ANNEX B: NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SYSTEMS IN LAC

1. ARGENTINA - INSTITUTO NACIONAL DE TECNOLOGÍA AGROPECUARIA (INTA)
2. BRAZIL: EMPRESA BRASILEIRA DE PESQUISA AGRO-PECUARIA (EMBRAPA)
3. COLOMBIA: ICA/CORPOICA
4. ECUADOR: THE NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SYSTEM
5. CHILE
6. MEXICO
7. URUGUAY: INIA
8. COSTA RICA

1. ARGENTINA - INSTITUTO NACIONAL DE TECNOLOGÍA AGROPECUARIA (INTA)

Institutional Organization: INTA is a national decentralized institution that depends from the Agriculture, Cattle and Fisheries Secretariat. INTA is in charge of research and extension of technology. At this moment INTA has three Strategic Research Centers in Castelar (400 kilometers from Buenos Aires), integrated by 13 institutes ⁴ and the Economic and Social Studies Institute. INTA has 15 regional centers covering the whole country, with 41 experimental stations and around 200 extension agencies. Activities are organized in 17 national programs, as shown in figure 2. Additionally, INTA has defined seven special areas according to national priorities. Table 12 shows these areas and the expected social and economic impacts, and table 13 shows the national programs and national projects with their main characteristics.

⁴ Veterinary Sciences Center with the following Institutes: Virology-Bacteriology, Pathology, Food Technology, and Molecular Biology. The Research Center in Agricultural Sciences has institutes on Genetics, Vegetal Patholology, Phytovirology, Microbiology and Rural Engineering. The Research Center of Natural Resources is integrated by the institutes of Biologic resources, Soils, and Climate and Water.

Figure 2 INTA: INSTITUTIONAL ORGANIZATION

Source: INTA Annual Reports.

Table 12

INTA: PRIORITY RESEARCH AREAS

Priority areas	Justification	Expected impact
Sustainable Increase of Grain Production	Generation and adaptation of technology for intensive and Sustainable grain production; emphasis on irrigation, precision technology, post-harvest, etc. Development of products with high aggregate value, monitoring of contamination levels, and sustaining services.	7,000,000 tons, one billion dollars of additional annual exports
Sustainable Increase of Meat and Milk Production	Generation of technology for production intensification, with emphasis on quality. High quality forages and animal feeds; intensive calf breeding and fattening; intensive dairy production; with the purpose of exports to world markets, with higher value added	More than US$ 500.000.000 of additional exports per year
Fruits, vegetables and related products	Technology support for intensified production, especially in non-pampean areas. Quality and grade certification for added value; reach competitive markets. Post-harvest, preservation and agro-industrial processes for a growing food sector.	More than US$ 50 million through improved quality
Forest trees	Research and technology transfer to increase area planted with forest tree species. Sustainable increase of productivity. Specific modules for Argentina's different regions.	Over US$ 30 million annually through higher productivity
Sustainable Production in Arid and Semiarid Zones	Develop technology to match efficient use of natural resources with productivity and diversification in arid and semi-arid areas	Sustainable development of critical areas
Natural Resources Management and Conservation	Technology for preservation of natural resources and biodiversity. Study of climate changes; monitoring and evaluation of resources.	Preservation of natural resources
Food Technology	The extended institutional framework of INTA includes the food sector, with emphasis on better penetration and integration of primary production with manufacturing, distribution and consumers.	Products with higher value added, for better competitivity in foreign markets

Source: INTA

Table 13
INTA: NATIONAL PROGRAMS AND PROJECTS

National Programs	Technology Generation Program	Rural Change	Prohuerta	Small farmers Research & Extension
Cereals and oilseeds		Productive conversion of small and medium farms	To improve quality and quantity of food consumed small-scale self-production food Improve use and distribution of family income for food.	To improve the income and quality of life of small holder
Fruit trees	Fruits and vegetables-.	INTA's projects, and extension actions; 1500 groups of farmers. Over 1600 groups assisted by 1700 professionals, 120 project promotors, 1600 advisors to design production systems with improved organization, management and production levels	Promote community participation in the solution of feeding problems.	Farmers, based on self- sustained development aiming at their transformation into small scale capitalists.
Horticulture	- for protected vegetable crops
	- Diagnostic Methods for Pathogen/Plant Relationships.
	- Pest and disease management system for tomato crops
Industrial crops
Forest trees	Forest trees: Dynamic conservation of Andean- Patagonian forests
Animal production I and II	Animal production: Subunit
	Vaccines for control of Babesiosis due to Babesia bovis
Genetic resources
Soils
Native plant and wildlife resources	Ecology and management of livestock ecosystems on rangeland in Central Semi-arid and Arid Region
Climate/Water
Advanced biotechnology
Animal health
Plant physiology and protection
Economics and sociology

Source: INTA.

Personnel: Since its creation, INTA increased the total number of employees reaching the highest point in 1990 with 5,675 employees. After that year its personnel experimented a contraction in account of the implementation of adjustment programs. The ratio between support and research personnel dropped from 2.4 in 1990, to 1.91 in 1997 as a result of successive reductions in support personnel. (See table 14.) INTA has a significant number of researchers working in the different programs. Information extracted from data bases of INTA, establish that around 1200 professionals are now working in different programs and projects; 13% of them have a Ph.D. degree, and 33% have a Master degree. As can be appreciated, the qualification of its human resources improved significantly; between 1985 and 1997, the number of Master in Sciences almost tripled and the number of Ph.D., more than duplicated. (See table 15.)

Table 14
INTA: HUMAN RESOURCES' EVOLUTION, SELECTED YEARS
(Number of persons)

	1958	1965	1975	1985	1990	1991	1993	1995	1997
University degree (1)	640	1045	1558	1460	1660	1354	1341	1377	1200
Support (2)	2016	2357	4287	3980	4015	2827	2790	2707	2300
Total	2656	3042	5875	5440	5675	4181	4131	4084	3500
Ratio (1/2)	3.15	2.25	2.75	2.72	2.41	2.08	2.08	1.97	1.91

Source: Graciela Ghezan, "El sistema de ciencia y tecnología en Argentina, 1996 and C. Morales for 1997

Table 15
INTA: HUMAN RESOURCES TRAINING
(Percentage)

	1985	1991	1995	1997
Ms. Sc.	13	20	29	33
Ph.D.	4	6	11	13
B.Sc.	83	74	60	54
Total	100	100	100	100

Source: Graciela Ghezan, "El sistema de ciencia y tecnología en Argentina, 1996 and C. Morales

Specialties and concentration areas: Related with specialties, agronomics is the most important followed by veterinary medicine and forestry engineers, as can be see in table 16. On the other hand, Vegetal Production and Vegetal Protection, followed by Animal Production, are the main areas of researchers concentration, (See table 17).

Table 16
INTA: RESEARCH STAFF COMPOSITION, 1997

	Agronomy		Veterinary		Forestry		Economic		Others		Total
Academic degree	%	No.	%	No.	%	No.	%	No.	%	No.	%	No.
PhD	11.0	97	23.6	30	-	-	71.4	5	15.8	26	13.2	158
Ms.Sc.	36.6	323	30.7	39	5.2	1	28.6	2	17.0	28	32.8	393
Bachelors	51.2	452	45.7	58	94.8	18	-		61.2	101	52.2	629
Technician	1.2	10	-		-	-	-		6.0	10	1.8	20
tpta;	100.0	882	100.0	127	100.0	19	100.0	7	100.0	165	100.0	1200

Source: Elaborated by the author based on INTA Data Base.

Table 17
INTA: RESEARCHERS' DISTRIBUTION ACCORDING TO DISCIPLINES (1997)

Disciplines	Percentage
Vegetal Production	21.9
Vegetal Protection	11.6
Genetics Resources	1.9
Biotechnology	3.0
Forestry	3.7
Animal Production	14.4
Animal Health	8.5
Natural plant resources & wild animal life	3.9
Animal Production (non ruminants)	1.5
Agroindustry	2.8
Soils	12.6
Water and Climate	3.2
Economics and Social Studies	7.9
Statistics and Informatics	2.3
Total researchers	100.0

Source: Roberto Martínez Nogueira, "The descentralization process in the Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria of Argentina:, discussion paper, International Service for National Agriculture Research (ISNAR), 1988. And estimates of the author based on INTA's Data Base.

