Zizania aquatica

Table 1A. Nutritional constituents of plants: bark, cambium, sap, juice. (per 100g fresh weight)
Scientific name Family name	Common name (References)	Part Used	Food Energy kcal	Water g	Protein g	Fat g	Carbohydrate g	Crude Fiber g	Ash g	Thiamine mg	Riboflavin mg	Niacin mg	Vit.C mg	Vit.A RE
Acer saccharum Aceraceae	sugar maple (38,91)	sap	-	96	0.1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Acer saccharum Aceraceae	sugar maple (19,38,73)	syrup	348	35	0.1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Alnus crispa Betulaceae	mountain alder (1)	bark	270	50	4.3	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Betula glandulosa Betulaceae	scrub birch (11)	inner bark	-	43	3.1	-	14.0	-	-	-	-	-	11.0	-
Populus balsamifera Salicaceae	balsam poplar (1)	bark	230	49	1.9	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Populus tremuloides Salicaceae	trembling aspen (177,180)	bark	-	41	1.3	-	-	31.7	1.6	-	-	-	-	-
Populus trichocarpa Salicaceae	cottonwood (323)	inner bark	27	92	0.2	0.5	6.3	1.5	0.8	-	-	-	-	-
Tsuga heterophylla Pinaceae	western hemlock (122)	cambium	103	70	2.3	0.6	25.9	-	1.1	-	-	-	-	-

Table 1B. Nutritional constituents of plants: bark, cambium, sap, juice. (per 100g fresh weight)
Scientific name Family name	Common name (References)	Part Used	Calcium mg	Phosphorus mg	Sodium mg	Potassium mg	Magnesium mg	Copper mg	Zinc mg	Iron mg	Manganese mg	Molybdenum mg	Chloride mg
Acer saccharum Aceraceae	sugar maple (38,91)	sap	0.3	<0.1	-	0.1	0.1	-	-	-	-	-	-
Acer saccharum Aceraceae	sugar maple (19,38,73)	syrup	107	8.7	7.7	163	17.5	0.1	2.9	4.2	-	-	17.3
Alnus crispa Betulaceae	mountain alder (1)-	bark	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Betula glandulosa Betulaceae	scrub birch (11)	inner bark	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Populus balsamifera Salicaceae	balsam poplar (1)	bark	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Populus tremuloides Salicaceae	trembling aspen (177,180)	bark	684	17	1.8	130	53.1	0.5	8.3	4.4	1.2	-	-
Populus trichocarpa Salicaceae	cottonwood (323)	inner bark	10	39	-	-	8.0	0.4	0.4	0.3	0.1	-	-
Tsuga heterophylla Pinaceae	western hemlock (122)	cambium	202	-	-	-	11.6	-	1.6	2.5	-	-	-

Table 2A. Nutritional constituents of plants: flowers. (per l00g fresh weight)
Scientific name Family name	Common name (References)	Part Used	Food Energy kcal	Water g	Protein g	Fat g	Carbohydrate g	Crude Fiber g	Ash g	Thiamine mg	Riboflavin mg	Niacin mg	vit.c mg	Vit.A RE
Barbarea species Brassicaceae	winter cress (124)	flowers	-	84	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	163	202
Cucurbita species Cucurbitaceae	pumpkin (4)	flowers	15	95.2	1.0	0.1	3.3	0.6	0.5	0.04	0.08	0.7	28.0	195
Helianthus annuus Asteraceae	common sunflower (163)	flowers	-	-	11.4	1.7	-	-	10.8	-	-	-	-	-
Hemerocallis fulva Liliaceae	day lily (73)	flowers	42	-	2.0	0.4	-	-	-	0.2	0.2	0.8	83.0	300
Hemerocallis lilioasphodelus Liliaceae	day lily (33)	flowers	42	87	2.0	0.4	9.6	1.2	0.8	0.2	0.2	0.8	88.0
Picris echioides Asteraceae	bristly oxtongue (203)	blossoms	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	1700
Rosa canina Rosaceae	dog rose (227)	flowers	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	350
Salix phylicifolia Salicaceae	tea-leaved willow (11)	flower-buds	-	65	7.7	-	5.6	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Salix richardsonii Salicaceae	Richardson's willow (11)	flower-buds	-	68	39	-	8.5	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Taraxacum officinale Asteraceae	dandelion (162,227)	flowers	-	-	-	-	-	-	-					9.2
Trifolium pratense Fabaceae	red clover (162)	flowers	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Typha species Typhaceae	cattail (45)	pollen	-	-	-	-	44.5	-	-	-	-	-	-	-

Table 2B. Nutritional constituents of plants: flowers. (per 100g fresh weight)
Scientific name Family name	Common name (References)	Part Used	Calcium mg	Phosphorus mg	Sodium mg	Potassium mg	Magnesium mg	Copper mg	Zinc mg	Iron mg	Manganese mg	Molybdenum mg	Chloride mg
Barbarea species Brassicaceae	winter cress (124)	flowers	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Cucurbita species Cucurbitaceae	pumpkin (4)	flowers	39	49	5	173	24	-	-	0.7	-	-	-
Helianthus annus Asteraceae	common sunflower (163)	flowers	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Hemerocallis fulva Liliaceae	day lily (73)	flowers	87	178	24	170	-	-	-	1.2	-	-	-
Hemeracallis lilioasphodelus Liliaceae	day lily (33)	flowers	87	175	24	170	-	-	-	1.2	-	-	-
Picris echioides Asteraceae	bristly oxtongue (203)	blossoms	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Rosa canina Rosaceae	dog rose (227)	flowers	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Salix phylicifolia Salicaceae	tea-leaved willow (11)	flower-buds	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Salix richardsonii Salicaceae	Richardson's willow (11)	flower-buds	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Taraxacum officinale Asteraceae	dandelion (162,227)	flower	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Trifolium pratense Fabaceae	red clover (162)	flowers	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Typha species Typhaceae	cattail (45)	pollen	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-

Table 2A. Nutritional constituents of plants: flowers. (per 100g fresh weight)

Scientific name

Family name

Common name

(References)

Part

Used

Food

Energy

kcal

Water

Protein

Fat

Carbohydrate

Crude

Fiber

Ash

Thiamine

Riboflavin

Niacin

Vit.C

Vit A

Viola species

Violaceae

violet

(124)

flowers

150

Table 2D.Nutritional constituents of plants: flowers. (per 100g fresh weight)

Scientific name

Family name

Common name

(References)

Part

Used

Calcium

Phosphorus

Sodium

Potassium

Magnesium

Copper

Zinc

Iron

Manganese

Molybdenum

Chloride