Resources: Since its foundation and until 1980, INTA was financed by a special tax of 2% on traditional exports. During 1981-1983 the special tax was eliminated and INTA received funds from the public treasure. In 1984 the special tax was imposed again but at a 1.5 % level. This measure allowed INTA to recover the original levels of its budget. In 1993 the Government replaced the special tax on exports, with a new tax on imports subject to the "statistical tax". This measure was implemented to promote exports. As can be observed (tables 18 and 19), the tax revenue is the most important source of finance with a participation of around 83% in the total budget.

Table 18
INTA: BUDGET AND SOURCES OF FUNDS
(000 US$ dollars and percentages)

YEAR	Total budget	Export/imports tax (%)	Other (%)
1980	11 787	71.04	28.76
1981	79657	0.20	99.80
1982	29301	0.00	100.00
1983	30600	0.00	100.00
1984	40254	84.47	15.53
1985	64487	84.07	15.93
1986	60032	82.16	17.84
1991	109338	n.a.
1992	112266	n.a.
1993	139626	83.1	16.9
1994	132757	87.7	12.3
1995	133450	49.6	50.4

Source: Martínez Nogueira, 1988; C. Morales based on INTA Data Base

Table 19
INTA: BUDGET AND FINANCING SOURCES
(000 US$ Dollars and percentages)

Source	1991	1992	1993	1994	1995
Public Sector			14.7	1.3	43.0
Own resources a/			85.5	89.2	52.7
a) Taxes			83.1	87.7	49.6
b) Non taxes rev.			2.4	1.5	3.1
External loan			0.2	1.2	1.2
Others				8.3	3.0
Total (percentage)	100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00
Total	109338	112266	139626	132757	133450

Source: INTA

a/Own resources correspond mainly to a special tax destined to finance INTA activities.

In 1995 the INTA budget experimented new and important changes: the implementation of the Mercosur commercial agreement, lead to a reduction of import or export taxes as a source of financial resources for INTA activities. As seen in Table 19, the participation of the public treasury as a source of finance of INTA budget, increased its importance from 1.3% of total, to 43% between 1994 and 1995, while special taxes dropped its participation from 88% to 50%.

Historically, around 72% of INTA's income, is destined to pay salaries. It should be noted that almost 20% of this corresponds to headquarters offices and 80% to regional centers, mainly in the Pampean region.

Links with the private sector: Since 1987 INTA has a specialized unit linked with the private sector. The Unit of Agreements of Technological Links (CVT), has the responsibility to manage the technologies generated by INTA. Through this agreement INTA receives royalties for the transferred technology. A second modality is the Joint Ventures Agreements with the private sector in order to develop a specific innovation. Between 1991 and 1995, 82% of the agreements were linked with private companies and 15% with farmers' organizations.

Approximately 50% of the agreements are joint ventures, mainly related with genetic improvement, animal health, diagnosis tests and agricultural machinery. The other 50% correspond to agreements with the private sector for improved seeds, diagnosis tests for animals, etc.

In 1995 a total of 61 special agreements generated US$ 2 million in revenues and implied 10% of the operative costs. Regional Centers have added the possibility to sign letters of agreements with local companies in order to obtain resources for its activities. In 1994 the Buenos Aires Regional Center financed 26% of its operative costs with Technology Agreements Links and local letters of agreements.

Two new important programs for small farmers (Social Agricultural Program and Rural Change Program), explain the increase in the total budget in 1993. They were implemented with funds from the public treasury, reaching 14.3% of the total budget. In spite the fact that non-tax revenues are still low, they have a good potential. The main sources of non-tax revenues are sales of own production, technological agreements, and others. In regional centers, this source is becoming more important. As can be appreciated in table 20 expenditure in salaries is the most important item, followed by non-personal goods and services with a fifth of the total. From this item, 20% is spent at headquarters and 80% in the regional centers, mainly in the Pampean region.

Table 20
INTA. EXPENDITURE BY ITEM
(Percentage)

Destination/Year	1991	1992	1993	1994	1995
Staff salaries	71.26	71.42	60.11	61.95	72.7
Non-personal goods and services	15.66	19.51	21.32	25.02	11.9
Debt	2.09	4.66	4.03	3.99	4.1
Transferences	5.39	1.79	9.07	4.83	9.8
Investment	5.29	2.62	5.47	4.26	1.5
Total (percent)	100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00
Total (000 S)	109338	112698	135 546	141 038	133450

Source: Institutional reports.

2. BRAZIL: EMPRESA BRASILEIRA DE PESQUISA AGRO-PECUARIA (EMBRAPA)

Institutional organization: Created on 26 April, 1973, EMBRAPA is a public company, linked to the Ministry of Agriculture and Food Supply, with legal private company characteristics. Networking through 37 regional research units, two services and 15 central units, EMBRAPA covers all the regions of the country. The mission of EMBRAPA has been defined as: "to generate, promote and transfer knowledge and technology for the sustainable development of agriculture, agroindustry and forestry". Since 1990, EMBRAPA has carried out a global institutional evaluation involving all of its units in the strategic plan.

The mandate and scope of EMBRAPA's research centers vary widely, from strategic or commodities research at national level, to regional adaptative research. In the past, market oriented farmers were the main clients. Since 1990, EMBRAPA, by means of strategic planning processes, has broadened the range of clients including small farmers, agroindustries, consumers and environmental organizations. In 1994, EMBRAPA adopted a new planning system: EMBRAPA System of Planning (SEP), that emphasizes the demand side through the agricultural and agroindustrial producers. Additionally, the new system promotes the optimization of resources in its multidisciplinary projects. With this purpose, a set of 16 priority programs were defined covering research activities, support and institutional development.

In terms of results, EMBRAPA has generated and recommended more than 8 thousand technologies for Brazilian agriculture, reduced production costs and helped Brazil to increase the supply of food, preserving at the same time, natural resources and the environment and diminishing external dependence on technologies, basic products and inherited materials.

EMBRAPA carries out international cooperation projects in order to extend the know-how of technical and scientific activities, or to share knowledge and technology with other countries.

Personnel: EMBRAPA is the largest INIA in LAC; it has 9,101 employees, 2,082 of which are researchers. From this group of researchers, 54% have a Masters degree and 31% have a Ph.D. or other doctorate. As can be appreciated, EMBRAPA has the highest proportion of qualified researchers in the region. The effort developed by the institution to improve the qualification of its human resources is noteworthy; between 1983 and 1997, the number of Ph.Ds. almost doubled as can be appreciated in table 3. EMBRAPA coordinates the National Agricultural Research System together with other institutions, carrying out research in geographical areas or in particular fields of scientific knowledge.

Specialties and concentration areas: Animal production, fruits and vegetables and cereals are the main concentration topics of EMBRAPA's research as can be appreciated in table 21, that shows the number of projects for each national program between 1994 and 1996. As to the allocation of resources by program or discipline, several important changes can be observed lately: cereals, evaluation, management, and production system, genetics resources, agricultural diversification and industrial agricultural products, lost importance between 1989 and 1993, while oilseed, especially soybean, biotechnology and some basic foods as cassava, improved their position. (See table 22.) These changes in the allocation of resources reflect the new priorities established by EMBRAPA since 1990.

Table 21
EMBRAPA: PROGRAMS AND PROJECTS

Programs	Number of projects
	1994	1995	1996	Total
1) Natural resources: evaluation, management and recovering	29	11	7	47
2) Conservation and application of genetic resources	38	5	6	49
3) Basic research on biotechnology	22	3	8	33
4) Cereal production systems	47	3	3	53
5) Fruit and vegetable production systems	43	6	10	59
6) Animal production systems	52	8	2	62
7) Raw material production systems	21	6	1	28
8) Forestry production systems	16	1	3	20
9) Small size farmers production system	14	2	5	21
10) Post harvest, extraction, transformation and preservation of agricultural products	15	3	7	25
11) Environmental and quality protection and evaluation	14	5	3	22
12) Agricultural automatization	11	6	7	24
13) Rural and regional development support program	22	11	11	44
14) Production and exchange of support information for research and development	11	5	6	22
15) Institutional improvement and modernization of state systems of agricultural research			22	22
16) Administration and institutional development	3		62	65
Total	358	75	163	596

Source: EMBRAPA

Table 22
EMBRAPA: RESOURCES ALLOCATED BY PRODUCTS, 1989-993
(Percentage of total)

Programs	1989	1990	1991	1992	1993
Cereals	12.5	13.6	13.6	13.6	7.1
Oilseed	6.4	6.5	6.5	10.3	10.3
Cattle	13.2	12.2	11.5	11.5	13.7
Fruits	5.3	2.3	2.3	2.3	3.4
Horticultural	5.2	4.0	4.0	4.0	6.8
Industrial	5.2	2.2	3.5	3.5	1.1
Soils	6.0	5.4	5.4	5.4	5.8
Evaluation, Management and Production Systems	14.2	12.8	12.3	14.0	3.9
Forestry	2.6	3.1	3.0	3.0	3.8
Agricultural diversification	7.1	7.2	7.3	7.2	2.6
Genetic resources	8.0	6.4	6.3	6.4	1.1
Others	14.3	24.3	24.3	23.5	40.4 a/
Total	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0

Source; Based on information submitted by M. Beatriz Alburquerque David. IPEA, Brazil, 1997.

a/ Biotechnology: 13.9%: cassava: 1.9%; soybeans: 8.0%.

Resources: Allocation of resources to agricultural research through EMBRAPA increased, reaching its highest level in 1989. Since then until 1993, EMBRAPA experimented a constant reduction, recovering rapidly since 1994, reaching almost the same levels. As can be expected, salaries is the main item but dropping from 81% of total resources in 1989, to only 48% in 1995. (See table 23.)

Table 23
EMBRAPA: SOURCES OF FUNDING, 1985-1995
(Percentage of total)

Year	Own resources	Federal	Agreements	Domestic loans	External loans	Previous balance	Total
1985	8.3	70.5	0.15	0	19.3	0.4	100
1986	10.9	73.5	1.8	0.03	11.7	2.2	100
1987	7.2	74.9	1.5	0.02	13.3	3.0	100
1988	6.1	75.6	1.8	0.0	15.6	0.9	100
1989	3.0	90.3	0.6	0.0	5.4	0.7	100
1990	5.8	83.4	0.5	0.0	9.8	0.6	100
1991	5.2	79.6	0.7	0.0	9.4	5.1	100
1992	6.1	83.3	0.5	0.0	9.3	0.8	100
1993	5.9	80.8	0.0	0.0	12.8	0.5	100
1994	8.1	80.1	0.0	0.0	11.4	0.4	100
1995	7.7	75.2	0.0	0.0	17.1	0.0	100

Source: EMBRAPA/DOF

The Federal Government is the main source of funds, reaching its highest contribution in 1989. In 1995 this public contribution was 75%. Own resources represent only around 8% of total budget, but are expected to increase in importance. (See table 24.)

Table 24 EMBRAPA: RESOURCES ALLOCATED BY ITEM, 1981-1995 (000 US$ Dollars)

Programs' objectives

Program 1: To understand and evaluate the natural resources management process, in order to develop sustainable agricultural technologies, mainly in degraded areas.

Program 2: To preserve native and exotic genetic resources which are socially and economically important to the country, in order to develop appropriate agricultural technologies.

Program 3: To develop new varieties resistant to agroecological stress conditions, and to recover and preserve the environment.

Program 4: To provide technologies to improve the competitiveness of the Brazilian food production.

Program 5: To develop new technological processes, knowledge and competitiveness products for the fruit, vegetable and cassava production, to minimize negative impacts of the production systems and stabilize the supply in the domestic market.

Program 6: To develop competitive technologies to improve productivity in animal production, taking into account the environment and human health.

Program 7: To improve the quality and quantity of agroindustrial raw material. To reduce loses, to increase productivity, and to produce new varieties, are the main activities developed.

Program 8: To increase forest productivity and quality, to reduce costs and to develop new processes in wood products.

Program 9: To improve the well-being of small-scale farmers, taking into account resource availability, rationality and the market links of small farmers.

Program 10: To improve the competitiveness of the Brazilian food industry and contribute to food security.

Program 11: To evaluate the environmental impact of agricultural activities; to develop specific procedures to recover environment quality, and environmental management.

Program 12: The automatization program aims to generate and to apply scientific knowledge in computer, software development, system integration and process, for the modernization of the agricultural, forestry and agroindustrial activities.

Program 13: To identify specific research activities, new technological demands and to disseminate the main results of agricultural, forestry and agroindustrial research.

Program 14: To improve the efficiency in the generation and dissemination process, knowledge, services and new technologies.

Program 15: This program was created to support the modernization process of the States' Agricultural Research System, one of the most important instruments of the SEP.

Program 16: This program gives administrative support to the EMBRAPA organization.

3. COLOMBIA: ICA/CORPOICA

Institutional organization: In the 1960's the Institute Colombiano Agrícola (ICA), was created "to contribute to a sustained development of the agricultural sector and the national economy through the generation of modem technologies, the transfer of technology, and the protection of agricultural production from diseases and pests". ICA had an extensive infraestructure, research stations in almost all the regions of the country, and a large number of employees.

ICA's research activities were organized by crops, by basic disciplines as phitopatology, soils, etc., and by projects. Two important laws dictated in 1986 and 1987 have significantly affected ICA: a law of administrative decentralization, and one that transfers technical assistance to small-holders from the Central Government to municipalities. To accomplish this task, ICA created 66 regional Centers for Extension, Training and Technology Transfer (CRECEDs) in homogeneous areas. In 1989, the National System for Technology Transfer was created, giving an important role to ICA.

As a result of the above changes, ICA was transformed into an Agricultural Development Agency, with developmental activities, that became more important than the agricultural research activities.

In 1990, the Government established a new National Council of Science and Technology with 11 programs or working areas. One of this is the Agriculture Science and Technology Program, represented by the public and private sectors. Their task is to coordinate sector science and technology planning, to approve policies for agricultural science and technology, to promote funding for related programs, and to integrate scientific advisory committees. The Government has supported the association of public institutions with private organizations to create corporations and foundations and special research and technology projects or programs.

This new legal framework has provided legal basis and conditions for privatizing ICA in order to make it more efficient and competitive, simplifying its function and decentralizing its decisions. According with this objectives, in 1993 ICA separated its responsibilities in two organizations: a) ICA, in charge of phytosanitary protection, input regulation, and coordination of research policies, and b) CORPOICA, responsible for the promotion, strengthening and developing of research and technology transfer. CORPOICA is a mixed institution regulated by private law. This allows a greater flexibility in its organization, structure, planning and management and better opportunities for association with the private sector.

Personnel: As per information from ICA, in 1994-95, there were 688 researchers working in the different programs and projects of CORPOICA. According to Falcony and Pardey (1993), the qualified personnel of Colombian NARS were approximately 819 employees in 1991. More than half corresponded to the public sector, 10.4% to academic, 29.8% to semi-public organizations (farmers and government), and 4.9% to private companies. (See table 25.). Falcony and Elliot (1994) estimate that public sector concentrated 84.2% of the total number of Ph.D. and Ms. Sc., but expenditure per researcher was almost 70% higher in the private sector.

Table 25
COLOMBIA: OVERVIEW OF PRESENT NARS STRUCTURE, 1991

Public sector		Research focus	Research sites	Number of researchers
Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario (ICA)		Crops, livestock, natural resources, biotechnology	25	438
Institute for Natural Resources and Environmental Development (INDERENA)		Natural resources, forestry	2	3
Colombian Enterprise for Veterinary Products (VECOL)		Veterinary Products	1	9
ACADEMIC
1.- Universidad Nacional:
	· Agronomy Faculty	Crops	1	42
	· Biotechnology Institute	Biotechnology	na	24
2.- Universidad del Valle:
	· Biology Faculty	Crops, biological control	na	19
SEMIPUBLIC
National Coffee Research Center (CENICAFE)		Coffee	16	132
Sugar Cane Research Center (CENICAÑA)		Sugarcane	7	25
National Rice Growers Association (FEDEARROZ)		Rice	4	29
National Cereal Growers Association (FENALCE)		Wheat, barley, oats, maize, sorghum	na	10
Oilpalm Research Center (CENIPALMA)		Oilpalm	na	5
National Cotton Growers Association (FEDERALGODON)		Cotton	3	13
Flowers Exporters Association (ASOCOLFLORES)		Flowers	na	3
National Cocoa Growers Association (FEDECACAO)		Cocoa	na	7
Forestry Corporation for Forestry Research (CONIF)		Forestry	1	15
Andean Fruit Center (CFA)		Tropical fruits	na	5
PRIVATE
Hoestch		Agrochemical, seeds	2	17
Cargill		Seeds	na	1
Floramerica		Flowers	2	22
Total			64	819

Source: Falcony and Pardey, "Statistical brief on the national agricultural research system of Colombia", ISNAR, Statistical Brief No.6, 1993.

Links between public and private sector: CORPOICA has reached collaborative research agreements with different organizations from the private sector: Federación de Ganaderos de Colombia (FEDEGAN), CONALGODON (cotton), CENICAÑA (sugar cane), Compañía Colombiana de Tabaco (COLTABACO) (tobacco), Federación Nacional de Arroceros (FEDEARROZ) (rice), UNIBAN (bananas), etc. The number of strategic alliances with different sectors, is 349, including 223 with the Government, 68 with the private sector and 27 with universities.

Budget allocations vary widely between 1986 and 1994 as can be appreciated in table 26. Nevertheless, between 1990 and 1994, allocations experienced an important increase as a result of the new organization and reforms implemented in ICA and the creation of CORPOICA.

Table 26
COLOMBIA: ICA BUDGET BY FUNCTIONAL AREA
(Million US$ of 1992)

Functional Area	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990	1994
Operating expenses	4.31	4.86	4.91	15.69	14.95	20.9
Research	10.84	9.87	10.41	9.13	8.94	26.0
Technical transfer	18.50	23.16	22.84	12.05	12.39	-
Debt service	3.81	5.19	12.52	10.12	12.18	18.0
Other	19.04	32.45	17.31	23.45	11.93	14.0
Total	56.39	75.53	68.00	70.44	60.38	78.9

Source: ICA and CORPOICA Annual Reports.

Table 27
COLOMBIA: EDUCATIONAL STATUS OF NARS RESEARCHERS (FULL-TIME EQUIVALENTS)

Researcher status	1981-1985	1986-1990	1991
Government:
PhD	40.6	69.4	91
MSc	177.2	226.4	278
B.Sc.	188.0	244.6	69
On leave	na	4.4	12
Total	405.8	544.8	450
Semi-public
PhD	9	15	21
MSc	28.6	37.6	52
B.Sc.	66.3	118.2	171
On leave	103.9	170.8	344
Total
Academic
PhD	10	12	14
MSc	9	17.2	23
BSc	2	2.2	6
Total	9.4	25.8	40
Private
PhD	na	1.8	3
MSc	3.2	8.6	12
BSc	6.2	15.4	25
Total	9.4	25.8	40
TOTAL
PhD	59.6	98.2	129
MSc	218.0	289.8	365
B.Sc.	262.5	380.4	271
On leave	0.0	4.4	12
TOTAL	540.1	772.8	777

Source: Falcony and Pardey: Statistical Brief on the National Agricultural Research System of Colombia (1993) ISNAR, Statistical Brief No. 6

In spite of the growing participation and importance of the private sector, the Government in still from far the most important institution of agricultural research in Colombia. Figures available show that between 1981-1985 and 1991, the private sector increased its participation as can be appreciated in table 28. Recent estimations however have established in around 15% the private participation in agricultural research activities, this means almost two times the previous figure. If it is confirmed, Colombia could exhibit a good example of success in this field.

Table 28
COLOMBIA: AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH EXPENDITURES
(Millions 1985 PPP dollars per year)

	1981-85	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990	1991
Government	67.94	88.18	116.44	76.99	94.24	73.34	61.19
Semipublic	21.45	26.33	32.09	30.59	30.70	28.26	28.71
Academic	0.11	0.27	0.84	0.84	1.22	1.67	2.06
Private Total	3.23	5.42	8.07	8.07	8.31	7.09	8.56
TOTAL	92.74	120.21	116.49	116.49	134.47	109.35	100.51

Source: Falcony, Pardey and Roseboom (1989).

4. ECUADOR: THE NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SYSTEM

National Autonomous Institute of Agricultural Research (INIAP)

Created in 1959, INIAP, is one of the oldest agricultural research institutes in Latin America. During the first 15 years, INIAP expanded rapidly, mainly in research infrastructure; between 1962 and 1974, six experimental stations were created and organized (four in the coast, one in a mountain valley (Cuenca), and another in the Amazon region). Additionally, during the 1980's INIAP received other experimental farms, increasing its infrastructure and also its costs.

At present, INIAP has seven experimental stations and eight research farms in different ecological regions of the country. As a result of its activities, INIAP has contributed to the modernization of the agricultural sector through generation, validation and technology transfer. More that 160 varieties with high yields, pest resistance and other special characteristic adapted to different ecological environment, have been developed by INIAP since its foundation. Additionally, the institute has worked on technologies on animal production and since 1977 INIAP focused its efforts on the development of technologies adapted to small farmers conditions.

The generation of own resources has received special attention, in order to increase the independence from the Public Treasury. Since its creation, INIAP sells goods and services as certified seeds, plants, and tests for pesticides and other agrochemicals.

Until 1994, research was structured in national programs by crop, in five national departments (plant protection, soil management, bromathology, genetic resources, biotechnology and economics). After the restructuring, all national programs were abolished except one on bananas, with specialists moving to general agricultural extension services. As in other countries in the region, there is a policy that seeks to privatize extension services, the target being farmers to pay 50% of the costs of the technical assistance. INIAP is attempting to fortify farmers' associations and to promote mechanisms to finance these services.

In 1995, INIAP implemented a strategic plan that, as in other institutes of the region, defines as priority to produce technology according to demand factors. In this context are included small farmers with potentialities to incorporate technological changes. Additionally, small farmers without modernization potential, obtain support from an Integrated Rural Development Program financed by The World Bank, which is being managed by the Ministry for Social Welfare.

Other priorities that have been set by the Institute, are the following:

· concentrate research lines and priorities according to clients' demands;
· focus research by production systems and agro-ecological areas;
· to rationalize the use of resources and increase the generation of own resources;
· to establish strategic alliances with users and clients.

The following are examples of joint research projects: there is a line of work with the National Banana Program and the Universidad Agraria of Ecuador, to control Black Sigatoga and to develop new varieties resistant to this disease. In the case of cacao, together with the Universidad Agraria of Ecuador a new clone with high yields is being developed; an agreement with a multinational company for the production of industrial potato varieties is under way. Another recent reform has been the privatization of quality control for export commodities.

INIAP maintains agreements with CIAT, CIMMYT, CIP, from which it receives improved germplasm; with regional organizations such as IICA and CATIE, and with several national and North American universities.

As to INIAP activities, 60% correspond to adaptive research, one third or more to applied research and only 5% to basic research. In the past, research was aimed mostly to the commercial farming sector, more inclined to the introduction of innovations. For this reason, research results from INIAP were very positive in the case of modem crops in the coast, such as soybeans, rice, maize and African palm. This is also due to the fact that there was external funding available for this research, which compensated the decline in public funding.

Personnel: Since 1973, under the dependency of the Ministry of Agriculture (Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería, MAG), INIAP experienced an important increase in terms of financial and human resources, reaching the highest point in the middle of the 1980's. From 1985 to 1997 the permanent staff was reduced from 529 to 390, affecting mainly the support category that was reduced more than half, while the number of researchers dropped around 20%. (See table 29.) It must be highlighted the small number of researchers with a Ph.D. degree, but in spite this fact, INIAP has implemented a special program to improve the qualifications of the researchers. At the moment six employees are studying for a PhD degree and 23 for Masters'. For 1998 it is expected that 10 researchers will start superior studies, 10 for PhD and 23 for Masters' programs.

Table 29 INIAP: HUMAN RESOURCES QUALIFICATIONS, NUMBER OF RESEARCHERS, 1975-1995

Resources: In July, 1992 a law was approved granting INIAP autonomy in administration and budget management, and the ability to access to state resources. It also provided for an endowment of US$ 10 million to generate resources for research operations. As of August 1995, US$ 5 million have been granted to INIAP. As to the financing of INIAP's operation, less than 50% are public resources, around 12% comes from The World Bank (BIDR), and 30% are generated by INIAP's activities as the commercialization of certified seeds, some control seed operations, pesticides tests controls, and other services. INIAP maintains the legal control over basic seed reproduction, and at the moment represents half of the domestic market. In connection with pesticides, importers must pay 90% of the total tests' cost for approval for its use. In relation with financial resources, 60% are spent to pay salaries, 20% for operations and another 20% corresponds to capital costs and transfers.

Table 30
INIAP: TYPE OF EXPENDITURE
(Percentages and 000 US$ 1992)

	Salaries	Operative costs	Investments	Debts, transferences and others	Total	US$
	Percentages
1986	55.8	27.4	16.8	7.8	100	400.0
1987	71.61	23.08	5.3	4.03	100	412.5
1988	73.6	21.5	4.9	10	100	512.9
1989	50	22.4	16.1	11.5	100	1238.9
1990	62.6	28	9.4	18.5	100	1468.0
1991	67.3	26.3	6.4	12,1	100	2073.2
1992	66.4	25.4	8.2	17.9	100	3077.7
1993	53.7	25.2	10.8	10.2	100	5142.2
1994	76.6	15	8.4	4.7	100	9822.8
1995	65.1	34.6	0.3	8.6	100	6149.0
1996	68.6	31.1	0.3	7.4	100	8036.4

Source: Elaborated by the author based on INIAP Planning Department and on information provided by Pablo Játiva

As a result of this measures, important changes took place; total budget allocations have increased notoriously between 1990 and 1997, multiplying by five, and the structure in the sources of funds have changed dramatically. Funds from public treasury that in 1990 represented almost 52% of the total budget allocations, in 1997 represent only 30%, while own resources generated by INIAP have increased notoriously during this period, reaching 61% of total budget allocations. Table 31 shows these significant changes.

Table 31 INIAP: BUDGET ALLOCATIONS (Million Sucres)

The private sector

The private sector, on the other hand, manages eight experimental farms, two laboratories for in-vitro work and one experimental station. There are also three universities involved in agricultural research, companies such as Latinreco from Nestle on cacao, coffee and quinoa; seed companies such as Agripac and those producing cereals, and the large sugar mills. According to a study undertaken by ISNAR, it was observed that during the structural adjustment period in Ecuador, operational funds per researcher declined, but this was not as significant in the private sector.

Table 32
ECUADOR: NUMBER OF RESEARCHERS IN THE PRIVATE SECTOR

	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990	1991
Ph.D.	5	6	4	3	3	3
Ms.Sc.	4	6	6	5	6	6
B.Sc.	7	7	8	8	11	13
Total	16	19	18	16	20	20
Technical support	13	19	22	20	24	24
Other	89	87	90	89	89	89
TOTAL	118	125	130	125	133	135

Source: International Service for National Agricultural Research (ISNAR).

Expenditure made by the private sector doubled the expenditure made by the public sector according this study and other sources. Private's sector investments expressed as a percentage of public sector research expenditure, were 40%. However, the private sector's expenditures related to agricultural domestic product (the contribution of private sector to the agricultural research intensity), still remain low in Ecuador according to Falconi (1994).

Table 33
ECUADOR: PRIVATE AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH EXPENDITURES
(Million US$)

Year	Total expenditures	Percentage of agricultural GDP
1986	2.9	0.07
1987	2.4	0.06
1988	3.7	0.09
1989	3.6	0.09
1990	3.7	0.10
1991	4.0	0.10

Source: International Service for National Agricultural Research (ISNAR).

Table 34
ECUADOR. REAL EXPENDITURE PER RESEARCHER
(Millions US$ 1985)

Year	Public	Private	Private/public.
1986	35.37	106.12	3.0
1987	25.85	73.47	2.8
1988	24.49	81.63	3.3
1989	29.93	78.91	2.6
1990	27.21	74.83	2.8
1991	24.49	82.99	3.4

Source:, International Service for National Agricultural Research (ISNAR). 1992 and Cesar Falconi, "Public and private R&D in Latin America and the Caribbean", International Conference of Agricultural Economists, Harare, Zimbabwe, August, 1994

The Foundations

FUNDAGRO was created in 1987 to play a catalytic and coordinating role in revitalizing agricultural research, extension and education systems. FUNDAGRO does not conduct direct research, but support research through contracts, mainly with INIAP. In fact around 90% of the total expenditure of FUNDAGRO is destined to contracts with INIAP. Most part of the research is downstream, and the technology generated under this sponsorship, is freely accessible in the market.

5. CHILE

The basic institutional organization for science-based agricultural research was set up in the 1960's. Presently NARS consist of the National Agricultural Research Institute (INIA), five major university faculties (University of Chile, the Catholic University, University of Concepción, Austral University, and the Catholic University of Valparaiso) and other new faculties (post-1981), and a number of small, private experimental stations, biotechnology laboratories, winter nurseries and business research units (the main ones are the stations of the National Farmers' Association, Semillas Baer and ANASAC). Other institutions marginally involved in agricultural research include few non-governmental organizations (Venezian and Muchnik, 1994).

a) The National Agricultural Research Institute (INIA)

INIA Chile was created in 1964, based on several experimental stations of the Ministry of Agriculture. At present INIA has seven Regional Research Centers (CRIs), a National Entomology Center and several experimental centers and technical offices covering from Regions III to XII (almost the entire country). INIA has a total of 1200 employees, including more than 200 specialized researchers grouped in four departments: animal production, plant production, natural resources and management and production systems.

At present INIA is reorganizing its structure in order to focalize its activities, taking into account the demand of actual and potential clients. For this purpose, in each CRI, Advisory Committees were created with the participation of members from the private and public sectors of the region. To improve efficiency and to obtain scale economies, INIA reorganized its activities through national departments closely linked with CRIs.

Low profit in agricultural activities, low quality products, marginalization of a significant number of small and medium farmers, and natural resources deterioration, were identified as the most important problem to define INIA's priority research agenda for the future.

Table 35 shows the evolution in qualification of human resources and table 36 shows the localization and influence area of CRIS and experimental centers. As can be appreciated, between 1983 and 1993 INIA suffered a decrease in total research staff. This level has almost recovered in 1997. In terms of qualifications of human resources, staff with PhD degree represents today one-fifth of total researchers, against 15% in 1983.

Table 35
INIA CHILE: HUMAN RESOURCES

	1983		1993		1997
	No.	%	No.	%	No.	%
BSc	169	61.6	75	46.2	114	53.9
MSc	64	23.4	64	39.6	55	25.9
PhD	41	15.0	23	14.2	43	20.2
Total	274	100.0	162	100.0	212	100.0

Source: INIA Annual Reports.

Table 36
INIA CHILE: REGIONAL AND NATIONAL RESEARCH CENTERS

Regional/National Research Center	Localization	Area of influence Hectares	Specialization
INTIHUASI	IV Region	III and IV regions: 125,740 irrigated hectares	Fruits, horticulture, non-irrigated agriculture
		1 million ha not irrigated
La Cruz a/	V Region		Biologic control
LA PLATINA	Metropolitan Region	V, RM and VI	Agriculture, horticulture, cattle,
	(RM)	4.8 million hectares	forestry
Los Tilos b/	RM
Litueche b/	IV
QUILAMAPU	VIII	VII, VIII, 3.5 million hectares	Fruits, wine, ovines, wheat, legumes
Cauquenes a/	VII		Wine, ovines, legumes forages, cattle, pastures
Humán b/	VII
Sta. Rosa a/	VIII		Irrigated and non-irrigated agriculture
CARILLANCA	IX	2.8 million hectares	Annual crops, cattle meat and milk
Alto Andino b/	IX		Mountain agriculture
REMEHUE	X	1.5 million hectares	Pastures, milk, potatoes
La Pampa b/	X		Seeds (potato, wheat, oat, forages)
TAMEL AIKE	XI		Pastures, bovines, ovines
Chile Chico b/
KAMPENAIKE	XII		Ovines

Source: INIA Annual Reports.

a/ National center
b/ Experimental center

Related funds: INIA's budget has increased notoriously multiplying almost by four between 1990 and 1996 as result of an important increase in the allocation of public funds and the increase in the selling of good and services. (See table 37.) Public sector's allocations represented around 50 to 58% of total resources, corresponding the rest to contracts with the private sector, selling of good and services and assets. As can be appreciated, INIA's capacity to generate own resources through contracts with the private sector, selling good and services and assets, fluctuated around 43 and 55% in this period. On the other hand, it must be noted, the fast growth of the participation of competitive funds in INIA's budget.

According to uses of funds, salaries represented one third of total expenditures in 1993, reaching 48.5% in 1994 and dropping to 40% in 1996. It must be noted that this salary participation is one of the lowest of the INIAs considered. On the other hand, operation costs have fluctuate around 27 to 36%, while investment represented approximately 13% in the period considered, as can be appreciated in table 38.

Table 37 INIA CHILE: SOURCES OF FUNDING, 1990-1996 (Millions US$ and percentage of total income)

Table 38
INIA CHILE: TYPE OF EXPENDITURE
(000 US$ and percent)

	Salaries		Operation		Investments		Other
	US$	%	US$	%	US$	%	US$	%
1992	4666.1	33.1			533.9
1994	12449.1	48.5	7048.5	27.4	3789.8	14.8	2387.6	9.3
1995	13865.5	42.3	11262.9	36.8	3030.2	9.9	2482.1	11.0
1996	15358.7	40.2	12405.6	32.5	4948.6	13.0	5428.6	14.3

Source: INIA Annual Reports.

The faculties of agriculture

In 1992 the faculties of agriculture, had 437 researchers,⁵ of which 262 work on a full-time basis. Approximately 61% had a Masters' or a Ph.D. degree. (See table 39.)

⁵ Consejo de Rectores de las Universidades Chilenas; Anuarios Estadísticos

Table 39
CHILE: EXPENDITURES OF INIA, UNIVERSITIES AND PRIVATE SECTOR, 1975-1992
(Million US$ of 1990 and percentage of total)

	INIA		Universities		Private sector		Total
	US$ million	% of total	US$ million	% of total	US$ million	% of total	US$ million
1975	6.48	84.8%	1.5	13.7%	0.11	1.5%	7.64
1985	8.23	72.9%	2.86	22.5%	0.20	1.8%	11.29
1990	12.82	78.5%	3.25	19.9%	0.26	1.6%	16.33
1991	11.29	74.8%	3.50	23.2%	0.30	2.0%	15.09
1992	12.88	-	s/I	-	s/I	-	12.88

Source: E. Venezian, "Case study: Funding of agricultural research in Chile". FAO an SPAAR. Nairobi, Kenya, 1993.

The private sector

According to some estimates (Venezian, 1993), in 1990-1991 expenditures in agricultural research made by the private sector represented around 13% of the total; this is approximately US$ 2 million. On the other hand, the most important private agents, National Farmers Association and Semillas Bauer Company that have experimental stations, are engaged fundamentally with certified seed production. Their research is focused on the introduction of genetic lines and varieties, production of some hybrids, and seed testing.

Tables 39 shows the agricultural research expenditure made by INIA, the university faculties and by the private sector. As can be appreciated, INIA is by far the main institution with more than 70% of the total expenditures.

Related with the use of funds from special competitive funds, fruit production, livestock and horticulture appear as the main focus of research. Table 40 shows the utilization of funds for agricultural research and its relative importance, while table 41 shows the participation of universities and the private sector.

Table 40

CHILE: RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS. SPECIAL COMPETITIVE FUNDS, 1990-1994

($ 000 US$ 1994 and percentage of total)

	FONDECYT	FONDEF	FONTEC	FIA	Total
					000 $	Percentage
Miscellaneous	1609.4	7335.9	200.5	337.8	9483.6	30.18
Fruit production	1461.0	3850.2	689.0	452.2	6452.4	20.53
Livestock	2425.2	1492.1	934.0	259.9	5111.2	16.26
Fruits and horticulture	126.5	4104.1	384.7	-	4615.3	14,69
Crops	849.1	1089.5	371.2	361.2	2671.0	8.50
Vegetables	275.5	-	978.8	82.2	1336.6	4.25
Pastures and forage grasses	860.5	-	154.8	243.3	1258.7	4.01
Flowers	-	-	365.2	70.4	435.6	1.39
Fungi	-	-	62.1	-	62.1	0.20
Total	7607.3	17871.8	4140.3	1807.0	31426.4	100
Percentage of total	24.2	56.8	13.1	5.7	100

Source: Luis López Cordovez y César Morales; Investigacion agricola y su impacto sobre la productividad de la agricultura chilena

Table 41

INIA CHILE: AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH BY INSTITUTION AND USE OF NEW FUNDING SCHEMES, 1990-1994

(Percentage of total)

	FONDECYT	FONDEF	FONTEC	FIA	Total
INIA	0.26	3.78	-	2.95	6.99
U. Católica de Chile	2.97	15.01	-	0.65	18.62
U. de Chile	8.96	7.96	-	0.56	17.48
U. Austral de Chile	6.54	3.66	-	-	10.20
U. de La Frontera	0.77	5.58	-	-	6.35
U. de Tarapacá	0.98	3.50	-	-	4.47
U. de Concepción	2.08	1.62	-	0.10	3.79
U. Católica de Valparaíso	0.17	3.23	-	-	3.41
U. de Talca	-	1.67	-	-	1.67
U. de Santiago	0.78	-	-	-	0.78
U. de La Serena	0.71	-	-	-	0.71
U. de Magallanes	-	-	-	0.03	0.03
U. Metropolitana	-	-	-	0.03	0.03
Private	-	10.86	13.17	1.43	25.46
Total	24.21	56.87	13.17	5.75	100

Source: Luis López Cordovez y César Morales; Investigacion Agricola y su Impacto Sobre la Productividad de la Agricultura Chilena

Notes: FONDECYT: National Fund for Science and Technolog;. FONDEF: Fund for Promotion of Scientific and Technological Development. FONTEC: Fund for Technological Research; FIA: Fund for Agricultural Research

Competitive Funds

Chile has one of the first experiences on competitive funds in Latin America and the Caribbean. At present, several funds are available with public financial support for specific purposes. Within the funds allocated for agriculture, animal production, forestry and fisheries, each competitive fund has different priorities according with its objectives, but in average for 1996, the distribution is the following: agriculture 31%, forestry 25%, animal production 11%, fisheries 8%, and general agriculture purposes 25%.

The public funds for scientific and technologic research and innovation, are the following:

1.- Funds for Scientific Research

· FONDECYT, National Fund for Scientific and Technological Development
· FONDAP, Fund for Advanced Studies in Priority Areas
· FONDEF, Fund for Fostering Scientific and technological Development

2.- Funds for Technological Research and Innovation

· FONTEC, Fund for Technological Research
· FONSIP, Fund for Social Programs and Projects

3.- Funds for Sectoral Research

· FIA, Foundation for Agricultural Research
· FIP, Fund for Fisheries Research
· Antarctic Research Fund

4.- Funds for Finance Superior Education

· Fund for Institutional Universities Development

Additionally, there is another competitive fund created by the Production Development Corporation (CORFO), the Fund for Innovation Development (FDI), and one more oriented to agricultural technology transfer located at the Institute for Agricultural Development, INDAP.

The following is a short description of the funds related with the Chilean agricultural research system. It must be noted that from the point of view of the resources allocated, FONDEF is the main competitive fund.

a) FONDECYT

This instrument was created in 1982 to fund scientific and technological research projects in all areas of knowledge. As other competitive funds, FONDECYT is part of the Chilean Science and Technology Program. The areas supported are mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, earth sciences, astronomy, engineering, medicine, agronomy and social sciences. Biology, medicine and engineering are the dominant disciplines. Tables 42 and 43 show the number of approved projects and the resources allocated for agriculture, animal production and food technology.

Table 42
FONDECYT: NUMBER OF APPROVED PROJECTS 1988-1997

	1988	1989	1990	1991	1992	1993	1994	1995	1996	1997	Total
Discipline:
Agronomic	12	24	18	14	18	15	17	19	19	22	178
Food technology	3	6	4	4	5	4	6	5	5	5	47
Animal health and production	13	15	15	16	12	10	10	9	8	7	115
Others	352	460	374	485	365	433	399	421	356	320	3,965
Total	380	505	411	519	400	462	432	454	388	354	4,305

Table 43
FONDECYT: RESOURCES ALLOCATED IN THE FIRST YEAR
(000$ June 1996)

	1988	1989	1990	1991	1992	1993	1994	1995	1996	1997	TOTAL
Discipline
Agronomic	166,026	245,716	177,981	165,514	236,807	206,501	244,613	314,922	331,551	435,898	2,525,529
Food technology	40,668	94,771	56,729	65,559	65,505	59,169	72,070	93,600	88,560	89,584	726,215
Animal health and production	197,790	185,045	204,768	189,632	133,187	175,238	165,925	128,713	170,835	138,680	1,689,813
Other	4,273,440	5,381,617	4,156,608	5,866,183	4,581,919	5,611,394	5,497,138	6,590,327	6,127,999	6,003,592	54,090,217
Total	4,677,924	5,907,149	4,596,086	6,286,888	5,017,418	6,052,302	5,979,746	7,127,562	6,718,945	6,667,754	59,031,774

b) FONDEF

This fund was created in 1991 as a part of the Chilean Science and Technology Program. It aims to strength the research and development capacity, to increase quantity and quality of science and technology research, to expand the supply of services related to science and technology (S&T), and effectively to transfer S&T knowledge and know-how to productive sectors. FONDEF finances three types of projects: Research and Development, Infrastructure and Technological Transfer.

FONDEF is oriented to support universities, technological institutes, research and development centers from the public and the private sectors. In 1991 and 1992 FONDEF defined six priority areas:

Agriculture, Fisheries and Aquaculture, Forestry, Information Technology, Manufacturing and Mining.

Table 44 shows the number of projects selected by area and the allocation of resources since 1991. As can be appreciated, agriculture is the second area in importance according to the number of approved projects as well as resources allocated.

Table 44
FONDEF: PROJECTS APPROVED BY AREA AND IMPACTS
(Million US$ of 1995, Millones $)

Area	Number of projects	Resources allocated	Number of projects	Resources allocated	Number of projects	Resources allocated
No. of call	1991 and 1992		1995		1997
Mines	24	38.2	3	580	4	1,112
Agriculture	23	34.7	8	1,595	4	945
Forestry	17	24.4	6	1,590	6	1,198
Manufacturing	13	16.5	3	671	1	196
Fisheries	12	18.0	9	2,969	4	1,068
Informatics	7	27.0	3	696	-	-
Other	3	7.6	-		3	670
Total	99	166.4	32	8,101	22	5,189

Source: CONICYT, FONDEF

c) FONTEC

FONTEC was created in 1991 to promote, finance and subsidize projects in technological research and development infrastructure and, in general, to promote all phases of technological product development carried out by national private enterprises, either individually or working in groups or associations. CORFO, the National Development Corporation, is the governmental agency in charge of this fund. Between 1991 and 1996 FONTEC destined 32.6% of the resources to finance agriculture, forestry, fisheries and aquaculture projects as can be appreciated in table 45.

Table 45
FONTEC: PROJECTS APPROVED BY ECONOMIC SECTOR BETWEEN 1991 AND 1996
(000 US$)

Sector	Number of projects	Total costs	FONTEC's participation	Sectoral participation
Agriculture	140	14,389.9	7,382.7	18.1
Forestry	15	1,758.7	880.3	2.2
Fisheries and aquaculture	46	9,194.6	5,028.4	12.3
Others	411	58,866.2	27,513.3	67.4
Total	612	84,161.4	40,804,7	100.0

Source: CONICYT, CORFO

d) FIA

FIA was created in 1981 by the Ministry of Agriculture as an autonomous institution that operates as a private organization, promoting the agricultural innovation and technology transfer process for agriculture, forestry, animal production and aquaculture sectors. In 1996, more than half of the resources were destined to agriculture (53%), 29% to animal production, 11% to forestry and 7% to aquaculture projects. The total resources allocated since its foundation, appear in table 46.

Table 46 CHILE: COMPETITIVE FUNDS FOR AGRICULTURAL, FORESTRY AND FISHERIES RESEARCH AND TRANSFER (Million US$)

e) Fund for Technology Transfer (INDAP)

Created in 1984, this fund, located in the Agriculture Development Institute of the Ministry of Agriculture is oriented to technology transfer for small farmers. The resources allocated since 1984, appear in table 46.

As can be appreciated in table 46, the allocation of funds to support general research and transfer has increased notoriously since its creation, mainly in this decade where new competitive funds were allocated and the government has given more importance to these instruments. FONDEF is one of the new competitive funds created in 1992, and at present is the most important, according to the resources allocated. Related with competitive funds for agriculture, forestry and fisheries research and transfer activities, it is possible to observe the same trends. Despite of these activities it does not have specific new funds, allocations were made in funds as FONDEF, FONTEC and FONDEC, while FIA and FTT increased the allocations.

6. MEXICO

The National Agricultural, Livestock and Forestry Research Institute, INIFAP

Introduction: Mexico has a successful tradition of agricultural research and extension that has contributed to higher yields in wheat, maize, sorghum, rice, dairy and other agricultural activities (Alarcón y Calle, 1994). The main research institution, INIFAP, was organized in 1985 merging three institutes previously responsible for livestock and forestry research. INIFAP's main objectives are the following: a) to reinforce strategic and adaptive agricultural research; b) to identify the research on ecological, biological and technological restrictions for vegetal and animal production; c) to support research on natural resources and; d) to validate experimental results under producers' conditions. It must be noticed that as a result of reforms, INIFAP has refocused these objectives granting importance to natural resources and ecological and environmental aspects.

INIFAP is a partially descentralizated institution within the SARH (Secretariat of Agriculture and Hydraulic Resources). Even though it is not an independent entity, INIFAP can receive funds from federal and non-federal sources.

INIFAP is organized in 34 state-centers for crops, livestock and forestry research (CIFAPs). This organization replaces a previous one. It is organized by agroclimate zones, as part of a successful decentralization carried out in 1985. The CIFAPs, responsible for managing of 87 experimental stations throughout the country, work in close connection with the state and local representatives of SARH. INIFAP manages around 61,000 hectares in experimental stations; 14,000 for crops, 34,000 for livestock and 13,000 for forestry.

Specialized work is conducted through national disciplinary centers (CENIDs). They include Microbiology in Mexico City, Parasitology in Morelos, Agroclimatology In Durango, Physiology in Queretaro and Wood Technology in Puebla. The CIFAPs and CENIDs have scientific, administrative and budgetary autonomy and freedom to execute programs, evaluate results and staff and sign agreements with producers and other sources of private funds.

Research resources: Staff costs have represented a high proportion of the total budget in recent years. From 85% in 1990, the staff costs passed to 71% in 1993. The rest of the resources are mostly spent in operational costs with a small amount for maintenance and investment. This situation has seriously affected the research capacity of the institute, mainly during 1980's because of budget cuts.

As can be appreciate in table 47, while the number of researchers increased between 1983-88 and 1989-92, resources for research decreased. Consequently, resources per researcher dropped almost to a half, seriously affecting research activities. In 1997 the number of researchers was drastically reduced in 20%, dropping the Ph.D. proportion by around 50% as can be appreciated in table 3.

Table 47
MEXICO, INIFAP: EVOLUTION OF SOME INDICATORS OF ACTIVITY

Period	Number of researchers	Expenditure in research	Research expenditures (% of Ag. GDP)	Expenditure per researcher	Total Federal expenditure	Rural development. expenditure
1983/88	1 718	106.2	0.45	69.5	116,760	9,947
1989/92	1 853	67.5	0.28	32.6	91,697	7,108

Source: World Bank, 1994, mentioned by John McIntire

From 80 to 90% of INIFAP's budget is provided by the Federal Government and the rest is provided by state and local governments, producer organizations and service fees. Funds from other sources are insignificant in spite the fact that the potential to raise fund is high. The CIFAP of Sonora gets 43 % of total resources from a public-private partnership organization and from the State Government.

Research priorities: Irrigated areas was the main priority for public research in the past with good success. Now the focus has changed to other problem areas such as rainfed and tropical areas where private research and extension is still very weak. INIFAP has defined five principal agroclimate zones (dry tropic, temperate, humid tropics, sierras and arid/semiarid) to focus the research activities according to the main problems of this areas.

An evaluation made by INIFAP in 1992, indicates that in maize, the most important crop of Mexico, research and extension have failed to transfer high-yielding cultivars from the experimental stage to production. In grain legumes and oilseeds, adaptive research has failed to use results of basic research while technology transfer has not always given promising results to farmers. Related to irrigated areas, competition for water among grains, oilseeds and high value fruit and vegetable crops, is an issue of growing importance. In livestock production, not much has been done in forage and animal health. This last issue is executed largely by the private sector, while forage production research is made by the public sector. The natural resources and the environment have not been sufficiently studied, especially soil conservation, forestry and integrated pest management.

At the present, INIFAP is researching over 100 crops, 60 forestry species and 8 animal species with 20 animal products. Additionally, INIFAP is researching in more than 80 disciplines.

In relation with technology generation results, INIFAP has produced 886 varieties of different crops, and works on the reduction of risk in vegetal and animal production. With respect to technology transfer, INIFAP coordinates this work with 32 foundations in the country.

Personnel: 7,500 employees work at INIFAP, around 1,700 are professionals. Most of them, 94%, are researchers and the rest work in administrative support activities. Almost three-thirds of the researchers work in agriculture, 23% in animal production, and 12% in forestry. 82% work in regional research centers, 8% in CNIDs, 1% at headquarters and the rest, 9%, are taking post-graduates courses.

7. URUGUAY: INIA

INIA was created on October 1989, by merging other institutes dedicated to agricultural research. INIA has a Board of Directors, composed of two members from the Government, one from the farmers' associations, and one representing other organizations of Cooperatives, the National Commission of Rural Development and Regional Centers of Agricultural Research.

At regional level, the National Direction has five Regional Directions that are responsible for Experimental Stations and Units. The Experimental Stations are the following: Tacuarembó, Las Brujas (Canelones), Treinta y Tres, La Estanzuela (Colonia), y Salto Grande.

Additionally, INIA's National Direction has five Advisory Regional Councils (C.A.R.), one in each region. The CARs are composed of members from the private sector of the specific region.

INIA has defined three research areas with 13 National Programs; table 48 shows the organization of the national programs in each experimental station.

Table 48
INIA: NATIONAL PROGRAMS

AREA	PROGRAM	Tacuarenbó	Las Brujas	Treinta y Tres	La Estancia	Salto Grande
CROPS	Summer crops
	Winter crops
	Rice
	Crop evaluation
ANIMAL PRODUCTION	Milk bovines
	Meat bovines
	Pastures
	Ovines/caprines
	Small animals
HORTICULTURE FRUTICULTURE FORESTRY	Horticulture
	Fruits
	Citrics
	Forestry

Source: INIA

	National Program Headquarters
	Projects localization of National Programs

Promotion Fund for Agricultural Technology (FPTA)

INIA created a special mechanism to join efforts and interests of universities, non-governmental organizations and the private sector. This is the Promotion Fund for Agricultural Technologies (FPTA). The FTPA finances projects executed by institutions and researchers outside INIA, according to the national programs of the institution.

The Fund is financed with own resources (10% of a specifical tax to finance INIA), resources from the Government, resources from the private sector, and external resources. Through this mechanism, numerous projects have been financed. Table 49 shows a list of projects in execution and executed, classified according to INIA's National Programs.

Table 49
INIA: FPTA PROJECTS IN EXECUTION AND EXECUTED

	In execution a/	Executed b/
Forestry	1	2
Meat bovines	4	4
Milk bovines	3	4
Sheep and Goats	6	4
Pastures	2	8
Summer Crops	2	2
Winter Crops	1	2
Horticulture	5	9
Rice	2	3
Citric	1	4
Small Animals	-	8
Fruits	-	3
Without Specific Program	1	8
TOTAL	28	61

Source: INIA

a/ In Execution: after May 19, 1997
b/ Executed: before May 18, 1997

Agreements and International Relations

INIA maintains a wide net of relations with different governments and organizations. At this moment INIA has 19 cooperation projects, 15 cooperation agreements and 4 agreements of permanent relations, as can be appreciate in table 50.

Table 50
INIA: International relations

Country	Agency	State	Topic
Canada	CIDA	in execution	wheat
France		in execution	Citric, compost, pastures, extension
Germany	GTZ	in execution	milk
G. Britain	ODA	ended	Cattle production
Israel		in execution	Fruits
Japan	JICA	in execution	Fruits, Forestry
N. Zealand		in execution	Pastures
Swede	SAREC	ended	Nitrogen., fixation
EU*	INCO	in execution	potato
Organizations
OIEA/RCAL		in execution	rice, oat
CIP		in execution	potato, sweet potato
CIMMYT		in execution	wheat
PNUD		in execution	forages
World Bank			Pastures, Natural resources, irrigation

Source: INIA

INIA maintains permanent relations with Israel for export oriented fruits, OIM for Human Resources, CIP in connection with potato and sweet potato research, and ISNAR for Institutional aspects.

Staff qualifications

In spite of the fact that the total number of INIA researchers is high, it experienced an important increase between 1983 and 1993: from 80 to 126. The most significant change as in other countries, is related with qualifications. From none researchers with PhD degree in 1983, these now represent 11% of the total, but the most remarkable improvement is observed in the number of staff with MSc. degree.

Table 51
INIA: STAFF QUALIFICATION

Degree	1983		1993		1997
	Number	Percentage	Number	Percentage	Number	Percentage
PhD	-	-	5	3.9	11	8.9
MSc.	18	22.5	46	36.5	53	43.1
BSc.	62	77.5	75	59.6	59	48.0
Total	80	100.0	126	100.0	123	100.0

Source: INIA Data Base (1997), and Lindarte.. op. cit.

Budget allocations: as can be appreciated in table 52, INIA's budget allocations fluctuate around US$ 12 to US 14 million except in 1994 where allocations were superior. Government and farmers contribution (in the same proportion) are the main sources of funds. Related with the expenses, personnel are the main destination. As the table 52 shows, these item have experienced an increase since INIA creation.

Table 52 INIA: Budget allocations and uses of funds 1993 - 1997 (000 US$ dollars and percent)

8. COSTA RICA

National System for Agricultural Research and Technology Transfer (SCONITTA)

SNITTA was created in 1996 based on CONITTA, organization that coordinated and integrated the research and transfer activities for 23 national programs and institutions of the public sector, universities and private sector. SNITTA aims to contribute to the technological development of traditional and non-traditional agricultural and agro-industrial products, taking into account sustainability and food security. The most important member of CONITTA is the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock which leads the main part of the programs and institutions previously mentioned.

A recent study (González, 1996), reveals that agricultural research is not SNITTA's main activity; from a total of 1,176 employees linked with SNITTA, only 16.4% work in research activities and 67.8% in technological transfer. The rest works on administrative fields. The same study shows that the public institutions are mainly involved in technological transference (78% of the time), while the private sector dedicates 50% of the time to research activities. In regards to human resources, 33.4% of the personnel have a Master or a Doctorate degree.

In connection with infrastructure, and apart of the facilities that IICA and CATIE have, Costa Rica has 57 research units, 80% of which belongs to the public sector, 20% to the private sector and to nongovernmental organizations.

The public sector is the main source of resources for agricultural research. Despite this, budgets of public institutions reflect that the main part is destined to pay salaries; the operative costs represent only around 10% of the allocations.